Springer cooperation in wireless networks principles and applications 2006

COOPERATION IN WIRELESS NETWORKS: PRINCIPLES AND APPLICATIONS Cooperation in Wireless Networks: Principles and Applications Real Egoistic Behavior is to Cooperate! Edited by FRANK H.P FITZEK Aalborg University, Denmark and MARCOS D KATZ Samsung Electronics Co Ltd., Korea A C.I.P Catalogue record for this book is available from the Library of Congress ISBN-10 ISBN-13 ISBN-10 ISBN-13 1-4020-4710-X (HB) 978-1-4020-4710-7 (HB) 1-4020-4711-8 (e-book) 978-1-4020-4711-4 (e-book) Published by Springer, P.O Box 17, 3300 AA Dordrecht, The Netherlands www.springer.com Printed on acid-free paper All Rights Reserved © 2006 Springer No part of this work may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, microfilming, recording or otherwise, without written permission from the Publisher, with the exception of any material supplied specifically for the purpose of being entered and executed on a computer system, for exclusive use by the purchaser of the work Printed in the Netherlands To Lilith and Samuel Contents Dedication v List of Figures xiii List of Tables xxv Contributing Authors xxvii Foreword xliii Foreword xlv Acknowledgments xlvii Preface xlix Chapter Cooperation in Nature and Wireless Communications Frank H P Fitzek and Marcos D Katz Basics of Cooperation The Prisoner’s Dilemma The Iterated Prisoner’s Dilemma N–person Prisoner’s Dilemma Stimulating Cooperative Behavior Cooperation in Wireless Communication Systems Cooperative Principles in Wireless Communications: The Future Conclusion References 10 12 13 24 26 26 Chapter Cooperative Communications Arnab Chakrabarti, Ashutosh Sabharwal and Behnaam Aazhang Introduction A Brief History of Relaying Preliminaries of Relaying Relaying: Fundamental Limits Practical Strategies for Relaying Information Conclusion References 29 30 31 34 38 51 61 62 viii Contents Chapter Cooperation, Competition and Cognition in Wireless Networks Oh-Soon Shin, Natasha Devroye, Patrick Mitran, Hideki Ochiai, Saeed S Ghassemzadeh, H T Kung and Vahid Tarokh Introduction Cooperative Diversity Cooperative Beamforming Cognitive Radio Summary and Remarks References 69 71 74 84 88 96 97 Chapter Cooperation Techniques in Cross-layer Design Shuguang Cui and Andrea J Goldsmith Introduction Cross-layer Design Node Cooperation in Wireless Networks Node Cooperation with Cross-layer Design Design Examples References 101 102 103 107 108 110 124 Chapter Network Coding in Wireless Networks Desmond S Lun, Tracey Ho, Niranjan Ratnakar, Muriel M´edard and Ralf Koetter Introduction Model Distributed Random Network Coding Cost Minimization Further Directions and Results References 127 128 132 133 142 155 158 Chapter Cooperative Diversity J Nicholas Laneman Introduction Elements of Cooperative Diversity Cooperative Diversity in Existing Network Architectures Discussion and Future Directions References 163 163 164 173 180 183 Chapter Cooperation in Ad-Hoc Networks Petri Mähönen, Marina Petrova and Janne Riihijärvi Introduction Limits of Multihop Spectrum Cooperation 189 190 195 203 Contents Topology Aware Ad Hoc Networks Hybrid Networks and 4G Discussion and Conclusions Acknowledgments References ix 207 212 214 217 217 Chapter Multi-route and Multi-user Diversity Keivan Navaie and Halim Yanikomeroglu Introduction Multi-route Diversity and Multi-user Diversity Cooperative Induced Multi-user Diversity Routing for Multi-hop Infrastructure-based Networks with Mobile Relays Simulation Results Conclusion References 223 223 225 232 238 239 240 Chapter Cognitive Radio Architecture Joseph Mitola III Introduction Architecture CRA I: Functions, Components and Design Rules CRA II: The Cognition Cycle CRA III: The Inference Hierarchy CRA IV: Architecture Maps CRA V: Building the CRA on SDR Architectures Commercial CRA Future Direction References 243 244 253 254 274 279 288 295 307 309 310 Chapter 10 Stability and Security in Wireless Cooperative Networks Konrad Wrona and Petri Măahăonen Introduction Sustaining Cooperation Dynamics of Cooperative Communication Systems Conclusions and Discussion References 313 314 315 331 357 357 Chapter 11 Power Consumption and Spectrum Usage Paradigms in Cooperative Wireless Networks Frank H P Fitzek, Persefoni Kyritsi and Marcos D Katz Motivation System under Investigation Time Division Multiple Access Cooperation 365 366 366 367 x Contents Orthogonal Frequency Division Multiple Access Cooperation Conclusion References 378 385 386 Chapter 12 Cooperative Antenna Systems Patrick C F Eggers, Persefoni Kyritsi and Istv´an Z Kov´acs Introducing Antenna Cooperation Antenna Systems and Algorithms: Foundations and Principles Channel Conditions, Measurements and Modeling: Practical Channels Radio Systems: Performance Investigation General Conclusions on Practical Antenna Cooperation References 387 388 391 398 405 416 418 Chapter 13 Distributed Antennas: The Concept of Virtual Antenna Arrays Mischa Dohler and A Hamid Aghvami Introduction Background & State-of-the-Art Basic Application Principles Closed-Form Capacity Expressions Resource Allocation Protocols Case Studies & Observations References 421 422 423 429 432 443 453 459 Chapter 14 Cooperation in 4G Networks Marcos D Katz and Frank H P Fitzek Introduction Defining 4G Cooperation Opportunities in 4G Discussions and Conclusions References 463 463 465 476 491 493 Chapter 15 Cooperative Techniques in the IEEE 802 Wireless Standards: Opportunities and Challenges Kathiravetpillai Sivanesan and David Mazzarese Introduction Mesh MAC Enhancement in IEEE 802.11s Mesh Mode Operation in IEEE 802.15 Mesh Mode Operation in IEEE 802.16 Mobile Multihop Relay PHY/MAC Enhancement for IEEE 802.16e Cognitive Radio/Spectrum Sharing Techniques in IEEE 802.22 Conclusions References 497 498 499 501 503 503 506 512 513 Cooperative Methods for Spatial Channel Control Figure 20.13 An example of locations and powers of interference signals 625 626 The median value of the cumulative probability of the SIR at the most degraded terminal [dB] Cooperative Wireless Networks 15 MBS-SCC 10 Autonomous-SCC 0 10 15 20 Number of estimated channel responses Figure 20.14 Influence of the distance between BSs than that of the antenna branches and so the performance was degraded significantly Figure 20.13 (b) shows the results in the uplink with an autonomous SCC It suppressed strong interference from (1314 m, -79 m) However, some interference signals remained and the transmission quality was still degraded On the other hand, the transmission quality was improved in the downlink and the SIR of 7.8 dB was achieved as shown in Figure 20.13 (c) This is because the interference power was enhanced by the TPC of interference WTs in the uplink For instance, when the desired WT came close to the BS, the transmission power of the desired WT became less than that of the other WTs and transmission quality was degraded Finally, Figure 20.13 and Figure 20.13(e) show results gained with MBS-SCC All interference signals were strongly suppressed and the SIR of 14 dB was achieved In deriving the MBS-SCC method, all channel responses were assumed to be used to determine the weight vectors However, it is difficult to estimate the CSI for all WTs at each BS in actual systems Figure 20.14 shows the interference suppression performance versus the number of estimated channels The y axis indicates the median value of SIR of the worst downlink The channel responses are estimated in order of the magnitude of the channel response The remaining channel responses, those not estimated, are assumed to be zero vectors As this figure shows, the performance of MBS-SCC converges with three channel responses and performance superior to that of autonomous systems is achieved It is also found that as the number of estimates increases, the performance is slightly degraded This is because the convergence performance is degraded Cooperative Methods for Spatial Channel Control 627 with a fixed number of iterations as the number of interference sources increases This result indicates that the MBS-SCC method outperforms the autonomous SCC if just three channel responses are estimated at each BS Summary This chapter introduced cooperative SCC methods for both outdoor scenario and high density hot-spots scenario Both methods use a control station/access controller to inter–connect several APs/BSs In cellular systems, since BS spacing is larger than that of APs, the partial cooperation approach is introduced By optimizing the transmission power and the beam patterns at the BSs, the transmission quality is improved while the system complexity also increases On the other hand, the full cooperation approach is used for the high density hotspots scenario It also has the potential to improve the achievable data rate with the cooperation of multiple APs Those results indicate that the approach of multiple node cooperation has significant potential to improve the system capacity further in future wireless systems References Andersen, J Bach (2000) Array gain and capacity for known random channels with multiple element arrays at both ends IEEE J Select Areas Commun., 18:2172–2178 Andersson, S., Millnert, M., Viberg, M., and Wahlberg, B (1991) An adaptive array for mobile communication systems IEEE Trans Veh Tech., 40: 230–236 Cho, K and Hori, T (2000) Smart antenna systems actualizeing sdma for future wireless communication In International Symposium on Antenna and Propagation, volume 4, pages 1477–1480 Cioffi, J M and Kailath, T (1984) Fast, rls, transversal filters for adaptive filtering IEEE Trans on ASSP, 32(2):304–337 Gerlach, D and Paulraj, A (1994) Spectrum reuse using transmitting antenna arrays with feedback In Acoustics, Speech, and Signal Processing, ICASSP, volume 4, pages 97–100 German, G., Spencer, Q., Swindlehurst, L., and Valenzuela, R (2001) Wireless indoor channel modeling: statistical agreement of ray tracing simulations and channel sounding measurements In International Conference on Acoustics Speech and Signal Processing (ICASSP ’01), volume 4, pages 2501–2504 Ichitsubo, S., Furuno, T., Nagato, T., Taga, T., and Kawasaki, R (1996) 2ghzband propagation loss prediction in urban area; antenna heights ranging from 628 Cooperative Wireless Networks ground to building roof In Technical Report of IEICE, AP96–15, volume 1, pages 73–78 Lo, T K Y (1999) Maximum ratio transmission IEEE Trans on Commun., 47:1458–1461 Medbo, J., Harryson, F., Asplund, H., and Berger, J E (1996) Measurements and analysis of a mimo macrocell outdoor-indoor scenario at 1947mhz In IEEE VTC 2004 Spring, volume 1, pages 73–78 Miyashita, K., Nishimura, T., Ohgane, T., Ogawa, Y., Takatori, Y., and Cho, K (2002) High data-rate transmission with eigenbeam-space division multiplexing (e-sdm) in a mimo channel In IEEE VTC, volume 3, pages 302–1306 Monzingo, R A and Miller, T W (1980) Introduction to Adaptive Arrays John Wiley & Sons, NY Nishimori, K., Cho, K., Takatori, Y., and Hori, T (2001) Automatic calibration method using transmitting signals of an adaptive array for tdd systems IEEE Trans Veh Tech., 50(6):1636–1640 Norklit, O., Eggers, P., Zetterberg, P., and Andersen, J B (1996) The angular aspect of wideband modelling and measurements In IEEE International Symposium on Spread Spectrum Techniques and Applications, volume 1, pages 73–78 Paulraj, A and et al (2003) Introduction to space–time wireless communications Cambridge university press PRASAD, R (2004) OFDM for Wireless Communications Systems Artech House Rashid-Farrokhi, F., Liu, K J R., and Tassiulas, L (1998a) Transmit beamforming and power control for cellular wireless systems IEEE Trans J Select Areas Commun., 16:1437–1450 Rashid-Farrokhi, F., Tassiulas, L., and Liu, K J R (1998b) Joint optimal power control and beamforming in wireless networks using antenna arrays IEEE Trans on Comm., 46(10):1313–1324 Rebhan, R and et al (1993) On the outage probability in single frequency networks for digital broadcasting IEEE Trans on Broadcasting, 39: 395–401 Reed, I S., Mallett, J D., and Brennan, L E (1974) Rapid convergence rate in adaptive arrays IEEE Trans Aerosp Electron Syste., AES-10(6):853–863 Saleh, A A M and Valenzuela, R A (1987) A statistical model for indoor multipath propagation IEEE J Select Areas Commun., 5:128–137 Shiu, D S and et al (2000) Fading correlation and its effect on the capacity of multi–element antenna systems IEEE Trans on Commun., 48:502–513 Cooperative Methods for Spatial Channel Control 629 Takatori, Y., Cho, K., Nishimori, K., and Hori, T (2000) Adaptive array employing eigenvector beam of maximum eigenvalue and fractionally-spaced tdl with real tap IEICE Trans Commun., E83–B(8):1678–1687 Wiener, Nobert (1949) Extrapolation, Interpolation, and Smoothing of stationary time series, with engineering applications Cambridge Technology Press of the Massachusetts Institute of Technology GLOSSARY 1G First generation of mobile communication systems 2G Second generation of mobile communication systems 3GPP 3rd Generation Partnership Project 3G Third generation of mobile communication systems 4G Fourth generation of mobile communication systems AF amplify-and-forward AIC Additional Information Container ALLC Always cooperate (strategy used by unconditional cooperators) ALLD Always defect (strategy used by unconditional defectors) AP Access point ATFT Anti-tit-for-tat strategy AWGN Additive White Gaussian Noise Amplify-and-forward A relay protocol where the relay retransmits a scaled version of its received analog signal B3G beyond IMT-2000 BER Bit Error Rate BLAST Bell-Labs Layered Space-Time (BLAST) coding is a technique applied to MIMO transceivers, which multiplexes different data streams onto different transmit antennas This requires signal processing at the receiving side to extract the various streams, which is facilitated by the spatial signatures of the MIMO channel; this technique allows the realisation of high transmission rates BLUE Best Linear Unbiased Estimator BS Base Station Broadcast Channel A communication system where a single transmitter sends potentially different information to multiple users CA Certification Authority CDMA Code Division Multiple Access A technology where each user modulates its transmission symbols with a spreading code before transmission The spreading codes of different users are often orthogonal CMOS Complementary Metal-Oxide Semiconductor technology, both Ntype and P-type transistors are used to realize logic functions Today, CMOS technology is the dominant semiconductor technology for microprocessors, memories and application specific integrated circuits 631 632 Glossary COHC Cooperative Header Compression Header compression approach that is based on the cooperative behavior of multiple IP streams and is characterized by high robustness and bandwidth savings CORMAS Common-Pool Resources and Multi Agent Systems CPU Central Processing Unit CRL Certificate Revocation List CRTP Compressed Real Time Protocol Header compression for the RTP/ UDP/IP suit presented in RFC 2508 CRT Certificate Revocation Tree CSI Channel State Information CSI Channel state information CSMA Carrier Sensing Multiple Access Capacity The capacity of a channel is the maximum achievable error-free communication rate for a communication system with given input distribution, transmission power, noise power, and bandwidth Coded network A network where nodes are capable of performing network coding Cooperative Destinations The source data is broadcasted to several destination terminals, while the terminals use the communication links among them to cooperate and thus enhance each other’s reception of the broadcasted data Cooperative Sources A communicaton scenario in which two or more nodes in a network are cooperating to deliver the data to the destination Cooperative System A system where distributed terminals cooperate in a coherent manner so as to improve the system performance, is referred to as cooperative system Cross-Layer Optimisation The process of jointly optimising various OSI layers of a wireless communication system, is referred to as cross-layer optimisation Cut-set theorems A class of theorems that give upper bounds, and sometimes achievable rates, for flow in networks This flow may correspond to information flow, or flow of a fluid through a network of pipes, or any other physical quantity DBS Distributed Base Stations DF decode-and-forward DMO Direct mode operation DPM Dynamic Power Management DPM Dynamic Power Management, a class of methods or policies placing various system components in less power consuming modes, or compleat power down modes Glossary 633 DVS Dynamic Voltage Scaling DVS Dynamic Voltage Scaling, scheduling methodology utilizing knowledge of task-set specification, task timing and workload, to adjust the performance of a programmable processor This is done by dynamical changes to the processor supply voltage and clock frequency Decode-and-forward A relay protocol where the relay first decodes its received signal, then transmits a signal that is derived from the decoded information Degraded relay channel A channel where the signal received at the destination is a corrupted version of the signal received at the relay Distributed System A system where mobile terminals or nodes are spatially separated, however, communicate, is referred to as a distributed system Diversity Order The slope of the bit error rate (BER) vs the signal-to-noise ratio (SNR) at high SNR Diversity order is a measure of the number of independent data-paths from the source to the destination in a communication system Common forms of communication diversity include temporal, spatial, spectral and multiuser diversity Diversity Order The slope of the bit error rate (BER) vs the signal-to-noise ratio (SNR) at high SNR Diversity order is a measure of the number of independent datapaths from the source to the destination in a communication system EC European Commission EDF Earliest Deadline First EDGE Enhanced Data Rates for GSM Evolution ESS Evolutionary Stable Strategy Ergodic Channel If the wireless channel varies over the transmitted codeword so that all its moments are the same from codeword to codeword, then the channel is referred to as an ergodic channel; fast fading channels approximately realise an ergodic channel Estimate-and-forward A relay protocol where the relay transmits an estimate of its received analog signal without decoding but potentially compressed FDC Framed Delta Coding FDMA The multiple access scheme where terminals use prior assigned, generally non-overlapping, frequency bands, is referred to as frequency division multiple access FEC Forward Error Correction FER Frame Error Rate FLSSR Fixed Order Scheduling 634 Glossary Full-duplex A communication node is said to operate in full-duplex mode when it can simultaneously transmit and receive in the same frequency band GPRS General Packet Radio System GPS Global Positioning System GSM Global System for Mobile Communications GSSR Global Scheduling HSCSD High Speed Circuit Switched Data Half-duplex A communication node is said to operate in half-duplex mode when it can simultaneously transmit and receive only if the transmitted and received signals are orthogonal in time Hyperarc A generalized arc that starts at a single node and ends at one or more nodes Hypergraph A collection of nodes and hyperarcs ILP Integer Linear Programming IMT-2000 IPD Iterated Prisoner’s Dilemma game IPv4 Internet Protocol version IPv6 Internet Protocol version ISI Intersymbol Interference ITU International Telecommunication Union IrDA Infrared Data Association JAR Java Archive LCS35 MIT LCS’ 35th aniversary Time Capsule of Innovations LDPC (Low-density Parity-check) Code A class of block codes characterized by sparse parity-check matrices LVQ A Lattice Vector Quantizer (LVQ) is a quantizer which utilizes the design of a highly structured lattice Layered coding In layered coding, the first description contains a coarse information and the following descriptions are only containing refinement information MAC The medium access control layer of a wireless communication system is referred to as MAC It controls the way the mobile nodes access the wireless medium and hence compete for wireless resources MC-CDMA Multicarrier CDMA MDC–CC MDC with Conditional Compression (MDC–CC) is a method where the MDC encoding overhead can be removed by any node in the network, provided that this node has already a feedback information from the destination that the overhead is unnecessary Glossary 635 MDC Multiple Description Coding (MDC) is a source coding technique where the source is encoded into two or more descriptions The descriptions are self–sufficient in the sense that each description can provide a distorted version of the source information, while the distortion is decreased as more descriptions are utilized at the decoder MDLVQ Multiple Description Lattice Vector Quantizer (MDLVQ) is a lattice quantizer realization of the MDC paradigm MIMO A transceiver or channel with multiple inputs and outputs is referred to as multiple-input multiple-output (MIMO) transceiver or channel MQAM M-ary Quadrature Amplitude Modulation Meshed Cooperation Each node involved in the communication can be a source of information and a destination Such can be the case of videoconferencing or gaming Mobile VCE The Mobile Virtual Centre of Excellence (Mobile VCE, MVCE) is a consortium where researchers from about seven academic institutions are subsidised by about 20 international telecommunications companies to perform research into future communication paradigms For more details, consult www.mobilevce.com Multi-hop Communication Communication from a source to a destination through a chain of intermediate nodes, where each intermediate node communicates only with the node immediately preceding it and immediately following it in the chain Multiple-access Channel A shared channel where multiple sources transmit to a single destination in the same frequency band NFC Near Field Communication Network-coding A network information processing paradigm where intermediate nodes combine and encode received information before forwarding it, as contrasted to traditional communication where nodes are restricted to the passive role of forwarding information without processing Non-Ergodic Channel If the wireless channel varies over the transmitted codeword so that its moments are not necessarily the same from codeword to codeword, then the channel is referred to as an non-ergodic channel; slow fading channels approximately realise a non-ergodic channel OCSP Online Certificate Status Protocol OFDMA Orthogonal Frequency Division Multiple Access OSI Open Systems Interconnection PAN Personal Area Network PD Prisoner’s Dilemma game PGP Pretty Good Privacy 636 Glossary PHY The physical layer of a wireless communication system is referred to as PHY It is responsible for the encoding/decoding of data, execution of power control signals, etc PMR Private Mobile Radio POW Proof-of-work Power Control Adjusting transmission power based on channel condition to achieve a given target For example, transmission at high power when the channel is good, and low power when the channel is bad, achieves the target of increasing overall rate for a given average power constraint QPSK Quadrature Phase Shift Key REPC Reputation-based cooperation RFC Request For Commands RFID Radio Frequency Identification RLQ Radio Link Quality ROF Radio Over Fiber ROHC Robust Header Compression Header compression scheme designed especially for the operation in wireless cellular networks with highly errorprone links and long round-trip times Described in RFC 3095 RTP Real Time Protocol RePast Recursive Porous Agent Simulation Toolkit Relay Channel A three-terminal communication channel where communication from a source to a destination is aided by a third terminal called the relay Relay Protocol The information-processing strategy employed at the relay for retransmitting received information in a relay channel For example, the relay may choose between retransmitting the received analog signal without decoding, or it may decode the received signal and re-encode it before retransmission Routed network A network where nodes are not capable of performing network coding and can only forward or replicate packets This is the case in the conventional approach to networking Cf coded network S/MIME Secure/Multipurpose Internet Mail Extensions SISO A transceiver or channel with a single input and output is referred to as single-input single-output (SISO) transceiver or channel SNR Signal to Noise Ratio SREP Sporas reputation-based cooperation strategy STBC Space-Time Block Codes (STBC) is a signal processing technique applied to MIMO transceivers, which facilitates the exploitation of the diversity Glossary 637 provided by the wireless channel; this effect is visible as an increase in the steepness of the outage and error rate probability curves STTC Space-Time Trellis Codes (STTC) is a signal processing technique applied to MIMO transceivers, which facilitates the exploitation of the diversity provided by the wireless channel and in addition provides a coding gain; this effect is visible as an increase in the steepness of the outage and error rate probability curves, as well as a shift towards lower signal-to-noise ratios Space-time Code A channel coding technique in multi-antenna systems, where the antennas as well as time are treated as dimensions of the channel Space-time codes can be used to yield higher diversity or to achieve higher communication rates than in possible with single-antenna communication Spreading Code A noise-like sequence with which a transmission symbol is modulated (multiplied) with the goal of spreading the information in the symbol among different dimensions in the time-frequency plane TCP Transport Control Protocol TDMA The multiple access scheme where terminals use prior assigned, generally non-overlapping, time slots, is referred to as time division multiple access TFT Tit-for-tat strategy UDP User Datagram Protocol UE User equipment UMTS Universal Mobile Telecommunication System UWB Ultra wideband, greater than 25% relative bandwidth VAA A communication paradigm where spatially adjacent mobile terminals or nodes cooperate and thereby form a virtual transceiver entity, is referred to as virtual antenna array (VAA) WLAN Wireless Local Area Network WMAN Wireless Metropolitan Area Network WSN Wireless sensor networks WT Wireless Terminal WWRF Wireless World Research Forum XKMS XML Key Management Specification XML eXtensible Markup Language mITF Mobile IT Forum Index Accountability attacks, 316 direct reciprocity, 323 distributed mechanisms, 315 identification, 327 indirect reciprocity, 324 models, 315 payment-based, 317 tax and reward, 322 Amplify and forward, 394 Architecture, 244, 253 Asymptotical stability, 342 Axelrod, Bit error rate, 388, 393 Capacity, 388–393, 396, 405, 407, 412, 414, 416 Capacity, 432 Cellular, 389, 393 Channel, 389–391, 393, 395–396, 398, 401, 403 Channel Impulse Response, 388 Co–channel interference, 611 Coding loss, 398 Coding subgraph, 132 finding, 142 Cognitive Radio, 244, 253, 283, 294 Common-pool resources, 332 Conditional Compression (CC) MDC–CC Entropies, 538 MDC–CC Label function, 536 MDLVQ for CC, 535 Cooperation bilateral cooperation game, 350 conditional cooperation game, 335, 337 conditional cooperation game!simultaneous, 335 conditional cooperation game!strategies, 335 conditional cooperation game!with monitoring, 339 dynamic model, 333 monitoring game, 334, 337, 339 monitoring game!strategies, 337 optimality, 316 parameters., 341 payoff matrix, 341 stages, 333–334 strategies, 333 strategies!closed-loop, 341 strategies!open-loop, 339 success criteria, 316 Cooperative Destinations, 541 Cooperative Sources, 540 Correlation, 398, 400, 403–405, 410, 413, 416 Cross-layer, 388 Cross-Layer Optimisation, 443, 450, 458 Cumulus pricing, 323 Decode and forward, 394 Digital beam forming, 608 Digital certificates CRLs, 330 CRLs!optimisations, 330 validation, 330 validation!evaluation, 330 Direct communication, 393 Direct matrix inversion, 610 Distributed System Cooperative System, 422, 429 DMO, 403 Duplexing, 391 Dynamic model differential equations, 343 equilibrium points, 343–344, 349 evolutionary games, 342 Nash equilibrium, 342 strategies, 342 Dynamic range, 388, 407 Dynamic Voltage Scaling, 576 Physics of Power Dissipation, 576 Principle Scheduling Approach, 577 Scheduling Classification, 577 Economics of communications, 317 Eigen state, 392 Electronic cash, 317 Encoding vector auxiliary, 140 global, 138 Energy Aware Computing, 571 Modeling, 580 640 Non- and Cooperative Scenarios, 573 Operation Criteria, 571 Task Allocation, 579 Ergodic Chanel, 633 Ergodic Channel Non-Ergodic Channel, 424 FDMA TDMA, 447 Frame error rate, 388 Free-riding, 332 Free space, 392, 400 Frequency Division Multiple Access FDMA, 633 Hand-held, 403–404 Hyperarc, 132 Hypergraph, 132 Identity, 327 anonymity, 328 certified, 325, 329 certified!validation, 330 linkability, 328 persistent, 324 pseudonymity, 328–329 relationship pseudonyms, 323 Imitation, 342 conformism, 352 fitness-based, 352 Inter–symbol interference, 611 Lattice Vector Quantizer (LVQ), 520 Layered coding, 518, 540 Learning, 245–246, 252, 277, 342 Line of sight, 611 Link budget, 392 MBS-SCC, 620 Mean squared error, 609 Measurements, 398, 403, 407 Medium Access Control MAC, 634 Meshed Cooperation, 542 Micropayments models, 319 MIMO, 422, 424 Multiple-Input Multiple-Output, 635 Minimum-energy multicast, 131, 145 Minimum mean squared error, 610 Minmax, 394 Mobile-to-mobile, 390, 403, 410, 414 Mobile Virtual Centre of Excellence Mobile VCE MVCE, 422 Multicast Incremental Power (MIP) algorithm, 132, 145 Multiple Description Coding (MDC), 516 Index MD Lattice Vector Quantizer (MDLVQ), 525 MDC with Conditional Compression (MDC–CC), 535 Optimizing MDC for Cooperation, 531 Nash equilibrium, 7, 342 Near field, 392, 400–401 Network coding, 128 distributed random, 133, 138 Note-book, 392, 418 Ontology, 258–259, 265 Optimal routing, 395, 412 Pareto optimum, 316 Path loss, 404 Payments, 317 electronic cash, 317 hash cash, 321 initial conditions, 319 mobile, 321 mobile cash, 322 pricing schemes, 318 proof-of-work, 320 real-value, 320 social inefficiency, 318 Perception, 245, 273 Personal area network, 390 Physical Layer PHY, 636 Power control, 403, 405, 407, 412 Prisoner’s Dilemma, 336 physical meaning, 336 Private mobile radio, 389 Radio link quality, 389, 410 Rate improvement, 392, 407–408, 410, 414 Reciprocity direct, 323 indirect, 324 Recursive least square, 610 Relay, 394–396, 398, 401, 407–408, 412, 416 RePast, 349 Repeater, 403, 412 Replicator dynamics, 342–343 constraints, 344 Reputation, 324 creeping death attack, 325 dissemination, 356 meanings, 326 newcomers, 326 pseudo-spoofing, 325 pseudonymous credentials, 325 recommendations, 326 reliability, 335 Sporas, 352 timing attacks, 325 transferring, 325 641 Index Scale-free networks, 355 growth process, 356 SCC with multiple APs (MAP-SCC), 612 SDR, 244, 261, 294 Selection diversity, 608 Sensor network, 390 Shannon, 393 Signal to noise plus interference ratio, 388 Signal to noise ratio, 388, 393, 396 Signed content, 329 formats, 329 Simulation model, 349, 356 adaptation, 352 dissemination of reputation, 354, 356 errors, 352 fitness, 352 interaction process, 350–351 mobility, 351 strategies, 351–352 utility, 353–354 Singular value decomposition, 611 Small-world networks, 355 rewiring, 355–356 Social dilemma, 332 Social inefficiency, 318 Sounding, 398–399, 417 Spatial channel control, 607 Spatial division multiplexing, 611 STBC STTC, 424 BLAST, 426 Steepest decent algorithm, 610 Subgraph selection, 142 distributed, 146 primal-dual method, 150 subgradient method, 147 Supernodes, 315 Tax and reward, 322 Terminal dynamics, 403 Terminal performance, 388 TETRA, 389 The Prisoner’s Dilemma, Iterated, N–person, 10 non–zero sum game, zero sum game, Throughput, 388–391 Time Division Multiple Access TDMA, 637 Tit for Tat, generous, Pavlov, Topology, 254, 288 Trust structural, 317 Virtual Antenna Array VAA, 422 Wireless local area network, 389 .. .COOPERATION IN WIRELESS NETWORKS: PRINCIPLES AND APPLICATIONS Cooperation in Wireless Networks: Principles and Applications Real Egoistic Behavior is to... Allocation in Cooperative Wireless Networks Anders Brodlos Olsen and Peter Koch Introduction Motivating Scenarios Energy Aware Computing in Cooperative Networks Modeling and Simulating Cooperative... of cooperation in wireless net works Relaying example with source node NB and relaying node NA hoping to get paid off later Relaying example with source node NB and relaying node NA having incentive