685_Frontiers of Thin Film Technology-Maurice H.Francombe

Thin Films Frontiers of Thin Film Technology Volume 28 Serial Editors Inorganic Thin Films Organic Thin Films STEPHEN M ROSSNAGEL ABRAHAM ULMAN IBM Corporation, T J Watson Research Center Yorktown Heights, New York Alstadt-Lord-Mark Professor Department of Chemistry Polymer Research Institute Polytechnic University Brooklyn, New York Honorary Editor MAURICE H FRANCOMBE Department of Physics Georgia State University Atlanta, Georgia Editorial Board DAVID L ALLARA JEROME B LANDO Pennsylvania State University Case Western Reserve University ALLEN J BARD University of Texas, Austin HELMUT MOHWALD University of Mainz MASAMICHI FUJIHIRA Tokyo Institute of NICOLAI PLATE Technology Russian Academy of Sciences GEORGE GAINS HELMUT RINGSDORF Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute University of Mainz PHILLIP HODGE Princeton University University of Manchester JACOB N ISRAELACHIVILI University of California Santa Barbara GIACINTO SCOLES JEROME D SWALEN International Business Machines Corporation MICHAEL L KLEIN MATTHEW V TIRRELL University of Minnesota, University of Pennsylvania Minneapolis HANS KUHN GEORGE M WHITESIDES MPI Gottingen Harvard University Recent volumes in this serial appear at the end of this volume Thin Films Frontiers of Thin Film Technology Edited by Maurice H Francombe Department of Physics Georgia State University Atlanta, Georgia Associate Editors Colin E.C Wood A.G Unil Perera H.C Liu Phillip Broussard J Douglas Adam Deborah Taylor VOLUME 28 ACADEMIC PRESS A Harcourt Science and Technology Company San Diego San Francisco New York London Sydney Tokyo Boston This book is printed on acid-free paper Q Copyright 2001 by Academic Press All rights reserved No part of this publication may be reproduced or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic or mechanical, including photocopy, recording, or any information storage and retrieval system, without permission in writing from the publisher The appearance of the code at the bottom of the first page of a chapter in this book indicates the Publisher's consent that copies of the chapter may be made for personal or internal use, or for the personal or internal use of specific clients This consent is given on the condition, however, that the copier pay the stated per copy fee through the Copyright Clearance Center, Inc (222 Rosewood Drive, Danvers, Massachusetts 01923) for copying beyond that permitted by Sections 107 or 108 of the U.S Copyright Law This consent does not extend to other kinds of copying, such as copying for general distribution, for advertising or promotional purchases, for creating new collective works, or for resale Copy fees for pre-2001 chapters are as shown on the chapter title pages; if no fee code appears on the chapter title page, the copy fee is the same as for current chapters 1079-4050/$35.00 Explicit permission from Academic Press is not required to reproduce a maximum of two figures or tables from an Academic Press article in another scientific or research publication provided that the material has not been credited to another source and that full credit to the Academic Press article is given ACADEMIC PRESS A Harcourt Science and Technology Company 515 B Street, Suite 1900, San Diego, CA 92101-4495, USA http ://www academicpress, com Academic Press Harcourt Place, 32 Jamestown Road, London, NW1 7BY, UK http://www.academicpress.com International Standard Serial Number: 1079-4050 International Standard Book Number: 0-12-533028-6 Printed in the United States of America 0001 02 03 04 C O B Contents List of Contributions Preface ix xi Epitaxial Film Growth and Characterization Ian 7: Ferguson Alan G Thompson Scott A Barnett Fred H Long and Zhe C h u m Feng Introduction 1.2 Epitaxial Deposition Techniques 1.3 Materials Characterization 1.4 Future Directions References 1.1 37 62 64 Field Effect Transistors: FETs and HEMTs Prushant Chavarkar and Umesh Mishra 2.1 2.2 2.3 2.4 2.5 2.6 2.7 2.8 2.9 Introduction 72 HEMT Device Operation and Design 73 Scaling Issues in Ultrahigh-speed HEMTs 84 Low-Noise HEMT Design 89 Power HEMT Design 93 Material Systems for HEMT Devices 97 AIGaAs/InGaAs/GaAs Pseudomorphic HEMT (GaAs pHEMT) 102 AIInAs/GaInAs/InP (InP HEMT) 113 Conclusion 134 References 135 V vi CONTENTS Antimony-Based Infrared Materials and Devices C.E.A Grigorescu and R.A Stradling 3.1 3.2 3.3 3.4 3.5 3.6 Introduction 147 Overview of Materials and Electronic Properties 149 Mechanisms Limiting the Performance of Sources and Detectors 156 Infrared Emitters 160 Infrared Detectors 167 Conclusions 182 References 182 HgCdTe Infrared Detectors Awind I D 'Souza PS JfiJewarnasuriya and John G Poksheva 4.1 4.2 4.3 4.4 4.5 4.6 4.7 Introduction HgCdTe Material Properties and Background HgCdTeGrowth Native Defects and Impurity Doping Behavior Photovoltaic Detectors Recent Progress in Focal Plane Arrays (FPAs) Conclusions References 193 194 199 200 207 217 219 220 Synthesis and Characterization of Superconducting Thin Films Chang-Beom Eom and James M Murduck 5.1 Synthesis 5.2 Thin Film Characterization Techniques 5.3 Summary References 228 253 266 266 Fabrication of Superconducting Devices and Circuits James M Murduck 6.1 6.2 6.3 6.4 Introduction Nb Circuit Process NbN Circuit Process HTS Circuit Process 272 276 291 295 6.5 CoN TEN Ts vii Summary References 313 314 Microwave Magnetic Film Devices Douglas B Chrisey Paul C Dorsey J Douglas Adam and Harry Buhay 7.2 Current Approaches to Fabricate Ferrite Films 7.3 Ferrite Film Progress 7.4 Monolithic Integration of Ferrite Film Devices with Semiconductors References 325 329 348 369 Ferroelectric Thin Films: Preparation and Characterization S B Krupanidhi 8.1 8.2 8.3 8.4 8.5 8.6 8.7 8.8 375 Introduction 376 Growth Processes of Ferroelectric Thin Films Processing of Ferroelectric Thin Films 384 Compound Phase Formation 392 Electrical Properties 398 Process-Property Correlation: Low-Energy Oxygen Ion Beam Bombardment Effect 420 428 Microstructure-Dependent Electrical Properties Summary 430 References 430 Integration Aspects of Advanced Ferroelectric Thin-Film Memories Deborah J Taylor 9.1 Introduction 9.2 9.3 9.4 9.5 9.6 9.7 9.8 435 436 Design Considerations 438 Capacitor Formation 448 Electrode and Capacitor Patterning Hydrogen-Containing Ambient 453 Impact of the Ferroelectric Processing on Silicon Devices 454 456 Equipment Issues 457 Summary and Outlook References 458 This Page Intentionally Left Blank Contributors Epitaxial Film Growth and Characterization: Ian T Ferguson, Alan G Thompson, EMCORE Corporation, Somerset, New Jersey, USA Epitaxial Film Growth and Characterization: Scott A Barnett, Materials Science Department, Northwestern University, Evanston, Illinois, USA Epitaxial Film Growth and Characterization: Fred H Long, Department of Chemistry, Rutgers, The State University of New Jersey, Piscataway, New Jersey, USA Epitaxial Film Growth and Characterization: Zhe Chuan Feng, Institute of Materials Research and Engineering, National University of Singapore, Singapore Field Effect Transistors: FETs AND HEMTs: Prashant Chavarkar, Umesh Mishra, Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering, University of California, Santa Barbara, California, USA Antimony-Based Infrared Materials and Devices." C.E.A Grigorescu, R.A Stradling, Blackett Laboratory, Imperial College of Science, Technology and Medicine, London, United Kingdom HgCdTe Infrared Detectors." Arvind I D'Souza, Boeing Sensor and Electronic Products, Anaheim, California, USA HgCdTe Infrared Detectors: ES Wijewarnasuriya, Rockwell Science Center, Thousand Oaks, California, USA HgCdTe Infrared Detectors." John G Poksheva, Analysis Associates, Whittier, California, USA Synthesis and Characterization of Superconducting Thin Films: Chang-Beom Eom, Department of Mechanical Engineering and Materials Science, Duke University, Durham, North Carolina, USA ix 466 INDEX Cellular phones, GaAs pHEMT performance, 114-115t Chemical beam epitaxy, s e e CBE Chemical vapor deposition ferrite films, 329 ferroelectric thin films, 383-384 spinel ferrites, 335 Circulator conduction losses vs frequency, 354 description, 353f function, 322, 352-353f integrated fabrication, 353 f loss contributions, 352 monolithic integration, 349 PLD for patterned deposition, 363f at X-band, 20, and 35 GHz, 366-368 YIG ferrite thick film, 354f YIG film on GaAs wafer, 366f Code Division Multiple Access (CDMA), 110 Coercive field, 321 Compound semiconductors manufacturing issues, 28-33 mapping techniques, 38-39 markets, 62t property modification, Cracker cell, 9, 1Of Cryogenic cooling, 274 NbN circuits, 292 CTIA s e e Capacitance transimpedance amplifier (CTIA) input circuit CVD s e e Chemical vapor deposition D-HEMT technology, 133 Deposition techniques, s e e Epitaxial deposition techniques Diagnostic tools destructive vs nondestructive, 37 High-Tc superconductor surface morphology, 261-262 for molecular beam epitaxy, RHEED, Dielectric films, YBCO compatible, 304 Digital circuit, InP HEMT devices, 128-134 Direct coupled FET logic (DCFL), 131-132 DRAM, 398, 435 s e e Dynamic Random Access Memory design, 436-438 electrode/barrier/plug structure, 447 electrode choice and electrical properties, 443 electrode criteria, 439 equipment issues, 456-457 Pt deposition, 440-443 stacked architecture, 447 Dry etching, InP HEMT manufacturing, 123 Dynamic random access memory (DRAM) s e e DRAM E-HEMT technology, 133 Electron cyclotron resonance (ECR) effect, 425-428 Electron microprobe, 255-257 Ellipsometry, 26 GaInAs growth, 29f MBE growth, 27 molecular beam epitaxy diagnostics, 11 Epitaxial deposition techniques material characterization, 37-39 misfit dislocations, 35-36 multi-chamber technology, 32f in situ monitoring, 26-28 Stranski-Krastanov growth mode, 36 summary, 4-6 wafer manipulation systems, 31 Epitaxial layer, Etching edge damage of YBCO films, 307 ferroelectric capacitor patterning, 448-449 ferroelectric thin films, 438 high-Tc superconductor circuits, 308-309 niobium based circuits, 288-290 Evaporation growth process, 228-229 Ewald sphere, 12 Facing-target sputtering, 343 hexagonal ferrites, 348 FeRAMs design, 436-438 electrode/barrier/plug structure, 447 electrode choice and electrical properties, 443 electrode criteria, 439 Pt deposition, 440-443 stacked architecture, 447 INDEX Ferrimagnetic materials, hysteresis effect, 319-320 Ferrite film device integration annealing process, 352 applications, 348-349 barrier films, 358 circulator results at X-band, 20, and 35 GHz, 366-368 ferrite film activation, 362-364 frequency of operation, 349 ground plane metal requirements, 357-358 low-pressure YIG PLD process, 361 low thermal budget process, 360-361 material issues, 350 mechanical stress, 358 patterning, 361-362 processing, 355-356 recoat deposition process, 364-365 resists, 365-366 substrates, 357 temperature issues, 351 wafer-scale PLD, 359-360 YIG film on GaAs wafer, 366f Ferrite film devices alternative fabrication methods, 329 applications, 330 crystal orientation, 325f defects, 323 deposition techniques, 326f ideal fabrication process, 325 integration into MMIC, 323 jet vapor deposition (JVD), 327 liquid phase epitaxy, 328-329 material properties, 35 It processing issues, 323-325 pulsed laser deposition, 327-328 spin spray deposition, 326-327 sputtering, 328 Ferrites crystal structure, 320-321 t properties, 320 properties and applications, 329 suitability for magnetic microwave devices, 321-322 Ferroelectric Random Access Memories s e e FeRAMs Ferroelectric thin film capacitors, 435 damage from hydrogen containing ambient, 453-454 design, 436-438 467 electrode choice and electrical properties, 443 electrode criteria, 439 electrode delamination, 451 electrode patterning, 448-452 equipment issues, 456-457 fence formation/elimination, 449-451 ion milling, 450 optical etching, 452 patterning, 448-452 plasma etching, 451-452 Pt-based electrode patterning, 449 RIE and fence elimination, 451 RuO2 electrode patterning, 449 self assembly, 452 and silicon device processing, 454-456 stack patterning, 447-448 stacked architecture, 437f Ferroelectric thin film growth processes chemical vapor deposition, 383-384 classification, 377t magnetron sputtering, 376-379 MOCVD, 383-384 multi-ion beam reactive sputter (MIBERS) deposition, 379-381 pulsed laser ablation, 381-382 sol-gel deposition, 383 Ferroelectric thin film processing bi-layered Aurivillius compounds, 390 BST thin films, 386-388 lead zirconate (PZ) films, 388-389 materials, 384 rapid thermal annealing (RTA), 384-385, 392 Ferroelectric thin films anion effect on perovskite/pyrochlore phase, 394-395 backward switching, 410-4 11 capacitance voltage, 405-407 cation composition and microstructure, 395-396 charge storage density with ECR effect, 427-428 coercive field after bombardment, 422-423 composition, microstructure, and electrical properties, 397 compound phase formation, 392-397 current-voltage characteristics, 415-4 16 defect chemistry, 414 dielectric behavior, 398-404 dielectric behavior after bombardment, 423-424 468 INDEX Ferroelectric thin films ( c o n t i n u e d ) direct current leakage, 412, 414 electron cyclotron resonance (ECR) effect, 425-428 fatigue, 412 frequency-domain dielectric response, 401-402 integrability, 375 leakage current with ECR effect, 426-427 microstructure-dependent electrical properties, 428-430 polarization hysteresis, 405-407 Poole-Frenkel effect, 417 remanent polarization after bombardment, 422-423 retention, 412 Schottky effect, 416 space-charge conduction, 418 switching phenomenon, 408-4 10 thermionic emission, 416 time-dependent dielectric breakdown, 418-419 time-dependent dielectric breakdown with ECR effect, 427 time-dependent dielectric response, 397-398 tunneling, 417 Ferromagnetic materials, hysteresis effect, 319-320 Field effect transistor (FET) delay time analysis, 84-85 Fukui noise model, 90 heterostructure insulated gate device, 132 horizontal scaling, 88-89 impact of nsU product on fT, 75 76 large signal modeling, 81-84 logic schemes, 129t noise-temperature model, 90-93 power added efficiency (PAE), 93-95 source coupled logic (SCFL), 130 static frequency divider performance, 129t transfer characteristics for wireless use, lllf Focal plane arrays (FPAs), 217-219 Fourier transform infrared (FTIR) spectroscopy, 38 Frequency agile dielectric oxide integration, 63 Front-end processing, 436 FTIR s e e Fourier transform infrared (FTIR) spectroscopy GaAs ferrite film monolithic integration, 351 MBE growth, 15 MOCVD growth, 35 f surface anisotropy, 33 GaAs pHEMT biasing conditions, 103 breakdown voltage, 103 cellular phone power performance, 114-115t comparison to InP HEMT, 116 frequency and power performance, 104-105t layer structure, 102f low-noise design, 106-109 millimeter wave power devices, 102-106 multiwatt power modules, 107t reliability, 106 wireless applications, 109-113 wireless power performance, 112-113 Gadolinium gallium garnet, s e e GGG GaInAs pHEMT MMIC optimization, 58-62 GaN crystal structure, 49-51 growth optimization, 51-52 Garnet ferrites liquid phase epitaxy processing, 330-331 properties, 320-321 pulsed laser deposition, 332-333 substrates, 330-331 Gas-source MBE, Germanium, 62 GGG properties, 331 YIG deposition on metallized wafers, 360 Group I elements, HgCdTe doping, 202 Group III sources MOCVD, 25 molecular beam epitaxy, Group V sources HgCdTe doping, 202 MOCVD, 25 Growth interruption (GI), 6, 34 GSMBE s e e Gas-source MBE Gurvitch-style Nb junction, 273, 281 Hall mobility, 37 HBT, INDEX HEMT current-voltage models, 76-79 device and material parameters, 98t electrical property modification, frequency bands, 101 t frequency dispersion, 84 large signal modeling, 81-84 low-noise design, 89-93 material requirements, 98f material systems, 97-101 military/commercial applications, 101 t millimeter-wave frequency devices, 113 modulation efficiency, 78-79f phosphorous-based systems, 100 power device design, 93-97 satellite DBS application, 108 small signal equivalent circuit model, 79-81 space applications, 106 ultrahigh-speed scaling issues, 84-89 HEMT device operation impact of nsU product on fT, 75 76 linear charge control model, 73-74 modulation efficiency, 74-75 Heteroepitaxial growth, 238 Heteroepitaxial layer, Heterojunction bipolar transistors, Heterostructure insulated gate FET, 132 Hexagonal ferrites liquid phase epitaxy, 344-345 magnetless applications, 347 properties, 320-321 pulsed laser deposition, 345-347 rf sputtering, 345 thickness limitation, 347 HgCdTe absorption coefficient, 195-197 bandgap tunability, 193 crystal structure, 194 energy gap, 194-195 growth mechanisms, 199-200 infrared devices, 147 intrinsic carrier concentration, 197 recombination mechanisms, 197-199 HgCdTe infrared detectors, 167 s e e a l s o photovoltaic detectors applications, 193 cross talk, 214-217 and focal plane arrays, 217-219 n-type doping, 206-207 p-type doping, 201-206 469 photoresponse, 214-217 quantum efficiency, 214-217 specific detectivity D*, 217 unintentional doping, 200-201 HIGFET, 132 High electron mobility transistors, s e e HEMT High-resolution crystal x-ray diffraction, s e e HXRD High-resolution x-ray rocking diffraction, s e e HRXRD High-Tc superconductor characterization electron microprobe, 255-257 Rutherford backscattering spectroscopy (RBS), 254-255, 259-260 transmission electron microscopy (TEM), 260-261 x-ray diffraction, 257-259 High-Tc superconductor circuits bi-crystal junctions, 299-300 digital circuit application, 311-312 etching, 308-309 films, 297-298 interconnect crossovers, 304-307 ion-beam damaged junction process, 302-303 junctions, 298-299 magnetometry, 312-313 photolithography, 308-309 planar junctions, 303-304 planarization, 309-310 process flows, 296-297 ramp-edge SNS junctions, 301-302 step-edge junctions, 300-301 vias, 304-307 YBCO-compatible dielectric films, 304 High-Tc superconductors chemical composition, 254-257 composite source deposition, 240-241 electrical transport, 263-265 growth mechanism, 252 growth technique classifications, 238 magnetization measurements, 263-265 multi-elemental source deposition, 238-240 multilayers, 249-250 off-axis sputtering, 243-249 pulsed laser deposition, 241-243 structural characterizations, 257-261 substrates, 250-25 It superlattice based, 250 surface morphology, 261-262 surface preparation techniques, 252-253 470 INDEX High-Tc superconductors (continued) YBCO growth, 237-238 Homoepitaxial layer, Horizontal MOCVD reactor, 19-22 HRXRD GaN, 50f multiple quantum well structures, 55f SiC substrate, 39-40 HTMT petaflop computer, 290-291 HTS compounds, see High-Tc superconductors HXRD, 37 Hybrid deposition techniques, Hysteresis ferroelectric thin films, 405-407 for ferromagnetic material, 319-320 PLD NiZn-ferrite film, 34 If III-nitrides applications, 4, 54 characterization techniques, 49-51 comparison to III-V semiconductors, 48-49 and future of compound semiconductors, 64 III-V compounds applications, 3t characterization techniques, 37-38 InGaA1P for optoelectronics, 41-46 InSb for MR sensors, 46-48 manufacturing issues, 28-33 recent technological advances, InAs Auger recombination, 149 band structure, 148 MBE growth, 16 InAs/GaSb/A1Sb system, 152-153 Indium, in p-type doping of HgCdTe, 206-207 Infrared devices applications, 147 performance limiting mechanisms, 156-160 Infrared lasers II-VI and IV-VI, 166 InAs/(GaAlIn)Sb, 163 InSb based, 163 interband cascade design, 165 intersubband quantum well cascade lasers, 163-165 performance, 161-162t ternary and quaternary, 160 Infrared photodetectors array specific detectivity, 171 classifications, 167 current noise, 170 cutoff wavelength, 171 HgCdTe material and background limited performance (BLIP), 167-168 InSb based, 172-173 performance, 181 t responsivity, 168-169 specific detectivity D*, 170 superlattice based, 176 InGaA1P for optoelectronics, 41-46 InP HEMT, 99 breakdown voltage, 118, 126 buffer layer engineering, 127-128 comparison to GaAs pHEMT, 116 composite channels, 127 contact material, 124 digital circuit application, 128-134 gate length uniformity, 123-124 gate recess uniformity, 122-123 high-frequency performance, 116 junction modulation, 125-126 low-noise design, 117 material parameters, 100t power device millimeter-wave applications, 117-122 properties, 113 regrown contacts, 126 reliability, 124-125 technological limitations, 122f InP HEMT digital circuits device uniformity, 132 direct coupled logic (DCFL), 128-130 enhancement mode devices, 132 performance, 128-130 source coupled logic (SCFL), 130 InP, MBE growth, 16 InSb antimony-based lasers, 148 infrared photodetectors, 172-173 MBE growth, 16 MR sensors, 46-48 Integrated-circuit fabrication challenges, 271-272 circuit processes, 277t material comparison, 274-276 Nb circuit process, 276-291 subprocesses, 279 INDEX Interband cascade lasers, 165 Intersubband quantum well cascade lasers, 163-165 Ion-assisted deposition (IAD), 377t, 420-421 crystallization enhancement, 421-422 dielectric behavior, 423-424 leakage current, 424-425 process-property correlation, 420-421 remanent polarization, 422-423 time-dependent dielectric breakdown, 424-425 Isolator function, 322 J Jet vapor deposition (JVD), 327 spinel ferrites, 343 Jonscher's model for dielectric constant, 402, 403f Josephson junction history of fabrication, 272-273 NbN superconducting thin films, 232-233 niobium film, 231-232 SNS type, 249 Junction HEMTs, 125-126 Junctions bi-crystal, 299-300 high-To superconductor circuits, 298-299 ion-beam damage, 302-303 NbN based circuits, 293-295 niobium based circuits, 281-282 planar, 303-304 ramp-edge SNS, 301-302 step-edge, 300-301 Knudsen cell, 8-9 Laser ablation, s e e Pulsed laser deposition Laser diodes (LDs), Lasers s e e a l s o Infrared lasers antimony-based, 148 infrared performance, 161-162t infrared ternary and quaternary devices, 160 Lattice-matched semiconductors, 148 471 Layer-by-layer epitaxial growth, 33 LDs s e e Laser diodes (LDs) Light emitting diodes (LEDs), high-brightness blue, 54 infrared, 147 InGaA1R 41-42 multiple quantum well growth, 48 negative luminescence, 165-166 Liquid phase epitaxy, 1, ferrite films, 328-329 garnet ferrites, 330-331 hexagonal ferrites, 344-345 HgCdTe growth, 199-200 Low-noise HEMT device noise figure, 89-90 Fukui noise model, 90 noise-temperature model, 90-93 Low-Tc superconducting thin films evaporation growth, 228-229 MBE growth, 229 NbN film, 232-237 niobium film, 230-232 sputtering, 229-230 LPE s e e Liquid phase epitaxy Magnetic film materials, 320 Magnetic microwave devices common ferrite types, 322f ferrite suitability, 321-322 low cost, high-volume manufacture, 322 Magnetocrystalline anisotropy, 321 Magnetometry, 312-313 Magnetoresistor (MR) sensors, 46-48 Magnetostatic wave (MSW) technology, 330 Magnetostriction, 321 Magnetron sputtering, ferroelectric thin films, 376-379 hexagonal ferrites, 348 Mass spectrometry, MBE diagnostics, 11 MBE, 1-2 advantages, (A1,Ga)As/GaAs tunneling superlattices, 33-34 applications, diagnostics, 11-15 disadvantages, doping of antimony-based materials, 149 472 INDEX MBE ( c o n t i n u e d ) ellipsometric diagnostic technique, 27 ferrite films, 329 flux distribution, growth chamber, 7-8 growth mechanism, 15-16 HgCdTe growth, 199-200 high-To superconductor growth, 239 InAs quantum well doping, 154 low-To superconducting thin films, 229 n-type doping of HgCdTe, 206-207 p-type doping of HgCdTe, 203 process, sources, 8-11 MESFETs, 112-113 Metallorganic Chemical Vapor Deposition s e e MOCVD Metallorganic MBE, MetaUorganic Vapor Phase Epitaxy (MOVPE), 150 MIBERS s e e Multi-ion beam reactive sputter (MIBERS) deposition Microstrip circulator, 353f Microwave plasma spray, 343 Misfit dislocations, 35-36 GaN-based devices, 53-54 InGaA1P film, 43 MMIC devices chip layout, 61-62 GaInAs pHEMT optimization, 58-62 integration of ferrite films, 323 MnZn-ferrite films, 337-338 MOCVD, applications, development, 16 ferroelectric thin films, 383-384 GaAs, 35f gas handling system, 16-17, 20f governing mechanisms, 17 growth mechanism, 24-26 growth rate vs temperature, 17f hexagonal ferrites, 348 high-Tc superconductor growth, 239-240 horizontal reactors, 19-22 MESC compatible, 32f performance, 24 planetary reactor, 21 process, 4-5 reactor design, 18 rotating disc reactor, 23f safety, 24 sources, 25 spinel ferrites, 343 vertical reactor, 22-24 MODFETs, 72 Modulation-doped field effect transistors, s e e MODFETs Modulation doping, 72 Molecular beam epitaxy, s e e MBE MOMBE s e e Metalorganic MBE Monolithic microwave-integrated circuits, MMIC devices MOVPE/OMVPE s e e MOCVD Multi-ion beam reactive sputter (MIBERS) deposition, 379-381 PLT thin film, 394-395 PZT thin films, 420-421 Multiple quantum well (MQW) LEDs, 48 luminescence transition mechanism, 54 wavelength and kinetics, 56 N NbN circuit process cryogenics, 292-293 history, 291-292 junctions, 293-295 operating temperature, 295 process flows, 293 NbN superconducting thin films carbon doped, 236 comparison to Nb and YBCO, 274-276 deposition techniques, 234-235 fabrication processes, 276 morphology, 233-234, 294 reactive sputtering, 232-233 resistivity, 234 stability, 234 surface smoothness, 236 titanium doped, 237 Niobium circuit process, 276-277 dielectric depositions, 283-284 etching, 288-290 fabrication techniques, 280t HTMT petaflop computer application, 290-291 junctions, 281-282 photolithography, 287-288 planarization, 290 INDEX process flows, 278-280 resistors, 284-286 Niobium superconducting thin films, 230-232 comparison to NbN and YBCO, 274-276 fabrication processes, 276 properties, 271 Nitrogen sources, for molecular beam epitaxy, 11 NiZn-ferrite films, 337 hysteresis curve, 341 f integration with microwave integrated circuits, 340 properties, 339t, 341 t x-ray diffraction pattern, 339f Nomarski microscopy, 37 Nonbombardment deposition of ferroelectric thin films, 377t Nondestructive characterization techniques, 38-39 Nonreciprocal phase shifters, 322 Nonvolatile random access memory (NVRAM), 398 Off-axis sputtering, 243-249 Optical diagnostic techniques, 26, 37-38 Optical etching, 452 Oxide ceramic processing, 323 P Petaflop computer, 290-291 Phase shifter, 322 pHEMT structure growth, 58-62 Photolithography ferrite film monolithic integration, 350 ferroelectric capacitor patterning, 449 high-To superconductor circuits, 308-309 niobium based circuits, 287-288 Photoluminescence (PL), 37 AlIn GaP, 45t InGaA1P, 44f InGaA1P/GaAs, 43 multiple quantum well structures, 55f-57 optimized pHEMT structure, 60f Photon confinement, Photon detectors, 167 Photoresists ferrite film integration, 365-366 ferroelectric thin films, 438 473 Photovoltaic detectors architecture, 207-208 architecture and dark current, 209 current-voltage relationship, 208 diffusion current, 209-210 generation-recombination current, 210-211 tunneling currents, 211-214 PL s e e Photoluminescence (PL) Planafization niobium based circuits, 290 YBCO circuits, 309-310 Planetary reactor, 21 Plasma-assisted MBE, Plasma etching, 451-452 PLD s e e Pulsed laser deposition Poole-Frenkel effect, 417 Power amplifiers breakdown voltage, 103 HEMT large signal modeling, 81-84 power added efficiency (PAE), 109 wireless applications, 111 wireless handset requirements and performance, 112t Power HEMT design, 93-95 device layout, 95-97 Pt deposition on ferroelectfic thin films, 440-443 Pulsed deposition, 34 molecular beam epitaxy, Pulsed laser deposition ablation of ferroelectfic thin films, 381-382 chamber for ferrite film deposition, 359f ferrite film monolithic integration, 350 ferrite films, 327-328 ferroelectfic bi-layered structures, 390-391 garnet ferrites, 332-333 hexagonal ferrites, 345-347 high-To superconductor, 241-243 MnZn-ferrite films, 337t for patterned circulator deposition, 363f polycrystalline YIG film on amorphous substrates, 333-334 spinel ferrites, 335-337 wafer-scale for ferrite film integration, 359-360 PZ thin films backward switching, 411 f processing, 388-389 switching phenomenon, 41 Of 474 INDEX PZT ferroelectric films capacitor electrode choice and electrical properties, 443 charge-voltage hysteresis curves, 444f Pt deposition, 441 XTEM images, 445f PZT films bombardment during growth, 420 coercive field, 422f current-voltage characteristics, 424f fatigue, 413 f hysteresis effect, 407f leakage current vs time, 415f multi-ion beam reactive sputter (MIBERS) deposition, 380-381 processing, 385-386 rapid thermal annealing (RTA), 392 remanent polarization, 422f retention, 413 f switching phenomenon, 409f, 411 f time-dependent dielectric breakdown, 425f Q QPSK modulation, 110 Quantum cascade lasers, 163-165 Quantum well intersub-band IR photodetectors s e e QWIP Quantum wells InAs/A1Sb, 153-154 InAs/GaSb, 153 remote doping of InAs based, 154 QWIP Beck model of photoconductive gain, 175 capture probability, 175 Lui model of photoconductive gain, 174 R Radiation field detectors, 167 Radiative mechanisms, and infrared device performance, 157 Radiative recombination, HgCdTe, 197-199 Raman scattering, 38 SiC substrate, 400-441 Rapid thermal anneal (RTA) ferrite film activation, 362-364 ferrite film monolithic integration, 352 ferroelectric thin films, 384-385, 392 Reactive evaporation, high-Tc superconductor growth, 239 Reactive ion etching (RIE) fence elimination, 451 niobium based circuits, 288-290 power HEMT via fabrication, 96 Pt-based electrode patteming, 449 Readout integrated circuit, 217-219 Reflection difference spectroscopy (RDS), 11, 26 Reflection high energy electron diffraction, s e e RHEED Reflectivity diagnostics, 26 Resistors niobium based circuits, 284-286 YBCO based circuits, 310-311 Resists for ferrite film device integration, 365-366 Rf diode sputtering, 343, 347 Rf magnetron sputtering, 347-348 Rf sputtering BST thin films, 386 hexagonal ferrites, 345 spinel ferrites, 343 RHEED description, molecular beam epitaxy diagnostics, 6, 11-15 in pulsed laser deposition systems, 242-243 R I E s e e Reactive ion etching (RIE) ROIC s e e Readout integrated circuit Rotating disc MOCVD reactor, 23f RTA s e e Rapid thermal anneal (RTA) RuO2 electrodes, 446 patterning, 449 Rutherford backscattering spectroscopy (RBS), 254-255 S Sapphire (AL203), 48 rf sputtering of hexaferrite films, 345 Satellite direct broadcasting receiver systems (DBS), 108 SBT ferroelectric thin films mass spectroscopy, 442f processing, 384 Pt deposition, 441-443 SBT thin films dielectric behavior, 403f INDEX hysteresis effect, 407f switching phenomenon, 409f Scanning electron microscopy (SEM), 37 High-Tc superconductor surface morphology, 261-262 PLD MnZn-ferrite film, 338f Scanning tunneling microscopy (STM), 262 SEM s e e Scanning electron microscopy (SEM) Semiconductor alloy system properties, 36-37 Semiconductor laser diodes, 2-3 Semiconductor substrate properties, 351 t Sheet resistivity, 37, 39 InGaA1P/GaAs, 43 InSb films, 47 pHEMT structure, 59f Si-doped (Gal_xAlx)0.sIno.sR45f Shockley-Read recombination HgCdTe, 197-199 and infrared device performance, 157 SiC substrate, 39-41 and future of compound semiconductors, 64 Sol-gel deposition, 329 ferroelectric thin films, 383 hexagonal ferrites, 348 Source coupled FET logic (SCFL), 130 Spin spray deposition, 326-327 ferrite film monolithic integration, 350 and microwave integration with MMICs, 341-343 Spinel ferrites alternative fabrication methods, 343 CVD deposition, 335 integration using spin spray technique, 341-343 MnZn deposition technique, 337-338 NiZn deposition technique, 337 NiZn-ferrite film integration, 340 properties, 320-321 pulsed laser deposition, 335-337 spray pyrolysis, 335 Spray pyrolysis, 329 spinel ferrites, 335 Sputtering BST ferroelectric thin films, 386-387 ferrite films, 328 ferroelectric thin films, 376-379 hexagonal ferrites, 348 high-Tc superconductor growth, 239 hollow cathode process, 244 low-Tc superconducting thin films, 229-230 475 niobium superconducting thin film, 231 off-axis, 243-249 off-axis and on-axis comparison, 244-246 spinel ferrites, 343 SQUID devices, 249, 296, 300, 310 magnetometry, 312-313 Static frequency dividers, 129t Step-flow growth, 33-34f Strained-layer epitaxy, Strained layer superlattices (SLS), 155 Stranski-Krastanov growth mode, 36, 275 Superconducting thin films, low-Tc growth techniques, 228-237 Superlattice based IR photodetectors, 176 As-doped HgCdTe, 204 InAs/(GaAlIn)Sb, 176-179 InASl_xSbx, 179-180 Switching phenomenon, 408-4 11 Tape casting, 329 TEM s e e Transmission electron microscopy (TEM) Thermal chemical vapor deposition, 18 Thermal detectors, 167 Time-dependent dielectric breakdown (TDDB), 418-419 after bombardment, 424-425 with ECR effect, 427 Transmission electron microscopy (TEM), 37 high-Tc superconductor characterization, 260-261 PXT with PT electrode, 445f PZT film cross-sectional image, 445f YBCO growth, 306f Traveling wave tubes (TWT), 106 Two-dimensional electron gas confinement, 2DEG Ultrahigh-speed HEMT delay time analysis, 84-85 horizontal scaling, 88-89 vertical scaling, 86-88 Valved cracker cell, 11 476 INDEX Van der Pauw geometry, 263 Vapor phase epitaxy, 1, 5-6 Vertical cavity surface emitting lasers (VCSEL) InGaA1P, 42 MBE growth, Vertical MOCVD reactor, 22-24 Vias, 304-307 VPE s e e Vapor phase epitaxy NiZn-ferrite films, 340f PLD barium hexaferrite film, 346f PLD NiZn-ferrite film, 339f PLD polycrystalline YIG film, 334f rapid thermal annealed PZT thin films, 393f SBTN thin films, 391f SiC substrate, 39 X-ray photoemission spectroscopy (XPS), 12 W Wafer characterization, 42t Wafer manufacture cost of materials, 31 cost of ownership (COO), 31 mapping techniques, 37-38 material issues, 33-37 multi-chamber technology, 31 reproducibility, 31 SiC substrate, 39-41 yield, 30-31 Wavelength dispersive analysis (WDX), 256 Wet etching high-Tc superconductors, 252-253 InP HEMT manufacturing, 123 power HEMT via fabrication, 96 Wireless GaAs pHEMT comparison to MESFETs, 112-113 gate leakage current, 110-111 linearity requirements, 110 operating voltages, 109 power added efficiency (PAE), 109-110 power amplifier specifications, 111 X X-ray diffraction (XRD) BST thin films, 387f high-Tc superconductor characterization, 257-259 III-nitrides, 49 lead zirconate (PZ) films, 389f YBCO circuits dielectric compatibility, 304 epitaxy and stochiometry control, 304-307 etching, 308-309 interconnect crossovers, 304-307 metallic contacts, 310-311 photolithography, 308-309 planarization, 309-310 resistors, 310-311 vias, 304-307 YBCO thin film ceramic defects vs thickness, 325f comparison to Nb and NbN, 274-276 fabrication processes, 276 growth mechanism, 237-238 magnetization measurements, 265f off-axis sputtering, 247-249 quality, 297-298 resistivity vs temperature, 264f stacking sequence, 252 surface morphology, 262 YIG circulator loss contributions, 354f thickness vs frequency, 355f at X-band, 20, and 35 GHz, 366-368 YIG ferrite thick film applications, 330 low pressure PLD process, 361 polycrystalline in amorphous substrates, 333-334 quality, 331 Recent Volumes In This Series Maurice H Francombe and John L Vossen, Physics of Thin Films, Volume 16, 1992 Maurice H Francombe and John L Vossen, Physics of Thin Films, Volume 17, 1993 Maurice H Francombe and John L Vossen, Physics of Thin Films, Advances in Research and Development, Plasma Sources for Thin Film Deposition and Etching, Volume 18, 1994 K Vedam (guest editor), Physics of Thin Films, Advances in Research and Development, Optical Characterization of Real Surfaces and Films, Volume 19, 1994 Abraham Ulman, Thin Films, Organic Thin Films and Surfaces: Directions for the Nineties, Volume 20, 1995 Maurice H Francombe and John L Vossen, Homojunction and Quantum-Well Infrared Detectors, Volume 21, 1995 Stephen Rossnagel and Abraham Ulman, Modeling of Film Deposition for Microelectronic Applications, Volume 22, 1996 Maurice H Francombe and John L Vossen, Advances in Research and Development, Volume 23, 1998 Abraham Ulman, Self-Assembled Monolayers of Thiols, Volume 24, 1998 Subject and Author Cumulative Index, Volumes 1-24, 1998 Ronald A Powell and Stephen Rossnagel, PVD for Microelectronics: Sputter Deposition Applied to Semiconductor Manufacturing, Volume 26, 1998 Jeffrey A Hopwood, Ionized Physical Vapor Deposition, Volume 27, 2000 This Page Intentionally Left Blank FIGURE 1.22 Room-temperature photoluminescence maps of a Gal_xAlx)0.sIn0.sP film with x ~ 0.23 grown on 100-mm diameter GaAs wafer The uniformity data for 2(peak), 2(+ 1/2 max), FWHM and I(peak) is summarized in Table 1.3 FIGURE 1.33 (a) RT photoluminescence peak wavelength map (wavelength: 977.9 4- 1.8 nm) and (b) a FWHM map (FWHM: 99.6 + 0.44 nm) of the InGaAs channel of an optimized pHEMT structure FIGURE 1.35 Red, green and blue (RBG) emission from down-converting phosphors and a III-nitride LED die The peak emission at 425 nm is from the LED while those at 550nm and 625 nm are from the phosphors SrGazS4: 4%Eu and Zn0.zsCd0.758: AgC1, respectively (See color figure.) FIGURE 1.1 A plot of alloy bandgap vs lattice constant illustrating the range of different ternary and quaternary alloy systems that can be lattice-matched to binary substrates [2] FIGURE 1.13 The in situ ellipsometric feedback control of the growth of GaInAs The top graph shows a composition control experiment in which the SE composition signal was used to automatically adjust the TMIn flow to achieve the target lattice matched InxGal_xAs composition of x - X-ray diffraction scans were used to verify the accuracy of the SE composition control Using SE feedback control of the growth, a bulk film with a composition within the lattice-matching specification was achieved for initially indium-rich and gallium-rich growth .. .Thin Films Frontiers of Thin Film Technology Volume 28 Serial Editors Inorganic Thin Films Organic Thin Films STEPHEN M ROSSNAGEL ABRAHAM ULMAN IBM... 376 Growth Processes of Ferroelectric Thin Films Processing of Ferroelectric Thin Films 384 Compound Phase Formation... Memories." Deborah J Taylor, Motorola, Austin, Texas, USA Preface Volume 28 of the book series Thin Films, titled Frontiers of Thin Film Technology, focusses primarily on recent developments in those