Language, Culture, and Teaching Critical Perspectives, Second Edition Distinguished multiculturalist Sonia Nieto speaks directly to current and future teachers in this thoughtful integration of a selection of her key writings with creative pedagogical features Offering information, insights, and motivation to teach students of diverse cultural, racial, and linguistic backgrounds, the text is intended for upper undergraduate- and graduate-level students and professional development courses Examples are included throughout to illustrate real-life dilemmas about diversity that teachers face in their own classrooms; ideas about how language, culture, and teaching are linked; and ways to engage with these ideas through reflection and collaborative inquiry Each chapter includes Critical Questions, Activities for Your Classroom, Community-Based Activities and Advocacy, and Supplementary Resources for Further Reflection and Study Language, Culture, and Teaching, Second Edition: • • • • • explores how language and culture are connected to teaching and learning in educational settings examines the sociocultural and sociopolitical contexts of language and culture to understand how these contexts may affect student learning and achievement analyzes the implications of linguistic and cultural diversity for classroom practices, school reform, and educational equity encourages practicing and preservice teachers to reflect critically on their classroom practices, as well as on larger institutional policies related to linguistic and cultural diversity based on the above understandings motivates teachers to understand their ethical and political responsibilities to work, together with their students, colleagues, and families, for a more socially just classroom, school, and society About the Second Edition: Over half of the chapters are new to this edition, bringing it up-to-date in terms of recent educational policy issues and demographic changes in our society Sonia Nieto is Professor Emerita of Language, Literacy, and Culture, School of Education, University of Massachusetts Amherst Language, Culture, and Teaching Sonia Nieto, Series Editor Literacy and Power Janks Language, Culture, and Teaching: Critical Perspectives, Second Edition Nieto Critical Multicultural Analysis of Children’s Literature: Mirrors, Windows, and Doors Botelho & Rudman Toward a Literacy of Promise: Joining the African-American Struggle Spears-Bunton & Powell (Eds.) The Work of Language in Multicultural Classrooms: Talking Science, Writing Science Bruna & Gomez (Eds.) Critical Literacy and Urban Youth: Pedagogies of Access, Dissent, and Liberation Morrell With Literacy and Justice for All: Rethinking the Social in Language and Education, Third Edition Edelsky Beyond Grammar: Language, Power, and the Classroom Harmon/Wilson Contextualizing College ESL Classroom Praxis: A Participatory Approach to Effective Instruction Berlin Negotiating Critical Literacies with Young Children Vasquez Teaching and Learning in a Multicultural School: Choices, Risks, and Dilemmas Goldstein Community Writing: Researching Social Issues Through Composition Collins Visit www.routledge.com/education for additional information on titles in the Language, Culture, and Teaching series Language, Culture, and Teaching Critical Perspectives, Second Edition Sonia Nieto University of Massachusetts, Amherst First published 2010 by Routledge 270 Madison Ave, New York, NY 10016 Simultaneously published in the UK by Routledge Park Square, Milton Park, Abingdon, Oxon OX14 4RN Routledge is an imprint of the Taylor & Francis Group, an informa business This edition published in the Taylor & Francis e-Library, 2009 To purchase your own copy of this or any of Taylor & Francis or Routledge’s collection of thousands of eBooks please go to www.eBookstore.tandf.co.uk © 2010 Taylor & Francis All rights reserved No part of this book may be reprinted or reproduced or utilized in any form or by any electronic, mechanical or other means, now known or hereafter invented, including photocopying and recording, or in any information storage or retrieval system, without permission in writing from the publishers Trademark Notice: Product or corporate names may be trademarks or registered trademarks, and are used only for identification and explanation without intent to infringe Library of Congress Cataloging in Publication Data Nieto, Sonia Language, culture, and teaching : critical perspectives for a new century / Sonia Nieto – 2nd ed p cm – (Language, culture, and teaching) Includes bibliographical references and index Multicultural education – United States Minorities – Education – United States I Title LC1099.3.N543 2009 370.117 – dc22 2009010311 ISBN 0-203-87228-2 Master e-book ISBN ISBN 10: 0–415–99968–5 (hbk) ISBN 10: 0–415–99974–X (pbk) ISBN 10: 0–203–87228–2 (ebk) ISBN 13: 978–0–415–99968–7 (hbk) ISBN 13: 978–0–415–99974–8 (pbk) ISBN 13: 978–0–203–87228–4 (ebk) This book is dedicated to all those teachers who teach critically and with respect and love for their students, and with determination and hope for a more socially just future Contents Acknowledgments Preface ix xi Introduction: Language, Literacy, and Culture: Intersections and Implications PART I Setting the Groundwork 25 What is the Purpose of Schools? Reflections on Education in an Age of Functionalism 27 The Limitations of Labels 36 Understanding Multicultural Education in a Sociopolitical Context (with Patty Bode) 38 Multicultural Education and School Reform (with Patty Bode) 66 Public Education in the Twentieth Century and Beyond: High Hopes, Broken Promises, and an Uncertain Future 88 We Speak in Many Tongues: Language Diversity and Multicultural Education 112 PART II Identity and Belonging Culture and Learning 133 135 viii Contents Lessons From Students on Creating a Chance to Dream 160 Beyond Categories: The Complex Identities of Adolescents (with John Raible) 199 PART III Becoming Critical Teachers 215 10 Profoundly Multicultural Questions 217 11 Solidarity, Courage, and Heart: Learning From a New Generation of Teachers 225 PART IV Praxis in the Classroom 245 12 Affirmation, Solidarity, and Critique: Moving Beyond Tolerance in Multicultural Education 247 13 Nice is Not Enough: Defining Caring for Students of Color 264 14 What Does it Mean to Affirm Diversity in Our Nation’s Schools? 269 Index 275 Acknowledgments We are grateful to the following publishers for permitting previously published journal articles and book chapters to be reprinted in this book Introduction Nieto, S (2000) Language, literacy, and culture: Intersections and implication In Timothy Shanahan & Flora Rodríguez-Brown (Eds.), 49th Yearbook of the National Reading Conference (pp 41–60) Chicago: National Reading Conference Reprinted with the permission of the National Reading Conference and Sonia Nieto Chapter Nieto, Sonia (2006) Stances on multilingual and multicultural education: The limitations of labels, Language Arts, Volume 84, Number 2, November 2006, p 171 Copyright 2006 by the National Council of Teachers of English Used with permission Chapter Nieto, S & Bode, P (2008) Understanding the sociopolitical context of multicultural education In Affirming Diversity: The Sociopolitical Context of Multicultural Education, 5e Published by Allyn & Bacon, Boston Copyright 2008 by Pearson Education Reprinted by permission of the publisher Chapter Nieto, S & Bode, P (2008) Multicultural education and school reform In Affirming diversity: The sociopolitical context of multicultural education Boston, MA: Allyn & Bacon Copyright 2008 by Pearson Publishers Reprinted by permission of the publisher Chapter Nieto, S (2005) Public education in the twentieth century and beyond: High hopes, broken promises, and an uncertain future Harvard Educational Review, 75 (1), 57–78 Used with permission 266 Praxis in the Classroom Even as we purport to care about all students equally, we also often tolerate policies in our districts and schools that harm students of color, especially those who are poor and those for whom English is a second language: unequal resources, punitive high-stakes testing, and rigid ability-group tracking are some key examples.2 Racism in these forms involves failing to ensure that institutions care for students The late Meyer Weinberg (1982), a historian who studied school desegregation, defined racism as a system of privilege and penalty According to this definition, a student is rewarded or punished in education (as in housing, employment, health, and so on) by the simple fact of belonging to a particular racialized group, regardless of his or her individual merits or faults Within such an unequal system, even “nice” people can accept and even distribute these unfair rewards and punishments This idea is difficult, even wrenching, for many people to accept I have utilized several strategies to get pre-service teachers to consider and debate how, despite their best intentions, they might actually participate in various institutional practices of not caring for students To ensure that their institutions are caring for students, educators can begin to ask one another, in so many words, what it means to “care” for their student body Participants should make this discussion of caring safe, but not necessarily personally comfortable; participants will need to struggle with hard ideas about themselves and about institutions To help teachers explore particularly critically what sort of caring assists students of color struggling within unequal systems, I ask them to an in-depth case study of a student (for guidelines, see Nieto & Bode, 2008, Resource list) Looking carefully at an individual member of a group dispels stereotypes about the needs of all people from particular backgrounds, while at the same time giving teachers a more complete understanding of how group membership affects the contexts in which students live I also have them read “coming of age” stories of young people from various backgrounds (see Nieto & Bode, 2008) so that they understand the specific challenges of encountering racism and start thinking about what students of color might need from their teachers These activities are followed by dialogue, reflection, and analysis designed to get teachers discussing how they and their students are members of structurally positioned groups Teachers come to see that caring for students within unequal structures requires going beyond “niceness” to challenge institutional inequality I then ask teachers to think deeply about and debate what it means to demonstrate care in a classroom Teachers may think of caring as unconditional praise, or as quickly incorporating cultural components into the curriculum, or even as lowering standards On the contrary, others have argued, an “ethic of care”3 means a combination of respect, admiration, and rigorous standards What is needed, as described by researcher Rosalie Rolón-Dow,4 is critical care that responds to students’ actual personal lives and to the institutional barriers they encounter as members of racialized groups Teachers must understand individual students within their concrete sociopolitical contexts and devise specific pedagogical and curricular strategies to help them navigate those contexts successfully This work begins when we ask what it means to “care.” Nice is Not Enough 267 Notes Ginley, M (1999), “Being nice is not enough.” In S Nieto, The light in their eyes (pp 85–86) New York: Teachers College Press For a review of the research, see Nieto, S (2004) Affirming diversity: The sociopolitical context of multicultural education Boston: Allyn & Bacon Noddings, N (1992) The challenge to care in schools: An alternative approach to education New York: Teachers College Press; Valenzuela, A (1998) Subtractive schooling; U.S.-Mexican youth and the politics of caring Albany: State University of New York Press Rolón-Dow, R (2005) Critical care: A color(full) analysis of care narratives in the schooling experiences of Puerto Rican girls American Educational Research Journal, 42 (1), 77–111 Critical Questions Why you think that it is so difficult for some people to discuss race, inequality, and privilege? How can this difficulty be addressed? Reread Mary Ginley’s piece and think about what suggestions you would give for “going beyond niceness” to the kinds of teachers she is describing Describe some uncomfortable situations you have had with discussions of race, inequality, and privilege What might help educators with difficult conversations about inequality? Activity for Your Classroom Create a lesson plan for your classroom context—keeping in mind the subject area you teach and the developmental level of your students—on addressing race and inequality in a forthright and honest way See the below Supplementary Resources for Further Reflection and Study for ideas Community-Based Activity and Advocacy Initiate a reading group on discussions of race and inequality in schools Begin with the Mica Pollock book listed below Given its size (over 50 brief essays), you may want to tackle a few at each meeting You might also ask each teacher to write an essay about their own (successful or unsuccessful) experiences of addressing issues of race and inequality Supplementary Resources for Further Reflection and Study Cushman, K (2005) Fires in the bathroom: Advice to teachers from high school students New York: The New Press This book offers compelling reflections on teaching teenagers in urban schools from the point of view of the students themselves The text provides both novice and veteran teachers with insights into who their students are and what they need to succeed 268 Praxis in the Classroom Nieto, S (1999) The light in their eyes: Creating multicultural learning communities New York: Teachers College Press Going beyond curriculum integration, this book reviews the social context of education, the manifestations of educational inequity in classrooms, and the influence of culture on learning Centering on multicultural education as a transformative and critical pedagogy, the text also includes reflections of teachers who have undergone this process and whose experiences may serve as models for other teachers Pollock, M (2008) Everyday antiracism: Concrete ways to successfully navigate the relevance of race in school New York: The New Press This compilation, which includes the chapter you have just read, includes brief reflections by researchers and teachers about specific ways to confront the issues of race and racism in classrooms and schools The more than 50 authors describe concrete ways to deal with racial inequality and teach to high standards across racial lines Rethinking Schools, v 23, n (2008) Special section on Language, Race, and Power Issues of race and language are often on the front burner in classrooms, yet they get little attention in the media The six essays in this section, led off by a powerful article, “Putting Out the Linguistic Welcome Mat,” by Rethinking Schools editor, Linda Christensen, argue for critique and inclusion—with race at the center 14 What Does it Mean to Affirm Diversity in Our Nation’s Schools? Affirming diversity, as you know from the readings in this book, is not simply a question of having a special assembly about Chinese New Year or making a few curricular changes It is, instead, a transformative project that concerns our society’s commitment to social justice, our schools’ responsibility to fulfill its pledge of equal opportunity for all students, and our teachers’ knowledge, attitudes, values, and beliefs concerning their students’ identities and abilities If this is the case, then the question posed in the title of the article below needs to be answered in a more broad-based way than might be evident at first glance That is, affirming diversity needs to be approached as personal, collective, and institutional change In this chapter, I propose five realities that educators need to understand in order to create schools that are effective for all students As you read, think about the journey you have taken until now in your effort to affirm diversity About 15 years ago, I was interviewing a young woman for admission to our multicultural teacher education program and I asked her why she had chosen to apply for this particular program (At the time, we had a number of undergraduate teacher preparation programs from which students could choose) The young woman, let’s call her Nancy, mentioned that she was doing a prepracticum at Marks Meadow School, the laboratory school of our School of Education at the University of Massachusetts Marks Meadow is an extraordinarily diverse place with children from every corner of the globe representing multiple languages and various social and economic backgrounds When the children in her 1st-grade classroom were doing self-portraits, one of them asked Nancy for a brown crayon She was momentarily confounded by his request, thinking Why brown? It never before had occurred to her that children would make their faces anything other than the color of the white paper they used “I decided then and there that I needed this program,” she confessed As naive as her reaction was, it was the beginning of Nancy’s awakening to diversity It was also a courageous disclosure of her own ignorance 270 Praxis in the Classroom Ill-Prepared for Diversity It is by now a truism that our country’s public schools are undergoing a dramatic shift that reflects the growing diversity of our population Yet many educators and the schools in which they work seem no better prepared for this change than was Nancy a decade and a half ago Most educators nationwide are very much like Nancy: white, middle-class, monolingual English-speaking women and men who have had little direct experience with cultural, ethnic, linguistic or other kinds of diversity, but they are teaching students who are phenomenally diverse in every way Given this scenario, what educators—teachers, aides, curriculum developers, principals, superintendents and school board members—need to know to create effective schools for students of all backgrounds, and how can they learn it? Let me suggest five realities that educators need to appreciate and understand if this is to happen: Affirming Diversity is Above All About Social Justice Contrary to what the pundits who oppose multicultural education might say, multicultural education is not about political correctness, sensitivity training or ethnic cheerleading It is primarily about social justice Given the vastly unequal educational outcomes among students of different backgrounds, equalizing conditions for student learning needs to be at the core of a concern for diversity If this is the case, “celebrating diversity” through special assembly programs, multicultural dinners or ethnic celebrations are hollow activities if they not also confront the structural inequalities that exist in schools A concern for social justice means looking critically at why and how our schools are unjust for some students It means that we need to analyze school policies and practices that devalue the identities of some students while overvaluing others: the curriculum, testing, textbooks and materials, instructional strategies, tracking, the recruitment and hiring of staff and parent involvement strategies All of these need to be viewed with an eye toward making them more equitable for all students, not just those students who happen to be white, middle class and English speaking Students of Color and Poor Students Bear the Brunt of Structural Inequality Schools inevitably reflect society, and the evidence that our society is becoming more unequal is growing every day We have all read the headlines: The United States has one of the highest income disparities in the world, and the combined wealth of the top percent of U.S families is about the same as the entire bottom 80 percent Growing societal inequities are mirrored in numerous ways in schools, from highly disparate financing of schools in rich and poor communities, to academic tracking that favors white above black and brown students, to SAT scores that Affirm Diversity in Our Nation’s Schools 271 correlate perfectly with income rather than with intelligence or ability Although it is a worthy goal, equality is far from a reality in most of our schools, and those who bear the burden of inequality are our children, particularly poor children of all backgrounds and many children of Latino, Native American, Asian American and African American backgrounds The result is schools that are racist and classist, if not by intention, at least by result Inequality is a fact of life, but many educators refuse to believe or accept it, and they persist in blaming children, their families, their cultural and linguistic backgrounds, laziness or genetic inferiority as the culprits Once educators accept the fact that inequality is alive and thriving in our schools, they can proceed to something about it Until they do, little will change Below are examples of how educators can learn to address diversity in a more positive way Positive Acculturation Diversity is a Valuable Resource I went to elementary school in Brooklyn, N.Y., during the 1950s My classmates were enormously diverse in ethnicity, race, language, social class and family structure But even then, we were taught as if we were all cut from the same cloth Our mothers were urged to speak to us in English at home (fortunately, my mother never paid attention, and it is because of this that I am fluent in Spanish today), and we were given the clear message that anything having to with our home cultures was not welcome in school To succeed in school, we needed to learn English, forget our native language and behave like the kids we read about in our basal readers Of course, learning English and learning it well is absolutely essential for academic and future life success, but the assumption that one must discard one’s identity along the way needs to be challenged There is nothing shameful in knowing a language other than English In fact, becoming bilingual can benefit individuals and our country in general As educators, we no longer can afford to behave as if diversity were a dirty word Every day, more research underscores the positive influence that cultural and linguistic diversity has on student learning Immigrant students who maintain a positive ethnic identity as they acculturate and who become fluent bilinguals are more likely to have better mental health, well academically and graduate from high school than those who completely assimilate Yet we insist on erasing cultural and linguistic differences as if they were a burden rather than an asset Effectively Teaching Students of All Backgrounds Means Respecting and Affirming Who They Are To become effective teachers of all students, educators must undergo a profound shift in their beliefs, attitudes and values about difference In many U.S classrooms, cultural, linguistic and other differences are commonly viewed as temporary, if troublesome, barriers to learning Consequently, 272 Praxis in the Classroom students of diverse backgrounds are treated as walking sets of deficiencies, as if they had nothing to bring to the educational enterprise Anybody who has walked into a classroom knows that teaching and learning are above all about relationships, and these relationships can have a profound impact on students’ futures But significant relationships with students are difficult to develop when teachers have little understanding of the students’ families and communities The identities of non–mainstream students frequently are dismissed by schools and teachers as immaterial to academic achievement When this is the case, it is unlikely that students will form positive relationships with their teachers or, as a result, with learning It is only when educators and schools accept and respect who their students are and what they know that they can begin to build positive connections with them Affirming Diversity Means Becoming a Multicultural Person Over the years, I have found that educators believe they are affirming diversity simply because they say they are But mouthing the words is not enough Children sense instantly when support for diversity is superficial Because most educators in the United States have not had the benefit of firsthand experiences with diversity, it is a frightening concept for many of them If we think of teaching as a lifelong journey of personal transformation, becoming a multicultural person is part of the journey It is different for each person For Nancy, it began with recognition of her own ignorance For others, it means learning a second language or working collaboratively with colleagues to design more effective strategies of reaching all students However we begin the journey, until we take those tentative first steps, what we say about diversity is severely limited by our actions Comfort with Differences Taking these realities to heart means we no longer can think of some students as void of any dignity and worth simply because they not confirm to our conventional image All students of all backgrounds bring talents and strengths to their learning and as educators we need to find ways to build on these Acknowledging and affirming diversity is in everyone’s interest, including middle-class white students Understanding people of other backgrounds, speaking languages other than English and learning to respect and appreciate differences are skills that benefit all students and our nation as a whole We all our students a disservice when we prepare them to live in a society that no longer exists Given the tremendous diversity in our society, it makes eminent good sense to educate all our students to be comfortable with differences Critical Questions Do you agree with the five realities I have suggested that educators need to know in order to be effective with their students? Why or why not? Affirm Diversity in Our Nation’s Schools 273 Develop your own list of essential understandings that educators need in order to affirm diversity How might your school be different if the principal, other administrators, teachers, and all school staff knew and believed the five realities that are proposed? Give concrete examples Activity for Your Classroom How far have you progressed in learning to affirm diversity? Do a fishbowl exercise in which you and several other course participants discuss some of the changes in attitudes and beliefs you have experienced in the past few months Describe some of the changes you have made in your classroom, and evaluate how effective those changes have been Discuss as well some of the projects you have in mind for the future Community-Based Activities and Advocacy Join the PTO or PTA of your school and present some ideas that you think can lead to a more effective school climate for more students Suggest some of the changes that you believe are needed and present them to your school committee or local board of education Think about some of the ways that your school, school system, or state discredits or disadvantages some students Is there an “English-Only” policy in your school? Are the Special Education classrooms in the basement? Who is on the hiring committees at the district level? Are textbooks representative of the U.S population? Has there been a recent effort to away with statemandated bilingual education? Consider how you can be involved in making change at each of these levels Take on one of these issues and write about the results of your involvement Supplementary Resources for Further Reflection and Study Bigelow, B., Christensen, L., Karp, S., Miner, B., & Peterson, B (Eds.) (1994) Rethinking our classrooms: Teaching for equity and justice Milwaukee: Rethinking Schools; and Bigelow, B., Harvey, B., Karp, S., and Miller, L (Eds.) (2001) Rethinking our classrooms: Teaching for equity and justice, vol Milwaukee: Rethinking Schools These two books are a treasure trove of classroom-tested ideas written by classroom teachers and based on a social justice conception of multicultural education Also, visit www.rethinkingschools.org for their many other publications Landsman, J., & Lewis, C W (Eds.) (2006) White teachers, diverse classrooms: A guide to building inclusive schools, promoting high expectations, and eliminating racism New York: Stylus Publishing With numerous examples of practical strategies and sage advice for teachers and administrators on ways to improve the education of students of color, 274 Praxis in the Classroom the book addresses such issues as White privilege, multicultural education, institutional racism, and the challenges of educating minority students in predominantly White schools Lee, E., Menkart, D., & Okazawa-Rey, M (2006) Beyond heroes and holidays: A practical guide to K-12 anti-racist, multicultural education and staff development, updated edition Washington, DC: Teaching for Change After developing a conceptual basis for anti-racist multicultural education, this book tackles the difficult job of actual implementation in classrooms It is written for and by teachers of classrooms and professional development activities Index Abi-Nader, J 186 ability grouping 29, 76, 162, 177–8, 250–1, 256 acceptance 253–5 “achievement gap” 90–7, 218, 227; definition 46–9; care, achievement and social capital 96–7; cultural incompatibility theory 93; economic and social reproduction 92–3; genetic and cultural inferiority 91–2; language 116–19, 146–7; race and ethnicity 48–9, 91–2, 218, 227; resistance theory 95–6; sociocultural explanations 93–4; students as castelike minorities 94–5 Adams, D et al 117, 147, 148 Adel, B W 236 adequate yearly progress (AYP) 27, 59, 60 adoption 202–5 affirming diversity 257–61, 270–3 agency 5–7, 81, 189 Allman, W F 127 Amrein, A I 227 Amses, B 231 antiracist education 68–72 Anyon, J 48, 228 Appiah, A 10 Apple, M W 5, 92–3 Arvizu, S F 10, 137, 200 Ashton-Warner, S 82 assessment 29, 58–9, 151, 178–80, 227, 238–9 Au, K H 93, 153 AYP see adequate yearly progress “back to basics” 57, 72 Baker, J 237 Baldwin, J 14 Ballentine, D 81 Banks, C A M 91–2 Banks, J A 80, 102–3 Baratz, J C 93 Baratz, S S 93 Bartolomé, L 176 Baumann, G 212 Bempechat, J 178 Berieter, C 91 Berliner, D C 48, 227, 228 biculturalism 143–4, 202–5, 209, 210 Bigler, E 103 bilingual education 14–15, 16, 119–24; definition 120; additive perspective 119, 125, 141; developmental/maintenance approach 121, 256–7; effectiveness 121–2; equity 99–101, 104, 120; integration 123; as mediator 168; research 121–4; subtractive form 119–20, 141; teachers 123, 124, 253; transitional approach 120–1, 254–5; two-way bilingual programs 121, 122, 123 Bilingual Education Act (1968) 100, 104 bilingualism 12–13, 15; context 13–14; home language use 100, 118, 122, 146–7, 188; as resource 8, 114–15, 117–18, 123–4 Black English 117–18, 141–2, 147 Boston Globe 59 Bourdieu, P 7, 141 Bowles, S 92 Boykin, A W 151–2 bridges 17 Brown, John 70 Brown v Board of Education (1954) 99 bullying 202–3, 206–7, 209, 211–12 caring for students of color 264–7 Carnegie, A 82 Castañeda, A 148–9 Cazabon, M et al 123 Center on Educational Policy 58 child-centred education 82–3 child-rearing practices and learning 148–50 Christian Science Monitor 43 Civil Rights Movement 73, 75, 100 Civil Rights Project 59 276 Index Cochran-Smith, M 71 collaborative learning 5, 17, 32, 121, 123, 151 Collier, V P 118, 121–2, 148 Comber, B 80 Comenius, J A 28 Commins, N L 168 communication process explanation 150 community 15–18 Compton-Lilly, C 83 context 13–15, 29, 139–40 Cope, B 257 Cordasco, F 105 Corson, D 14, 117 Cowhey, M 61, 83, 235–6 Crawford, J 101 critical biculturalism 144 critical care 266 critical literacy 80–1 critical pedagogy 79–83, 103, 189 critical thinking 163, 189, 190, 192n3 critique 257–61 cultural capital 7–8, 141–2 cultural congruence 93 cultural identity 8, 9–13, 19, 138–9, 200–1 cultural incompatibility theory 93, 166–7 cultural literacy 57 “cultural sensitivity” 184 culturally relevant teaching 93 culturally responsive pedagogy 13, 93, 153–4, 175–6, 218 culture 136–46; context 139–40; dialectical 144–6; dynamic 137–8; essentialist notions 153; ethnicity 138–9; language as culture 146–8; learned 143–4; multifaceted 138–9; social class 139; social construction 142–3; social, economic, political factors 137, 140–6; see also culture, language and learning; language, literacy and culture culture, language and learning 122, 148–55; child-rearing practices 148–50; home–school discontinuities 150–2; implications 154–5; responses to cultural discontinuities 152–4 culture of liberation 145–6 culture of survival 145 Cummins, J 95, 117, 163, 185 curriculum 28–9, 33, 44, 56; ethnocentrism 57, 70, 72–3, 79–82; health and identity 207; history 42, 56–7, 70, 72–3, 74, 79–82, 171, 256; inclusion 73–5, 210, 256; integration 252, 254, 256, 259; literature 73, 75, 79; math 58, 60, 219; reading 58, 60, 81; relevance 166; “sanitizing” 69–70; “silencing” 69, 170; standardsconscious 60; standards-driven 60; students’ views 166–72; traditional educational canon 56–7, 72, 250 D’Amico, J J 47–9 Darling-Hammond, L 229 deficit theories 49, 91–2, 161–2 Delpit, L democracy 32, 45, 77, 89, 105 Derman-Sparks, L et al 74, 83 desegregation 76, 98–9, 104 Dewey, J 5, 76, 77, 89, 103, 106 Deyhle, D 150, 152 Díaz, E et al 17, 187 difference 39, 42, 171–2 discrimination 19; antidiscrimination 68–72; students’ views 180–4; teachers’ views 40, 170–1; see also racism diversity xi, 226–7, 240; affirming diversity 257–61, 270–3 Dolson, D 146–7 Donaldson, K 71, 181 Dorfman, A 12–13 Du Bois, W E B 82, 98, 106 Dunn, B 126, 238–9 economic and social reproduction theory 92–3 education 28; learner-centred 82–3 Education Trust 43, 227 educational failure 39, 95 educational inequality xiv–xv, 58, 105–6 educational structures 43–4, 49 Elliott, Paula 11 Engelmann, S 91 “English-only” policies 43–4, 115, 117, 118, 146, 147, 167, 188 Equal Education Movement 73 equal educational opportunity 98–103; bilingual education 99–101, 104, 120; desegregation 76, 98–9, 104; multicultural education 76, 101–3, 104 equality 45, 57, 77 equity 1, 45, 99–101, 104, 120 Erickson, F 13, 95, 138, 139, 140, 143, 150, 153, 212 ESL (English as a Second Language) 100, 119, 120, 122, 253, 254 Estrin, E T 14 ethic of care 96–7 ethics 59–60, 77 ethnicity 50, 51–3t, 54f 55, 74, 90; “achievement gap” 48–9, 91–2, 218, 227; culture 138–9; identity 200, 202–5, 210; segregation 55, 98, 99, 104, 219–20, 228; teachers 56, 76, 220, 240 expectations of students 30, 47–8, 78, 96, 162, 178 experience 7–9, 30–1, 82, 117, 184–8 Index “Facing History and Ourselves” (FHAO) curriculum 171 FairTest 59 Falk, B 229 family: bilingualism 100, 118, 122, 146–7, 188; collaboration with school 17, 76, 78; deficit theories 49; home–school discontinuities 150–4; literacy 4; resistance theory 95–6 Fine, M 69, 96, 170, 171 Flores-González, N 96 Fordham, S 94–5 Foucault, M 235 Fránquiz, M 125 Frau-Ramos, M 178 Freire, P 5, 19, 28, 76, 80, 82, 142, 225 Gándara, P 118 Gavins, A 237 Gay, G 80, 93 Gibson, M A 117, 152, 187 Ginley, M 8, 190, 232–4, 237, 265 Gintis, H 92 Giroux, H 19, 71, 77, 95, 105 goals of multicultural education 30, 44–5 González, J 221 Gonzalez, N 18 Goodlad, J I 177 Gordon, M 138 Gould, S J 236 Gourd, K 146 grading policies 178–80 Grant, C A 102, 166 Greene, M 18, 235 group work 174 Gutmann, A 104 Haberman, M 172 habits of mind 28 Hallinan, M 179 Heath, S B 93–4, 139, 151, 200–1 heroes 69–70, 74, 252 Hess, F M 230 Hidalgo, N M 162, 182 high school dropout rate 49, 59, 96 Hill, L 81 Hilliard, A 149–50 Hirsch, E D 5, 57, 73 history curriculum: ethnocentrism 70, 72–3, 79–82; “Facing History and Ourselves” (FHAO) 171; history of racism 42; history of U.S 56–7, 70, 79–82; history of women 74; honesty 256; social construction 142–3 history of multicultural education 101–2 history of public education 88, 89 “Holidays and Heroes” approach 1, 69–70, 164, 193n5, 253 home–school discontinuities 150–4 homosexuality 74, 205–8, 236 Howard, G R 240 Howe, I 42 identity 39, 199–212; adoption 202–5; bullying 202–3, 206–7, 209, 211–12; clothing 206; cultural identity 8, 9–13, 19, 138–9, 200–1; ethnicity 200, 202–5, 210; freedom of expression 206; homosexuality 74, 205–8, 236; hybridity 10–13, 201, 202–5, 210–12; immigrants 201; implications of complex identities 208–10; peer association 204, 205, 209; see also culture Igoa, C 126 Ima, K 152 immigration 50, 54t 55, 90, 113; experiences 80, 94–5, 97, 99; identity 201; involuntary 95; involuntary immigration 94; myths 42; race 97; voluntary immigration 94–5 improvisation 237 inclusion 40, 69, 73–5, 207–8, 209–10, 256 Independent School District v Salvatierra (Texas, 1930) 99 inequality 77, 228, 271–2; educational inequality xiv–xv, 58, 105–6 intercultural education movement 101 intergroup education movement 101 Jenoure, S 234–5 Jenoure, T 237 Jensen, A R 91 John S and James L Knight Foundation 77 Kalantzis, M et al 9, 135, 145, 257 Katz, M B 92 KEEP (Kamehameha Elementary Education Program) 153 Kelly, R 190 key terms 45–9; “achievement gap” 46–9; deficit theories 49; equality and equity 45; social justice 46 Kiang, P 185–6 King, Martin Luther, Jr 70 Kiser, S 146 knowledge 5, 79 Kohl, H 18–19, 95, 170 Kozol, J 69–70, 105, 142–3, 171 Krashen, S 124 Kymlicka, W 45 labels 36, 91–2, 200, 208, 238 Ladson-Billings, G 13, 93, 98, 143–4 Lambert, W E 119, 125 language as culture 146–8 277 278 Index language, literacy and culture 1–4; sociocultural perspective 3–19 language maintenance 146 language minority students: “Englishonly” policies 43–4, 115, 117, 118, 146, 147, 167, 188; research 121–4, 146–8; school achievement 116–19, 146–7; teaching approaches 119–21; teaching implications 124–6; see also bilingual education Lau v Nichols (1974) 100, 120 Laureano, Marta 146 learning: collaborative learning 5, 17, 32, 121, 123, 151; multicultural perspective 45; as social practice 15; see also culture, language and learning learning environment 46, 250, 252, 254, 255–6, 258–9 learning preferences 150 learning styles 148–50 Lee, C D 141–2 Lee, E et al 45, 83 Lee, J 59 Lee, V W-F 185–6 Lerner, A 221 Lima, A 237 Lincoln, Abraham 70 linguicism 115 linguistic diversity 112–27; awareness of linguicism 115; bilingualism as resource 8, 114–15, 117–18, 123–4; native language and school achievement 116–19, 146–7; research 121–4, 146–8; role in multicultural education 116; in schools and society 55, 90, 99–100, 113; sociopolitical context 118–19, 125–6; teaching approaches 119–21; teaching implications 124–6 literacy: critical literacy 80–1; cultural literacy 57; definition 13; in the home 4; multicultural literacy 31, 73; native language 117–18, 126; see also language, literacy and culture literature 73, 75, 79 Locust, C 19 Loewen, J W 79 Lucas, T et al 163 McDermott, R P 18, 92 McLaughlin, M 200 Mann, H 27, 88, 89, 106 Marquez, Y 232 Martínez, H 181 math curriculum 58, 60, 219 Mead, S 228 Mehan, H 151, 177 Meier, D 28 Meier, K J et al 220 Méndez v Westminster (California 1945) 99 Mercado, C I 16 metalinguistic awareness 147–8 Minicucci, C et al 126 mission 231–4 Moll, L 18, 118 monocultural education 56, 67, 73, 79, 249–51 Moses, R P 45 multicultural education 217–21, 247–62; definition 67–8, 218; acceptance 253–5; affirmation, solidarity, critique 257–61; approaches 102; “calculus” 219; critical pedagogy 79–83, 103, 189; dimensions 102–3; goals 44–5; history of multicultural education 101–2; “Holidays and Heroes” approach 1, 69–70, 164, 193n5, 253; levels of support 248–9, 251–62; linguistic diversity 116; respect 255–7, 272–3; school funding 221; segregation 219–20; teachers 220; tolerance 247–8, 251–3; see also key terms; multicultural education and school reform; sociopolitical context of multicultural education Multicultural Education 252 multicultural education and school reform 66–83, 163; definition 67–8; antiracist education 68–72; basic education 72–3; critical pedagogy 79–83, 103; inclusion 73–5; philosophy 76; process 78; social justice 76–7; see also sociopolitical context of multicultural education multicultural literacy 31, 73 National Assessment of Education Progress (NAEP) 59, 147 National Coalition of Advocates for Students 152, 188 National Commission on Teaching and America’s Future 229 National Council of Churches 59–60 Nelson-Barber, S 14 Newmann, F M 163 Nieto, S 5–6, 8, 10–11, 13–14, 15, 16, 18, 122, 126, 136, 163, 178, 229 No Child Left Behind (NCLB) 48, 58–60; effects of NCLB 59–60; ethical concerns 59–60; teachers’ responsibilities 60; teaching to the test 58–9, 227 Noddings, N 96 Ogbu, J U 94–5 Olsen, L 189, 201, 211 oppositional culture 95 Index Orfield, G 49, 55, 104, 220, 228 Ovando, C 146 pedagogy: critical pedagogy 79–83, 103, 189; culturally responsive pedagogy 13, 93, 153–4, 175–6, 218; linguistic diversity 119–21, 124–6; role of good teaching 228–9; students’ views 5–6, 172–6 Pellerin-Duck, M 231, 237–8 Peterson, S 235 Phelan, P et al 166, 174 Philips, S 150–1 Phinney, J 152 Poplin, M 166, 181, 188 Portes, A 97, 101, 118 positionality 13–15 poverty 48, 55–6, 90, 172 power 7, 12, 14, 19, 39, 77, 115, 136, 163 praise 175–6 praxis 76 privilege 39 professional development 254, 256, 260 Provenzo, E F Jr 57, 73 public education 41, 88–106; achievement theories 90–7: (care, achievement and social capital 96–7; cultural incompatibility theory 93; economic and social reproduction 92–3; genetic and cultural inferiority 91–2; resistance theory 95–6; sociocultural explanations 93–4; students as castelike minorities 94–5); equal educational opportunity 98–103: (bilingual education 99–101, 104, 120; desegregation 76, 98–9, 104; multicultural education 76, 101–3, 104); history of public education 88, 89; newer perspectives 97; racial and ethnic diversity 90; see also school policies and practices; schools, purpose of Public Education Network and Education Week 41 Quality Counts 47 questioning rituals 93–4 racism 19; definition 266; “achievement gap” 48–9, 91–2, 218, 227; antiracist education 68–72; caring for students of color 264–7; and cultural mismatch 93; history 42; ideology 43; nice is not enough 264–7; segregation 55, 98, 99, 104, 219–20, 228; students’ views 180–4, 202–3; teachers’ attitudes 40, 69, 70, 71, 170–1, 251, 253 Ramirez, M 148–9 Ramírez, R 145–6 Ramsey, P G 102, 103 reading 58, 60, 81 Reissman, F 91 resistance theory 95–6 “resource gap” 47, 227 respect 255–7, 272–3 Rethinking Schools 83 Reyes, M de la Luz 125, 176 Roberto Alvarez v Lemon Grove (California, 1931) 99 Rodriquez, R Rolón-Dow, R 266 Romberg, R 201 Rothstein, R 42, 48, 228 Ruiz, R 146 Rumbaut, R G 97, 101, 118, 152 Ryan, W 91 Sánchez, G I 98, 106 Santos Rivera, I 189–90 Saravia-Shore, M 181 school policies and practices 160–92; affirming students’ languages, cultures, experiences 82, 117, 184–8; curriculum 28–9, 33, 44, 166–72; “English-only” policies 43–4, 115, 117, 118, 146, 147, 167, 188; funding 43, 49, 91–2, 105, 221, 227; governance 260–1; grading policies 178–80; language minority students 126; listen to students 188–90; pedagogy 172–6; power relations 163; racism and discrimination 180–4; school reform 163; sociopolitical context 162, 165–6; students’ views 163–84, 188–92; tracking/ability grouping 162, 177–8; see also multicultural education and school reform schools, purpose of 27–33; assessment 29; collaboration 32; context 29; curriculum 28–9, 33; democracy 32; expectations of students 30; experience 30–1; goals 30; multicultural literacy 31; teacher–student relationships 32–3; vision 28; see also public education; school policies and practices second language acquisition 124, 148 segregation 55, 98, 99, 104, 219–20, 228 self-respect 192 Shor, I 14, 81, 83, 166 Singham, M 47 situatedness 13–15 Skutnabb-Kangas, T 115 Slaughter-Defoe, D T 141–2 Sleeter, C E 60, 80, 102, 166, 170 Smitherman, G 147 Snow, C 118 social action 81, 189 social capital 96–7, 141 279 280 Index social class 138 social justice 1, 46, 71, 76–7, 82, 219–20, 237–9, 271 social networks 96 social reproduction theory 92–3 sociocultural mediators 17, 187 sociocultural theory 3–19; achievement 93–4; agency/co-constructed learning 5–7; community 15–18; context/ situatedness/positionality 13–15; experience 7–9; identity/hybridity 9–13 sociopolitical context of multicultural education 38–61; definitions 41–4, 67–8; “back to basics” 57; difference 39, 42; educational structures 43–4, 49; goals 44–5; identity 39; immigration 42; inclusion 40; linguistic diversity 118–19, 125–6; NCLB and standards 58–60; power 39; privilege 39; public education 41; teacher preparation 220, 225–8; teachers 40–1, 42, 61, 165–6; traditional educational canon 56–7, 72, 250; U.S schools and society 50–6, 226; see also key terms solidarity 257–61 Solsken, J W 13, 17–18 Soo Hoo, S 188–9 Soto, L D 118, 147 Spring, J 92 standards 58–60 Stanton-Salazar, R D 96–7, 220 Steele, C M 95 Stein, A 7, 160, 177, 180, 184, 192 Stinson, E 234, 235 students of color 264–7 students’ views 163–84, 188–92; cultural ambivalence 169–70; curriculum 166–72; grading policies 178–80; implications for transformation of schools 184; listen to students 188–90; pedagogy 5–6, 172–6; racism and discrimination 180–4, 202–3; tracking/ ability grouping 177–8, 254 Swisher, K 150 Takaki, R 80–1 Tatum, B D 43, 71, 180 Taylor, A R 180 teacher preparation 78, 225–41; racism 71–2; role of good teaching 228–9; sociopolitical context 220, 225–8; “Why We Teach” project 229–39; lessons learned 239–41; see also professional development teachers: attitudes to racism/ discrimination 40, 69, 70, 71, 170–1, 251, 253; of bilingual education 123, 124, 253; and curriculum 60; ethnicity 56, 76, 220, 240; expectations of students 30, 47–8, 78, 96, 162, 178; inclusion 207–8, 209–10; of language minority students 124–6; and NCLB 58–9, 60, 227; professional development 254, 256, 260; roles 60, 61, 78, 155; sociopolitical context 40–1, 42, 61, 165–6; see also “Why We Teach” project teacher–student relationships 18, 32–3, 78, 92, 96–7, 220, 234–5 Teaching for Change 83 Teixeira, R 179 Tepper, N 231, 237 Thomas, W P 121–2 tolerance 247–8, 251–3 Torres-Guzmán, M 172 tracking/ability grouping 29, 76, 162, 250–1, 256; “calculus” 219; social tracking 178; students’ views 177–8, 254 Trueba, H T 16, 185 Turner, Nat 70 Tyack, D 105 U.S Census Bureau 50, 55 Valenzuela, A 96 Vasquez, O et al 154 Vasquez, V 81 Villanueva, I 93 177 vision 28 Vygotsky, L S 15, 16 Warfield, K 232 Weeres, J 166, 181, 188 Weinberg, M 69, 266 Welborn, J 232, 236 “Why We Teach” project 229–39; characteristics and dispositions 230–1; courage to question 235–7; improvisation 237; sense of mission 231–4; social justice 237–9; solidarity and empathy for students 234–5 Willett, J 17–18 Williams, L R 102, 103 Williams, S W 118 Wilson Keenan, J 17–18 Witkin, H A 149 Wong Fillmore, L 122 Woodson, C G 82, 98 Yon, D A 201 Zanger, V V 170, 178, 181 Zentella, A C 118 Zinn, H 80 Zirkel, S 220 zone of proximal development (ZPD) 16