Chapter 12 Development and Expression of Human Sexuality Becoming a Sexual Person, continued • Key aspects of sexual identity – Sexual identity – refers to “the complex personal qualities, selfperceptions, attitudes, values and preferences that guide one’s sexual behavior” Becoming a Sexual Person, continued Key aspects of sexual identity, continued • Sexual identity includes four key features Sexual orientation – Heterosexuals “seek emotional-sexual relationships with members of the other gender” – Homosexuals “seek emotional-sexual relationships with members of same gender” – Bisexuals “seek emotional-sexual relationships with members of both genders” Becoming a Sexual Person, continued Key aspects of sexual identity, continued Sexual identity’s four key features, continued Body image Sexual values and ethics Erotic preferences Becoming a Sexual Person, continued • Physiological influences – Hormones and sexual differentiation • During pregnancy, levels of androgens (the male hormone, testosterone) cause differentiation of the genitals in the fetus – High levels result in male genitals, and low levels result in female genitals • At puberty, hormones (estrogens in females, androgens in males) trigger maturation of sexual traits and organs Becoming a Sexual Person, continued Physiological influences, continued – Hormones and sexual behavior • • Hormone levels affect sex drive in many animals In humans, for both men and women, androgens affect sexual motivation • Higher levels of testosterone in women are also linked with higher rates of sexual activity Becoming a Sexual Person, continued Psychosocial influences – Families • Parents who punish innocent sexual exploration can socialize children who associate guilt and shame with sex • Children benefit from having positive and open conversations about sex with their parents They have sex at a later age, less often, and have fewer partners Becoming a Sexual Person, continued Psychosocial influences, continued – Peers • Peers are often the primary source of information for teens regarding sex • Unfortunately, they can be a highly misleading source of information and often promote unhealthy sexual values Becoming a Sexual Person, continued Psychosocial influences, continued – Schools • • 90% of schools offer some form of sex education Most offer “abstinence only” education, which does not seem to deter teens from having sex • In contrast, comprehensive programs are associated with increased use of contraception, reduced pregnancies, and reduced high-risk behaviors Becoming a Sexual Person, continued Psychosocial influences, continued – Religion • • Religious teachings can dictate what is seen as sexually “natural” Data from three national surveys show the main message teens get is “Don’t have sex until marriage” • Data also show that “virginity pledges” are largely ineffective Patterns of Sexual Behavior, continued • Infidelity in committed relationships – In married couples, infidelity is termed “adultery” or “extramarital sex”, whereas in unmarried, committed couples, it is referred to as “extradyadic sex” – – Most people view extramarital sex as wrong However, sometimes couples have consensual extramarital sex, as with “open marriages”, in which couples exchange partners or have sex with a third party Patterns of Sexual Behavior, continued Infidelity, continued – Prevalence • Recent surveys suggest that approximately 25% of married men and about 10% of married women have had an extramarital affair • • One-third of cohabitating men and women have had extradyadic sex Extradyadic sex is most common of all among committed gay male relationships, however Patterns of Sexual Behavior, continued Infidelity, continued – Motivations: Why are people unfaithful? – – – – – Dissatisfaction with a relationship or anger toward a partner Boredom Need to confirm that one is still desirable Strong attraction to another person Men are usually motivated by sexual variety, while women seek an emotional connection Patterns of Sexual Behavior, continued Infidelity, continued – Impact • • Approximately 20% of divorces are caused by infidelity In addition, people who engage in extramarital sex may experience – – – – Loss of self-respect Guilt Stress Complications from STDs Figure 12.16 A comparison of widely used contraceptive techniques Couples can choose from a variety of contraceptive methods This chart summarizes the advantages and disadvantages of each method Note that the typical failure rate is much higher than the ideal failure rate for all methods, because couples not use contraceptive techniques consistently and correctly (Based on Carroll, 2007; Crooks & Baur, 2008; Hatcher et al., 2004) Figure 12.17 Overview of common sexually transmitted disease (STDs) This chart summarizes the symptoms and modes of transmission of nine STDs Note that intercourse is not required to transmit all STDs—many STDs can be contracted through oralgenital contact or other forms of physical intimacy (Adapted from Carroll, 2007; Crooks & Baur, 2008; Hatcher et al., 2004) Practical Issues, continued Sexually transmitted diseases, continued • Prevalence and transmission – Most infections occur in people under age 25 (25% of people contract an STD by age 21) – Of special concern is the increase in HIV infections in heterosexual women of color – HIV infections are also increasing in young gay and bisexual men of color Practical Issues, continued STDs, continued – Women are more likely to acquire an STD from any sexual encounter and are more likely to suffer more long-term consequences such as • • • Chronic pelvic pain Infertility Cervical cancer Practical Issues, continued STDs, continued – Prevention points to remember If not in a sexually exclusive relationship, always use latex condoms with spermicide People can be carriers of STDs without knowing it and may not have any symptoms The more sexual partners you have, the higher your risk of contracting an STD Practical Issues, continued STDs, continued Prevention points, continued Avoid sex with individuals who have had many previous partners Don’t assume that labels people attach to themselves (e.g., heterosexual) accurately describe all of their sexual experiences Any activity that exposes you to blood or bodily fluids is risky Practical Issues, continued STDs, continued Prevention points, continued Oral-genital sex may also transmit HIV Wash your genitals before and after sexual contact Urinate shortly after intercourse 10 Watch for sores, rashes, or discharge If you have cold sores, avoid kissing and oral sex Application: Enhancing Sexual Relationships, continued • General suggestions Pursue adequate sex education Review your sexual values system Communicate about sex Avoid goal setting Enjoy your sexual fantasies Be selective about sex Application: Enhancing Sexual Relationships, continued: • Understanding sexual dysfunction – Sexual dysfunctions are “impairments in sexual functioning that cause subjective distress” (see Figure 12.18) – Common culprits can include • • • Physical factors (illness, medication, alcohol and drugs) Psychological factors (excessive guilt or anxiety) Interpersonal factors (unresolved relationship issues) Figure 12.18 Sexual dysfunction in normal couples This graph shows the prevalence of various sexual dysfunctions during a year in a probability sample of American men and women The most common problems among men are premature ejaculation and anxiety about performance; in women, they are lack of interest in sex and orgasmic difficulties From Laumann, E O., Gagnon, J H., Michael, R T., & Michaels, S (1994) The social organization of sexuality: Sexual practices in the United States Chicago: University of Chicago Press Copyright © 1994 by University of Chicago Press Reprinted by permission Application: Enhancing Sexual Relationships, continued • Coping with specific problems – – Sex therapy – “involves the professional treatment of sexual dysfunctions” Therapies may include medication or counseling on specific techniques from a qualified sex therapist [...]... are disclosing gay, lesbian, and bisexual identities earlier in life Becoming a Sexual Person, continued Sexual orientation, continued • In deciding to disclose, one must weigh the psychological benefits – – • Being honest Social support Against the potential costs – – – – Losing friends Being fired Falling victim to hate crimes Losing custody of children Becoming a Sexual Person, continued Sexual... Motives for engaging in sex 1 Pursuing one’s own sexual pleasure 2 Feeling good about oneself 3 Pleasuring one’s partner 4 Promoting intimacy in the relationship 5 Expressing love for one’s partner Interaction in Sexual Relationships, continued • “Avoidance” motives: some have sex to avoid other problems, such as 1 Avoiding relationship conflict 2 Avoiding hurting a partner’s feelings 3 Preventing a partner’s... endpoints on a continuum Kinsey and other sex researchers view heterosexuality and homosexuality as ends of a continuum rather than as all-or-none distinctions Kinsey created this seven-point scale (from 0 to 6) for describing sexual orientation Becoming a Sexual Person, continued Sexual orientation, continued • Origins – Freud attributed homosexuality to an unresolved Oedipus complex in which the. .. situational factors 5 Men more often take the lead, while women act as “gate keepers” Becoming a Sexual Person, continued Gender differences, continued • Socialization may affect these differences by – Encouraging males to experiment sexually, to initiate sex, and to enjoy sex without emotional connection – – Teaching girls to view sex in the context of a loving relationship Emphasizing negative associations... homosexual leanings to early childhood Thus, many theorists propose that sexual orientation is more likely caused by biological factors Becoming a Sexual Person, continued Sexual orientation, continued • Origins, continued – One prominent biological explanation attributes homosexuality to prenatal exposure to sex hormones that alter the organization of the fetal brain – Genetic factors are also potential... predisposition to the characteristic Recent studies of both gay men and lesbian women have found higher concordance rates among identical twins than fraternal twins, who, in turn, exhibit more concordance than adoptive siblings These findings are consistent with the hypothesis that genetic factors influence sexual orientation If only genetic factors were responsible for sexual orientation, the identical twin concordance... Preventing a partner from losing interest Interaction in Sexual Relationships, continued • Communicating about sex – Although it is important, people are often reluctant to talk about sex because 1 They are afraid of appearing ignorant 2 They are concerned about their partner’s response 3 They have conflicting attitudes about sex 4 They had early, negative, sexual experiences Sexual Expression, continued... selective in what one views Becoming a Sexual Person, continued • Gender differences in sexual socialization – Five key differences 1 Men have more interest in sex 2 The connection between sex and intimacy is more important for women 3 Aggression is more often linked to sexuality for men Becoming a Sexual Person, continued Gender differences in sexual socialization, continued – Five key differences, continued... homophobia, or the intense fear and intolerance of homosexuals” Figure 12. 6 Attitudes toward homosexuals Americans’ attitudes toward gays are highly variable, depending on the specific issue Women generally have more accepting attitudes than men Becoming a Sexual Person, continued Sexual orientation, continued – This type of sexual prejudice is associated with • • • • • Being older Being male Lower... level Living in the South or Midwest, and in rural areas Having conservative religious and political beliefs Becoming a Sexual Person, continued Sexual orientation, continued • Disclosing one’s sexual orientation – Sexual identify development involves acknowledging, recognizing, and labeling one’s sexual orientation – – One must also conceptualize it in positive terms Recent generations are becoming aware ... earlier in life Becoming a Sexual Person, continued Sexual orientation, continued • In deciding to disclose, one must weigh the psychological benefits – – • Being honest Social support Against the. .. attempts Interaction in Sexual Relationships, continued • Motives for engaging in sex Pursuing one’s own sexual pleasure Feeling good about oneself Pleasuring one’s partner Promoting intimacy in the. .. siblings These findings are consistent with the hypothesis that genetic factors influence sexual orientation If only genetic factors were responsible for sexual orientation, the identical twin