learning and teaching languages through content 9027219745

Learning and Teaching Languages Through Content Language Learning and Language Teaching The LL< monograph series publishes monographs as well as edited volumes on applied and methodological issues in the field of language pedagogy The focus of the series is on subjects such as classroom discourse and interaction; language diversity in educational settings; bilingual education; language testing and language assessment; teaching methods and teaching performance; learning trajectories in second language acquisition; and written language learning in educational settings Series editors Nina Spada Ontario Institute for Studies in Education, University of Toronto Jan H Hulstijn Department of Second Language Acquisition, University of Amsterdam Volume 18 Learning and Teaching Languages Through Content A counterbalanced approach by Roy Lyster Learning and Teaching Languages Through Content A counterbalanced approach Roy Lyster McGill University John Benjamins Publishing Company Amsterdam/Philadelphia TM The paper used in this publication meets the minimum requirements of American National Standard for Information Sciences – Permanence of Paper for Printed Library Materials, ansi z39.48-1984 Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data Roy Lyster Learning and teaching languages through content : a counterbalanced approach / Roy Lyster p cm (Language Learning and Language Teaching, issn 1569–9471 ; v 18) Includes bibliographical references Language and languages Study and teaching I Title P51.L97 2007 407.1 dc22 isbn 978 90 272 1974 (Hb; alk paper) isbn 978 90 272 1976 (Pb; alk paper) 2007004379 © 2007 – John Benjamins B.V No part of this book may be reproduced in any form, by print, photoprint, microfilm, or any other means, without written permission from the publisher John Benjamins Publishing Co · P.O Box 36224 · 1020 me Amsterdam · The Netherlands John Benjamins North America · P.O Box 27519 · Philadelphia pa 19118-0519 · usa For Bertha, George, and James Table of contents Tables and figures Preface chapter Introduction Emphasizing language in content-based instruction 2 Characteristics and contexts of content-based instruction Research on outcomes of immersion education 11 3.1 First language development and academic achievement 12 3.2 Social-psychological outcomes 13 3.3 Second language outcomes 14 Theoretical perspectives 18 Purpose of this book 22 chapter Instructional practices at the interface of language and content Incidental focus on language 26 1.1 Linguistic challenges 29 1.1.1 Verb system 31 1.1.2 Second-person pronouns 33 1.1.3 Grammatical gender 36 Decontextualized grammar instruction 38 Form-focused instruction 43 3.1 Proactive approaches 44 3.2 Reactive approaches 47 Literacy instruction 50 4.1 Sequencing instruction in two languages 50 4.2 Whole language and process writing 51 4.3 Vocabulary and reading instruction 54 4.4 Language across the curriculum 56 Summary 57 ix xi 25  Learning and teaching languages through content chapter Processing language through content Comprehension 59 Awareness 63 Production 71 3.1 Content-based tasks 72 3.2 Form-focused tasks 75 3.3 Skill acquisition through practice Summary 85 59 78 chapter Negotiating language through content Whole-class interaction 87 IRF exchanges and teacher questions 89 Negotiated scaffolding and feedback 92 3.1 Recasting 93 3.2 Negotiation for meaning 102 3.3 Negotiation of form 107 3.3.1 Prompting 109 3.3.2 Self-repair 116 3.4 Classroom intervention studies 120 Counterbalanced feedback 122 chapter Counterbalanced instruction Why a counterbalanced approach? 126 1.1 Support from research on proactive approaches 127 1.2 Support from research on reactive approaches 129 Engaging with language across the curriculum 133 Conclusion 137 References Author index Subject index 87 125 139 163 167 JB[v.20020404] Prn:29/01/2007; 15:05 F: LLLT18TF.tex / p.1 (47-93) Tables and figures Table 1: Table 2: Table 3: Figure 1: Figure 2: Figure 3: Figure 4: Percentage distribution of verb tenses used by immersion teachers Percentage distribution of tu and vous used by immersion teachers Quasi-experimental studies of form-focused instruction in immersion classrooms 33 Range of contextual support and degree of cognitive involvement in academic tasks Percentage distribution of feedback types in immersion classrooms Percentage distribution of repair across feedback types in immersion classrooms Instructional options to counterbalance 73 35 45 109 132 135 JB[v.20020404] Prn:13/02/2007; 13:43 F: LLLT18RE.tex / p.21 (1950-2043) References Swain, M & Lapkin, S (1990) Aspects of the sociolinguistic performance of early and late French immersion students In R Scarcella, E Andersen, & S Krashen (Eds.), Developing communicative competence in a second language (pp 41–54) New York: Newbury House Swain, M & Lapkin, S (1995) Problems in output and the cognitive processes they generate: A step towards second language learning Applied Linguistics, 16, 370–391 Swain, M., & Lapkin, S (1998) Interaction and second language learning: Two adolescent French immersion students working together The Modern Language Journal, 82, 320– 37 Swain, M., & Lapkin, S (2000) Task-based second language learning: The uses of the first language Language Teaching Research, 4, 253–276 Swain, M., & Lapkin, S (2001) Focus on form through collaborative dialogue: Exploring task effects In M Bygate, P Skehan, & M Swain (Eds.), Researching pedagogic tasks: Second language learning, teaching and testing (pp 99–118) Harlow, UK: Pearson Education Swain, M., & Lapkin, S (2002) Talking it through: Two French immersion learners’ response to reformulation International Journal of Educational Research, 37, 285–304 Swain, M., & Lapkin, S (2005) The evolving sociopolitical context of immersion education in Canada: Some implications for program development International Journal of Applied Linguistics, 15, 169–186 Tardif, C (1991) Quelques traits distinctifs de la pédagogie d’immersion Études de linguistique appliquée, 82, 39–51 Tardif, C (1994) Classroom teacher talk in early immersion The Canadian Modern Language Review, 50, 466–481 Tarone, E & Swain, M (1995) A sociolinguistic perspective on second-language use in immersion classrooms The Modern Language Journal, 79, 166–178 Tharpe, R., & Gallimore, R (1988) Rousing minds to life: Teaching, learning, and schooling in social context New York: Cambridge University Press Tomlin, R., & Villa, V (1994) Attention in cognitive science and second language acquisition Studies in Second Language Acquisition, 16, 183–203 Tourond, M (1982) Tests diagnostiques de lecture Toronto, ON: OISE Press Towell, R & Hawkins, R (1994) Approaches to second language acquisition Clevedon, UK: Multilingual Matters Trahey, M., & White, L (1993) Positive evidence and preemption in the second language classroom Studies in Second Language Acquisition, 15, 181–204 Truscott, J (1999) What’s wrong with oral grammar correction The Canadian Modern Language Review, 55, 437–456 Tsang, W (2004) Feedback and uptake in teacher-student interaction: An analysis of 18 English lessons in Hong Kong secondary classrooms Regional Language Centre Journal, 35, 187–209 Tucker, R., Lambert, W E., & Rigault, A (1977) The French speaker’s skill with grammatical gender: An example of rule-governed behaviour Paris: Mouton Turnbull, M (2001) There is a role for the L1 in second and foreign language teaching, but The Canadian Modern Language Review, 57, 531–540  JB[v.20020404] Prn:13/02/2007; 13:43 F: LLLT18RE.tex / p.22 (2043-2134)  Learning and teaching languages through content Turnbull, M., & Arnett, K (2002) Teachers’ uses of the target and first languages in second and foreign language classrooms Annual Review of Applied Linguistics, 22, 204–218 Turnbull, M., Lapkin, S., & Hart, D (2001) Grade immersion students’ performance in literacy and mathematics: Province-wide results from Ontario (1989–1999) The Canadian Modern Language Review, 58, 9–26 Turnbull, M., Lapkin, S., Hart, D., & Swain, M (1998) Time on task and immersion graduates’ French proficiency In S Lapkin (Ed.), French second language education in Canada: Empirical studies (pp 31–55) Toronto, ON: University of Toronto Press Van den Branden, K (1997) Effects of negotiation on language learners’ output Language Learning, 47, 589–636 van Lier, L (1988) The classroom and the language learner London: Longman VanPatten, B (1990) Attending to content and form in the input: An experiment in consciousness Studies in Second Language Acquisition, 12, 287–301 VanPatten, B (1996) Input processing and grammar instruction: Theory and research Norwood, NJ: Ablex VanPatten, B (Ed.) 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In P Burmeister, T Piske, & A Rohde (Eds.), An integrated view of language development: Papers in honor of Henning Wode (pp 357–375) Trier, Germany: Wissenschaftlicher Verlag Trier JB[v.20020404] Prn:13/02/2007; 13:43 F: LLLT18RE.tex / p.23 (2134-2189) References Wesche, M., & Skehan, P (2002) Communicative, task-based, and content-based language instruction In R Kaplan, (Ed.), The Oxford handbook of applied linguistics (pp 207– 228) Oxford: Oxford University Press White, J (1998) Getting the learners’ attention: A typographical input enhancement study In C Doughty & J Williams (Eds.), Focus on form in classroom second language acquisition (pp 85–113) Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press White, J., & Ranta, L (2002) Examining the interface between metalinguistic task performance and oral production in a second language Language Awareness, 11, 259– 290 White, L (1991) Argument structure in second language acquisition Journal of French Language Studies, 1, 189–207 Williams, J (1999) Learner-generated attention to form Language Learning, 49, 583–625 Williams, J., & Evans, J (1998) What kind of focus and on which forms? In C Doughty & J Williams (Eds.), Focus on form in classroom second language acquisition (pp 139–155) Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press Williams, M & Burden, R (1997) Psychology for language teachers: A social constructivist approach Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press Willis, J (1996) A framework for task-based learning Harlow, UK: Addison Wesley Longman Wood, D., Bruner, J., & Ross, G (1976) The role of tutoring in problem solving Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 17, 89–100 Wright, R (1996) A study of the acquisition of verbs of motion by grade 4/5 early French immersion students The Canadian Modern Language Review, 53, 257–280 Yamauchi, L., & Wilhelm, P (2001) Ola Ka Hawai‘i I Kona ‘Ölelo: Hawaiians live in their language In D Christian & F Genesee (Eds.), Bilingual education (pp 83–94) Alexandria, VA: TESOL  JB[v.20020404] Prn:23/02/2007; 9:32 F: LLLT18AI.tex / p.1 (48-180) Author index A Achugar, M  Aljaafreh, A  Allen, P , , , , , –, , , , ,  Allwright, D  Allwright, R ,  Ammar, A , , ,  Anderson, J ,  Andrew, C  Anton, M  Arkoudis, S  Arnett, K  Artigal, J ,  Arzamendi, J  Aspinwall, L  Astley, H  Aston, G ,  Auger, J ,  August, D ,  Austin, J  B Bachman, L  Bailey, K  Baker, C ,  Baker, S  Bange, P , ,  Bardovi-Harlig, K  Barker, G  Barret, M  Basturkmen, H  Beckett, G H ,  Beniak, É  Benton, R  Bérard, E  Bernhardt, E xi Bialystok, E , , ,  Bibeau, G  Björklund, S  Bjork, E  Bley-Vroman, R  Block, D  Blower, T  Bosquart, M  Bostwick, M  Braidi, S , ,  Brinton, D  Brock, C ,  Broner, M  Bruner, J , ,  Burden, R ,  Burger, S  Burmeister, P  Bygate, M ,  Cloud, N , , , , , ,  Collins, C  Collins, J ,  Cook, V  Corbett, A  Corder, S P ,  Corson, D  Coulthard, R M  Creese, A  Crookes, G  Cross, A E  Cummins, J , , , , , , ,  C CAIT  Caldas, S  Calvé, P  Cameron, L , , , , ,  Canale, M  Carpenter, H , ,  Carroll, S , , –,  Cary, A  Cathcart, R  Cazabon, B  Cenoz, J  Cesnik, H ,  Chabay, R  Chamot, A  Chaudron, C , ,  Chomsky, N  Chrétien, S  Christian, D , , ,  Clément, R  Clark, S  Clipperton, R ,  D Dalton-Puffer, C ,  Daniel, A  Day, E , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , ,  Day, R  de Bot, K ,  DeKeyser, R , , , , , ,  De Pietro, J.-F  deWinstanley, P  DiCamilla, F J  Dicks, J ,  Donaldson, M  Donato, R ,  Donovan, L  Doughty, C , , , , , , ,  Dubin, F  Duff, P  Dumas, G  JB[v.20020404] Prn:23/02/2007; 9:32 F: LLLT18AI.tex / p.2 (180-307)  Author index E Early, M , ,  Echevarria, J ,  Ellis, R , , , , –, , , , , –, ,  Erlam, R ,  Evans, J  F Falodun, J  Fazio, L , ,  Foster, P , ,  Fröhlich, M ,  G Gándara, P  Gallimore, R  Gan, L  Gass, S , , , , ,  Genesee, F , , –, –, , , , , , , , , , , , ,  Germain, C  Gibbons, P , , ,  Giroux, H  Goodenough, D R  Graves, A , ,  Gumperz, J  H Ha, M  Hakuta, K ,  Hall, K  Halter, R  Hamayan, E  Han, Z ,  Handscombe, J ,  Haneda, M , ,  Harley, B , –, , –, , –, , , , , , , , , , , , , , ,  Hart, D , ,  Hartiala, A.-K  Hau, K  Havranek, G , , ,  Hawkins, E ,  Hawkins, R  Hedgcock, J ,  Heller, M  Hendrickson, J  Heredia, R ,  Hickey, T  Hickman, J ,  Hiebert, J  Hobbs, J  Holliday, L  Horst, M  Howard, E ,  Howard, J  Hullen, J  Hulstijn, J ,  Hymes, D  I Ishida, M  Iwashita, N  Izquierdo, J  J Jacob, R  Jacobs, K A  Jefferson, G  Jeon, K S  Jiang, N  Johnson, K –,  Johnson, R , ,  Jones, J  K Kamin, J  Kanagy, R  Kang, H.-S  Karmiloff-Smith, A  Kasper, G ,  King, M , ,  Kleifgen, J  Klein, W  Koedinger, K  Kohn, A  Kong, C , , ,  Kowal, M , ,  Krashen, S , , , ,  L Lévy, L  Lambert, W E , , , , ,  Lamont, D  Langhan, D  Lantolf, J  Lapkin, S , , , , , , , , , ,  Laplante, B ,  Laufer, B ,  Laurin, J  Lavenne, C  Lee, J , , , ,  Leeman, J ,  Lemke, J  Lentz, F  Leow, R  Lepper, M ,  Levinson, S  Lewis, N  Lightbown, P M , , , , , , , , , , , , ,  Lim, S E  Lin, Y.-H ,  Lincoln-Porter, F  Lindholm-Leary, K  Linnell, J  Lochtman, K , ,  Loewen, S , , ,  Logan, G  Long, M , , , , , , , –, , , , , , , , ,  Lorenz, E  Loschky, L  Lyster, R , –, , , –, –, –, , –, –, , , , , , –, , –, –, –, –,  M MacFarlane, A  MacGregor, D  JB[v.20020404] Prn:23/02/2007; 9:32 F: LLLT18AI.tex / p.3 (307-433) Author index  MacIntyre, P  Mackey, A , , , , , , , , , ,  Maljers, A  Marsh, D  Marsh, H  Matthey, M  McCormick, D  McDonough, K , ,  McHoul, A ,  McLaughlin, B –,  Mendez, C  Mercer, N  Met, M , , , , ,  Mey, J  Migneron, M  Mohan, B , ,  Morgenthaler, L  Mori, H , , , , , , , , , , , , –,  Mosychuk, H  Mougeon, R , ,  Muñoz, C  Mumme, D  Muranoi, H  Murphy, V  Musumeci, D , ,  N Nadasdi, T  Nassaji, H ,  Nasso-Maselli, M  Naughton, D  Netten, J , , , , , , ,  Nicholas, H ,  Norris, J , ,  Nunan, D  Nuttall, C  O Ohta, A ,  Oladejo, J  Oliver, R , , ,  Oller, J  Olsen, J  Olshtain, E  Orteíza, T  Ortega, L , ,  Ouellet, M  P Pally, M  Paninos, D  Panova, I , ,  Peal, E  Pelletier, R  Penner, W  Peritz, I  Petit, J  Philp, J , , , ,  Pica, T , , , , , – Py, B  R Ranta, L , , , , , , , , , , –, , ,  Rebuffot, J –, , , ,  Rehner, K ,  Riches, C  Rigault, A  Roberge, B  Roberts, M  Robinson, P ,  Rodgers, D  Ross, G  Rutherford, W  S Sacks, H  Salomone , , , , , , , , ,  Samuda, V  Sato, M  Sauro, S  Saville-Troike, M  Schachter, J  Schegloff, E ,  Schleppegrell, M ,  Schmidt, R , , , ,  Schneider, W  Schulz, R  Schwartz, B  Seedhouse, P  Segalowitz, N , , , ,  Selinker, L  Shapson, S , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , ,  Sharpe, P  Sharwood Smith, M  Sheen, Y , , ,  Shehadeh, A  Shiffrin, R M  Short, D  Sinclair, J  Singh, R  Size-Cazabon, J  Skehan, P , , , , –, –, , , , , ,  Slaughter, H  Slimani, A  Smith, N ,  Snow, M , , , , , , ,  Spada, N , , , , , , , , –, , , , ,  Spain, W , , ,  Stern, H H , ,  Stigler, J  Storch, N  Swain, M –, , , –, , –, –, –, , , , , , , , –, –, , , , –,  T Tardif, C , , , , ,  Tarone, E ,  Tharpe, R  Tomlin, R  Tourond, M  Towell, R  Trahey, M  JB[v.20020404] Prn:23/02/2007; 9:32 F: LLLT18AI.tex / p.4 (433-478)  Author index Truscott, J  Tsang, W , ,  Tucker, R , , , ,  Turnbull, M , ,  V Van den Branden, K  van Lier, L  VanPatten, B , ,  Varela, E , , ,  Varonis, E , ,  Vigil, N  Villa, V  Vygotsky, L S  W Wajnryb, R  Warden, M  Weber, S , , ,  Weiner, S L  Wells, G , ,  Wesche, M , , –, ,  White, J , , , ,  White, L  Wilhelm, P  Williams, J , ,  Williams, M ,  Willis, J  Wood, D  Wright, R , , , , , ,  Y Yamauchi, L,  Young, R  JB[v.20020404] Prn:20/02/2007; 11:04 F: LLLT18SI.tex / p.1 (48-174) Subject index A accuracy , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , ,  achievement , , , , , , , , , ,  all-purpose terms  lexical items  verbs  ambiguity , ,  ambiguous , ,  analysis , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , ,  conversational  (see also discourse) critical  implicit ,  structural ,  (see also metalinguistic) analytic , , ,  language ability  orientation ,  strategies ,  appropriation , ,  approval ,  signs of ,  attention , , –, , , , –,  attitudes  automaticity , ,  B bilingual education , , , ,  proficiency ,  bilingualism ,  additive ,  functional  subtractive  body language ,  C chunks , , , , ,  clarification requests , , – classroom code ,  classroom rituals  CLIL (content and language integrated learning) , , ,  clueing procedure  cognates ,  cognitive development –, ,  growth  involvement ,  load  operations ,  predisposition , ,  process  (see also processing) resources  theory , , ,  tool , , , ,  colloquial  COLT (Communicative Orientation of Language Teaching) ,  communication , , –, , , , , , –, –, , , –, , –, ,  breakdown ,  strategies , , ,  tasks ,  communicative ability , , , ,  context , , , ,  effectiveness ,  flow , ,  functions  language teaching ,  load  needs ,  orientation , , , ,  practice , , , , ,  pressure  success ,  competence bilingual  communicative ,  functional  grammatical ,  linguistic  sociolinguistic , , ,  strategic  comprehensibility , , ,  comprehension abilities  aids  checks , ,  global  mutual ,  reading for ,  skills  strategies  vocabulary  conditionals , , , , , , , –, ,  JB[v.20020404] Prn:20/02/2007; 11:04 F: LLLT18SI.tex / p.2 (174-275)  Subject index confidence ,  confirmation , , , – confirmation checks , , , – constructivist , , ,  content-obligatory language  contrived context  context-embedded , ,  context-reduced , , , , ,  controlled practice , , , ,  conversational coherence  correction , , , , ,  explicit , , , ,  counterbalance hypothesis , , , ,  cultural identity  curriculum –, , , , , , , –, , , , , , , , , , , – D derivational morphology , ,  destabilization ,  determiners , ,  possessive , , , ,  dialogue , ,  dictogloss  discourse , , , , , , , , , , ,  academic , ,  analysis  classroom , , , , , , , , , , , ,  competence  context  instructional , , ,  functions , ,  scientific  display questions ,  distinctions –, , , –,  aspectual  formal  functional , ,  homophonous  orthographic  phonological  second language  semantic  temporal  drills , ,  dyads , , ,  E echoing ,  effectiveness , , , , , , , , , , , ,  (see also communicative) program  teacher  effects of instruction , ,  elaboration , ,  elicitation , , , , , ,  enhancement input ,  typographical , , ,  enriched education , ,  errors , , , , , , , , , , , –, , –, , , ,  grammatical , ,  lexical  morphosyntactic  phonological ,  ESL , , , , , , , , , , , , , ,  exercises –, , ,  experiential , , , ,  orientation  strategies  expert , –,  explicit instruction , ,  explicitness ,  exposure , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , ,  extralinguistic information  F first language , , –, –, , , –, , , , , , , , ,  development , , ,  influence ,  interference  fluency , , , , , , , ,  focus on form , , , , , , ,  focus on meaning , ,  form-focused , , , –, , , –, , , , , , –, , – form-oriented classrooms ,  learners  formal properties , , ,  form/meaning mappings , , ,  formulaic , ,  frequency , , , , ,  G games , –, , –, ,  geography , , , ,  generative properties ,  rules  gestures , , , –, ,  grammar , , –, , ,  JB[v.20020404] Prn:20/02/2007; 11:04 F: LLLT18SI.tex / p.3 (275-384) Subject index  instruction , , , , ,  grammatical , , , –, , –, , – accuracy ,  categories ,  competence ,  development  errors , ,  features  forms , ,  gender , –, , , , , , , ,  information  items  overgeneralizations  rules  spelling  structure ,  subsystems , , , , , , , ,  group work , ,  H high-ability ,  high-coverage , ,  history , , , ,  homonyms ,  homophones ,  I illocutionary force ,  immersion Basque  Catalan ,  centres  double ,  early , , , , , , ,  English , , , ,  French , , , , , , , , , , , –, , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , ,  Irish  Japanese , , , , , , , ,  partial ,  late , ,  middle , ,  post-secondary  Swedish  total , , ,  two-way , ,  Welsh  imperfective , –, , , ,  implicit analysis ,  knowledge ,  system ,  inductive , ,  inferencing  input , , –, , , , –, , , , –, , , , – comprehensible –,  content-based , , , , ,  modifications  structured  instructional coherence  conversations  counterbalance , , , ,  interventions , , , , ,  materials ,  practices , , , , , ,  options , , , , , , , , , , , ,  strategies , , , , , ,  intake , ,  integration , , , , , , , – intentional , , ,  interaction , –, , , , , , , , , –, –, , , , ,  classroom , , , , ,  communicative , , , , , ,  dyadic –, ,  hypothesis ,  meaning-focused ,  meaningful , , , ,  scaffolded ,  social , , ,  teacher-student , , , –, ,  interactional context ,  features ,  feedback , ,  moves ,  strategies  processes  techniques  interlanguage , , , , , , –, , ,  code  development , , , , , , , , , ,  forms , , , , , , ,  representations , , ,  system , , , ,  intonational stress ,  J jigsaw , ,  K knowledge , , , , , , , , , , , –,  analyzed  background  content , ,  contextual  declarative –, , ,  existing , , ,  explicit  implicit ,  JB[v.20020404] Prn:20/02/2007; 11:04 F: LLLT18SI.tex / p.4 (384-501)  Subject index language , , , ,  new , , ,  procedural –, ,  schematic  situational  rule-based  unanalyzed  L language awareness , , , ,  classroom , ,  development –, , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , –, , , , , , , , ,  functions , ,  maintenance  play  switch , ,  use , , , , , , , , , , , , ,  variation  lexical , , –, , , , , , –,  choices , , ,  errors  variety , ,  linguistic code ,  competence  domains ,  representations ,  low-ability ,  M mainstream , , , ,  materials , , , , –, ,  mathematics , ,  meaningful context , , , ,  meaning-oriented classrooms , , ,  context  input  interaction  learners  memory , –, , , –, – long-term , , , ,  mentalese  mentor  mentoring  meta-talk ,  metalinguistic analysis  awareness ,  clues , , , ,  development  feedback  function  information –, , ,  performance  tasks  modality ,  modeling , , , ,  monitor  monitoring  morphosyntax ,  motivation ,  moves follow-up –,  conversational ,  corrective  negotiation  initiating  interactional ,  pragmatic  repair ,  N native speakers , , , , , –, , , –, , , –,  naturalistic , , ,  negative evidence , , , , ,  non-verbal clues  comprehension aids  connections  notice the gap , ,  noticing , , , –, , , , , , , , , ,  novice , , ,  O objectives , , , , , , , , ,  other-repair  output comprehensible ,  hypothesis ,  modified , ,  non-target , , , , ,  pushed ,  P pair work  paralinguistic , , , , ,  paraphrase , ,  perfective –, , , ,  phonemic awareness ,  phonics – plateau , , , , ,  politeness markers , ,  pragmatic awareness  cues  expression  moves  praise markers  prefixes ,  prepositions , ,  proceduralization , ,  processing , , , , , , , , , , , , , ,  automatic  cognitive ,  controlled  JB[v.20020404] Prn:20/02/2007; 11:04 F: LLLT18SI.tex / p.5 (501-611) Subject index depth of  information , , ,  input ,  output  semantic , ,  syntactic ,  production (see also skills) spontaneous , , ,  unfocused  focused ,  proficiency , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , ,  pronunciation ,  purposeful , , , , , , , ,  Q quasi-experimental – R rebroadcast  redundancy , , ,  referential questions ,  reformulation , , , , ,  register , ,  repair , , , , , – repetition , , –, –, , , , , ,  choral  functions of  non-corrective , ,  representations , –, , , ,  declarative  exemplar-based  explicit  interlanguage , , , ,  linguistic ,  mental – orthographic  rule-based , , , , , ,  target-like , , , , ,  restructuring , , , , ,  retrieval , , , , , , , , , ,  rhymes , , ,  riddles , ,  rule-discovery , ,  rules , , , , , , , , , , , , , ,  S salience , , , ,  salient , , , , , , , , , ,  scaffolding , , , , , , , , , , , , , –,  scaffolds ,  science , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , –, ,  seat work  second language development , , , , , , , , , –, , , , , ,  self-repair , , , , ,  sheltered , , , ,  skill acquisition , , ,  skills , , , , , , , –, ,  interpretive  literacy , , , ,  problem-solving  production ,  productive  receptive  social-constructivist  social distance ,  social studies  socio-cognitive , , ,  sociolinguistic competence , , ,  appropriateness , ,  variation  sociostylistic variation ,  songs , , , ,  spelling , ,  St Lambert , ,  strategies , –, , , , , , , , , , , –, ,  communication , , ,  crosslingual  instructional , , , , , ,  teaching ,  strategy training  structural analysis ,  components  information ,  parts  patterns  properties , , , ,  structure , , , , , , , ,  student-centred  style-shifting  subject matter , , , , , , –, , , , , , , , , , , , – subject-matter instruction , , , , , , , , , , , ,  subject-matter specialist ,  submersion  synonyms , ,  syntactic frames ,  system , , ,  dual-coding  dual-mode  developing , ,  exemplar-based  generative  implicit ,  interlanguage , , , ,  language ,  representational  rule-based , ,   JB[v.20020404] Prn:20/02/2007; 11:04 F: LLLT18SI.tex / p.6 (611-656)  Subject index target  underlying ,  systematic , , , , , , ,  T task-based instruction  task-essentialness  task-naturalness  tasks , , , , , , , , –, , –, –, , , , –,  academic –,  collaborative , , , , ,  communication ,  purposeful ,  teacher-centred  teacher-fronted  teacher-guided reporting ,  teacher-led ,  teacher talk  tense –, , , , , , ,  tense-aspect  text reconstruction  threshold hypothesis  traditional , , , , , , , , , , , , , ,  transfer-appropriate learning , , , , ,  translation , , ,  transmission models , , ,  tutor  U uptake – V variants ,  veracity –, ,  verbs , , –, , –, , , , , , , , , , ,  vernacular ,  vocabulary , , , , –, , , , , , , ,  W wait time  withholding phenomenon  In the series Language Learning & Language Teaching the following titles have been published thus far or are scheduled for publication: 18 Lyster, Roy: Learning and Teaching Languages Through Content A counterbalanced approach 2007 xii, 172 pp 17 Bohn, Ocke-Schwen and Murray J Munro (eds.): Language Experience in Second Language Speech Learning In honor of James Emil Flege 2007 xvii, 406 pp 16 Ayoun, Dalila (ed.): French Applied Linguistics 2007 xvi, 560 pp 15 Cumming, Alister (ed.): Goals for Academic Writing ESL students and their instructors 2006 xii, 204 pp 14 Hubbard, Philip and Mike Levy (eds.): Teacher Education in CALL 2006 xii, 354 pp 13 Norris, John M and Lourdes Ortega (eds.): Synthesizing Research on Language Learning and Teaching 2006 xiv, 350 pp 12 Chalhoub-Deville, Micheline, Carol A Chapelle and Patricia A Duff (eds.): Inference and Generalizability in Applied Linguistics Multiple perspectives 2006 vi, 248 pp 11 Ellis, Rod (ed.): Planning and Task Performance in a Second Language 2005 viii, 313 pp 10 Bogaards, Paul and Batia Laufer (eds.): Vocabulary in a Second Language Selection, acquisition, and testing 2004 xiv, 234 pp Schmitt, Norbert (ed.): Formulaic Sequences Acquisition, processing and use 2004 x, 304 pp Jordan, Geoff: Theory Construction in Second Language Acquisition 2004 xviii, 295 pp Chapelle, Carol A.: English Language Learning and Technology Lectures on applied linguistics in the age of information and communication technology 2003 xvi, 213 pp Granger, Sylviane, Joseph Hung and Stephanie Petch-Tyson (eds.): Computer Learner Corpora, Second Language Acquisition and Foreign Language Teaching 2002 x, 246 pp Gass, Susan M., Kathleen Bardovi-Harlig, Sally Sieloff Magnan and Joel Walz (eds.): Pedagogical Norms for Second and Foreign Language Learning and Teaching Studies in honour of Albert Valdman 2002 vi, 305 pp Trappes-Lomax, Hugh and Gibson Ferguson (eds.): Language in Language Teacher Education 2002 vi, 258 pp Porte, Graeme Keith: Appraising Research in Second Language Learning A practical approach to critical analysis of quantitative research 2002 xx, 268 pp Robinson, Peter (ed.): Individual Differences and Instructed Language Learning 2002 xii, 387 pp Chun, Dorothy M.: Discourse Intonation in L2 From theory and research to practice 2002 xviii, 285 pp. (incl. CD-rom)