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Reported Speech - Indirect Speech Indirect Speech (also referred to as 'reported speech') refers to a sentence reporting what someone has said It is almost always used in spoken English • If the reporting verb (i.e said) is in the past, the reported clause will be in a past form This form is usually one step back into the past from the original For example: • • He said the test was difficult • She said she watched TV every day • Jack said he came to school every day If simple present, present perfect or the future is used in the reporting verb (i.e says) the tense is retained For example: • • He says the test is difficult • She has said that she watches TV every day • Jack will say that he comes to school every day If reporting a general truth the present tense will be retained For example:The teacher said that phrasal verbs are very important Changing Pronouns and Time Signifiers When changing from direct speech to indirect speech, it is often necessary to change the pronouns to match the subject of the sentence For example: • She said, "I want to bring my children." BECOMES She said she wanted to bring her children • Jack said, "My wife went with me to the show." BECOMES Jack said his wife had gone with him to the show It is also important to change time words (signifiers) when referring to present, past or future time to match the moment of speaking For example: • She said, "I want to bring my children tomorrow." BECOMES She said she wanted to bring her children the next day • Jack said, "My wife went with me to the show yesterday." BECOMES Jack said his wife had gone with him to the show the day before Indirect Questions When reporting questions, it is especially important to pay attention to sentence order When reporting yes/ no questions connect the reported question using 'if' When reporting questions using question words (why, where, when, etc.) use the question word For example: • She asked, "Do you want to come with me?" BECOMES She asked me if I wanted to come with her • Dave asked, "Where did you go last weekend?" BECOMES Dave asked me where I had gone the previous weekend • He asked, "Why are you studying English?" BECOMES She asked me why I was studying English He said, "I live in Paris." He said he lived in Paris He said, "I am cooking dinner." He said he was cooking dinner He said, "I have visted London twice." He said he had visited London twice He said, "I went to New York last week." He said he had gone to New York the week before He said, "I had already eaten." He said he had already eaten He said, "I am going to find a new job." He said he was going to find a new job He said, "I will give Jack a call." He said he would give Jack a call Introduction Many times in English we want to tell someone what someone has said Saying exactly what someone has said is called quoted speech For example, (The teacher said, "There will be a test tomorrow.") is an example of quoted speech English speakers prefer to use reported speech, such as in the following sentence The teacher told us that there would be a test tomorrow This lesson will show you how to change quoted speech to reported speech Formal Tense Shift Rules When changing from quoted speech to reported speech, several changes occur In all sentences, the quotation marks and the comma immediately before the first quotation mark are removed Next, the word "that" is usually inserted after the reporting verb (say, ask, told, etc.) Then, the subject pronoun is changed so that the meaning of the quote is not changed Lastly, the tense of the verb is changed, or shifted A list of how the verbs are changed, or the formal tense shift rules, and examples are given below • Simple Present >Simple Past Rosa said, "I am happy." Rosa said that she was happy *** The I became she because Rosa was talking about herself • Present Continuous > Past Continuous Sheila said, "Thao is studying." Sheila said that Thao was studying • Present Perfect .> Past Perfect Vin said, "Harold has left already." Vin said that Harold had left already • Simple Future (Will) > Past Future (Would) Keila said, "I will be here tomorrow." Keila said that she would be here tomorrow Future Continuous (Will) > Past Future Continuous (Would) Emily said, "I will be visiting my family in Cambodia." Emily said that she would be visiting her family in Cambodia Future Perfect > Past Future Perfect Sunshine said, "I will have lived in Long Beach for ten years by the year 2010." Sunshine said that she would have lived in Long Beach for ten years by the year 2010 Future Perfect Continuous .> Past Future Perfect Continuous Patricia said, "I will have been living in Long Beach for five years by the year 2005." Patricia said that she would have been living in Long Beach for five years by the year 2005 Simple Future Substitute (Be Going To) > Past Future Substitute Pam said, "I am going to go to the store later." Pam said that she was going to go to the store later • Simple Past > Past Perfect Cindy said, "The students had problems with the computers." Cindy said that the students had had problems with the computers ***The verb, to have, causes problems for many students Simple past tense verbs become past perfect tense verbs when shifting from quoted to reported speech "Had" is the past tense of to have The past perfect of "had" is had had This is probably more easily seen in another sentence Cindy said, "The students saw a movie." Cindy said that the students had seen a movie In the above example, the past tense verb, saw, becomes the past perfect tense verb, had seen Past Continuous .>Past Perfect Continuous Borath said, "I was watching television." Borath said that she had been watching television Past Perfect >Past Perfect (No Change) Narin said, "I had already eaten." Narin said that she had already eaten Past Perfect Continous .>Past Perfect Continuous (No Change) Sophanara said, "I have been cooking." Sophanara said that she had been cooking • Present/Future ability or possiblity (Can) > Past ability or possibility (Could) Rose said, "I can work on Saturday." Rose said that she could work on Saturday • Present/Future Possibility (May) > Past Possibility (Might) Sina said, "I may buy a new car." Sina said that she might buy a new car • Present/Future Possibility (Might) .> Past Possibility (Might, no change) Dennis said, "I might teach ESL 844 next semester." Dennis said that he might teach ESL 844 next semester • Present/Future Necessity (Must, Have to, Have got to) >Past Necessity (Had to) Teresa said, "You must your homework." Teresa told us that we had to our homework David said, "You have to be ready for class." David told us that we had to be ready for class Jan said, "You have got to study to pass the final." Jan told us that we had to study to pass the final • Present/Future Advisablity (Should, Ought to) >Past Advisability (Should, Ought to) Cindy said, "You should go see this movie." Cindy said that we should go see this movie • Imperative/Command > Infinitive His father said, "Go to your room." His father told him to go to his room • Yes/No Questions > If Noun Clauses Harold asked, "Would you like to take a break." Harold asked if we would like to take a break Information Questions (Where, When, Why, Who, What, How, etc.) .> Noun Clauses headed by these interrogative words Loretta asked Tooran, "How long have you lived in the United States?" Loretta asked Tooran how long she had lived in the United States Dora asked Anh, "Where you live?" Dora asked Anh where she lived Syva asked Sophanara, "When does the next semester start?" Syva asked Sophanara when the next semester started Malinda asked Shaoxia, "Why did you come to the United States?" Malinda asked Shaoxia why she had come to the United States Narin asked Emily, "What time is it?" Narin asked Emily what time it was Patricia asked Sunshine, "Who is going to teach ESL 146?" Patricia asked Sunshine who was going to teach ESL 146 GRAMMAR - REPORTED SPEECH CHOOSE THE BEST WAY TO COMPLETE THE SENTENCES BELOW: 1) I asked her xxx what is the answer what the answer what was the answer what the answer was 2) Can you tell me xxx? what that is what that be what it is that what is that 3) Do you remember xxx? when is her birthday when her birthday is when her birthday when be her her birthday 4) I told them xxx what he mean to not go there they not go there they not to go there 5) He asked me xxx what is my name what was my name what my name was what my name be 6) I warned him xxx to be not late don't be late not to be late he is not late 7) I asked her xxx was she sure she was sure or not if she sure if she was sure 8) He said xxx he will study for the exam he would study for the exam he had study for the exam he study for the exam 9) Joan asked xxx if there was coffee there was coffee was there coffee where was the coffee 10) Do you know xxx? where did he gone where he went where he gone where did he go Reported commands: The formation is mostly form of: To tell + to + Verb (infinitive) Affirmative commands: Farther:” Do your homework!" Father told me to my homework Negative commands: Teacher:” Don’t talk to your neighbours!" Teacher told me not to talk to my neighbours Part II: Indirect Questions GRAMMAR Unit 66 - Indirect Questions Indirect questions are polite, longer forms of normal questions For example: - Where's the department store? - Direct question - Could you tell me where the department store is, please? - Indirect question - What's his name? - Direct question - Do you know what his name is? - Indirect question Form Indirect questions are formed of two parts: a polite expression, and a question which has no subject/verb inversion like a normal question For example: - What's his name? >> - Do you know what his name is? - Indirect question Here the polite expression is "Do you know ", and the question part is " what his name is?" Note that the subject and verb have not changed place in the question part So if you said "Do you know what is his name?", this would be incorrect Another example: - What's the time? >> - Do you have any idea what the time is? - Indirect question The polite expression is "Do you have any idea ?", and the question is " what the time is?" The question is not " what is the time?" - You don't invert the subject and verb kike a normal question Auxiliary Verb "To do" The auxiliary verb "to do” is used in questions when there is no other auxiliary verb For example: - You like Chinese food >> - Do you like Chinese food? Indirect questions not use the auxiliary verb "to do" in the main question For example: - When does the next train arrive? - Direct question - Do you know when the next train arrives? - Indirect question - Do you know when does the next train arrive? - Incorrect Another example: - When does the restaurant close? - Direct question - Could you tell me when the restaurant closes? - Indirect question - Could you tell me when does the restaurant close? - Incorrect There are infinite ways to make indirect questions Not all indirect questions are questions at all, rather they are polite statements which encourage some kind of response Some common polite expressions include: - I wonder if/whether ? - I can't remember if/whether ? - Could you tell me if/whether ? - Would you mind telling me if/whether ? - Would it be possible for you to ? - Is there any chance you could ? - I don't suppose you could - I'd like to know if/whether - I can't remember A TOEFL book says "In a clause of indirect question, avoid using do, does, or did after the question word" For example, I didn't understand what did he say (Wrong) I didn't understand what he said (Correct) Does the rule imply that the word do/does/did shouldn't be used immediately after the question word but can be used anywhere in the indirect question clause? Q: What you now? A: I really don't know what I Based on the rule, Is the above answer grammatically correct? Indirect questions can refer to two different things: Questions in reported speech Questions within questions Questions in reported speech When we report questions, we use the word order of an affirmative statement In other words, the subject usually comes before the verb, and the auxiliary "do" is not used Tense and time changes are the same as for other types of reported speech (see grammar definitions: reported speech) We use "if" or "whether" to report "yes/no" questions We not put a question mark at the end of reported questions • What you like doing in your free time? • He asked me what I liked doing in my free time • Are you going to the film tomorrow? • She asked if/whether we were going to the film the next day Questions within questions We sometimes avoid asking direct questions to people, especially if we wish to be polite In more formal speech, this type of structure is quite common • Do you know if/whether she is coming with us? • Could you tell me when the film begins? • Would you be so good as to tell me if the Director has arrived yet? They are "questions within questions" because although we are asking, for example, "Do you know? ", we really want some other information Notice that in the "Do you know …", "Could you tell me …", etc., part of the question, the auxiliary verb, e.g "do" or "could", comes before the subject In the "real" question, however, the same word order rules apply as for questions in reported speech Finally, we must put a question mark at the end /Bristish Councel at http://www.learnenglish.org.uk/grammar/archive/indirect_questions.html REPORTED SPEECH a QUESTIONS Normal word order is used in reported questions, that is, the subject comes before the verb, and it is not necessary to use 'do' or 'did': "Where does Peter live?" She asked him where Peter lived Yes / no questions: This type of question is reported by using 'ask' + 'if / whether + clause: a "Do you speak English?" He asked me if I spoke English b "Are you British or American?" American c "Is it raining?" She asked if it was raining d "Have you got a computer?" computer e "Can you type?" He asked me whether I was British or He wanted to know whether I had a She asked if I could type f "Did you come by train?" He enquired whether I had come by train g "Have you been to Bristol before?" before She asked if I had been to Bristol Question words: This type of question is reported by using 'ask' (or another verb like 'ask') + question word + clause The clause contains the question, in normal word order and with the necessary tense change Examples: a "What is your name?" he asked me b "How old is your mother?", he asked He asked me what my name was He asked how old her mother was c The mouse said to the elephant, "Where you live?" elephant where she lived d "What time does the train arrive?" she asked train arrived e "When can we have dinner?" she asked dinner She asked what time the She asked when they could have f The elephant said to the mouse, "Why are you so small?" asked the mouse why she was so small Sources: http://www.edufind.com/english/grammar/rep4.cfm Demanding Explanations The mouse asked the The elephant Sometimes, things happen that we would like explained and we must demand explanations For example, if you have just bought a new computer and there is a problem, but the shop assistant says that the guaranty does not cover the problem There are a number of formulas used when demanding explanations in English Here are some of the most common: • Can you tell me why • I don't understand why • Can you explain why • Why is it that • How come • Does this mean • Do you really expect me to believe Construction Formula + Verb Form Can you tell me why it has taken you so long to respond? Use 'Can you tell me why' + a full clause in the positive statement form (S + V + O) Notice that this is an indirect question and requires a question mark (?) I don't understand why Use 'I don't understand why' + a full clause in the positive it has taken you so long to statement form (S + V + O) Notice that this is a statement respond and does NOT require a question mark (?) Can you explain why it has taken you so long to respond? Use 'Can you explain why' + a full clause in the positive statement form (S + V + O) Notice that this is an indirect question and requires a question mark (?) Use 'Why is it that' + a full clause in the positive statement Why is it that it has taken form (S + V + O) Notice that this is an indirect question and you so long to respond? requires a question mark (?) How come it has taken you so long to respond? Use 'How come' + a full clause in the positive statement form (S + V + O) Notice that this is an indirect question and requires a question mark (?) Does this mean (that) it Use 'Does this mean (that)' + a full clause in the positive has taken you so long to statement form (S + V + O) Notice that this is an indirect respond? question and requires a question mark (?) Do you (really) expect me to belive (that) you weren't able to finish on time? Use 'Do you (really) expect me to belive (that)' + a full clause in the positive statement form (S + V + O) Notice that this is an indirect question and requires a question mark (?) Sources: http://esl.about.com/library/grammar/blgr_demandexplanation.htm But for our savings, we wouldn't have been able to make the payments If it hadn't been for 'If it hand't been for' emphasizes that one event depended on another for completion This form is often used to show what the negative results would have been without a certain person or thing Example If it hadn't been for Jack, we would have failed Mixed Conditional A result clause can use the conditional to express a present hypothetical result based on a past action Example If she hadn't helped me, I wouldn't work here now Use of Time Expressions Match the time expression with the sentence fragment Complete by choosing the correct tense used in the sentence fragment Click on the arrow to check your answers Sentence Fragment Time Expression Tense Used John will have completed the fourth grade We are studying Roman history They haven't finished their homework Jack gets up early I will give you a ring I began skiing she was reading a book He had been waiting I used to play tennis every day Maria has been living in Pisa I will be sleeping We've been to Paris I'm going to visit Germany she had already eaten dinner at the moment future intention As soon as I arrive, present perfect continuous .when I was a child present simple .for two hours when you past simple arrived future perfect When I arrived, future time clause three times this year present perfect .by next June present continuous at this time tomorrow .since 1997 When we arrived, on Saturdays .yet .five years ago .in April past perfect future continuous past continuous present perfect continuous past perfect continuous past simple Using Adverb Clauses - Grammar for English Learners What is an Adverb Clause? "He saw Mary when he was in New York" and "They studied hard because they had a test" are adverb clauses Adverb clauses express when, why, opposition and conditions and are dependent clauses This means that an adverb clause can not stand by itself - in other words, "When he went to New York." is not a complete sentence It needs to be completed by an independent clause Example: He went to the Guggenheim museum when he was in New York Punctuation When an adverb clause begins the sentence use a comma to separate the two clauses Example: As soon as he arrives, we will have some lunch When the adverb clause finishes the sentence there is no need for a comma Example: He gave me a call when he arrived in town For more information about how to use these words click on the link for an explanation of the usage List of Words (subordinating conjunctions) Introducing Adverb Clauses TIME CAUSE AND EFFECT OPPOSITION CONDITION if, only if, unless, whether (or not), even if, after, before, when, while, as, by because, since, as, as although, even providing the time (that), as soon as, since, long as, so long as, due though, though, (that), in case until, whenever, the first time to the fact that - more whereas, while (that), (that), the next time (that), the last information on adverb more information on provided time (that), every time (that) clauses with adverb clauses with (that), in the more information on adverb clauses expressions of cause expressions of event (that) with time expressions and effect opposition more information on adverb clauses with condition expressions Adverb Clauses Showing Cause and Effect (because, as, since, etc.) Adverb Clauses Expressing Conditions (if, unless, only if, even if, etc.) Adverb Clauses with Time Expressions (when, as soon as, before, etc.) Adverb Clauses Expressing Opposition (though, even though, whereas, etc.) Using Adverb Clauses with Expressions of Cause and Effect Grammar for English Learners These type of clauses explain the reasons for what happens in the main clause Example: He bought a new home because he got a better job Take a look at the chart below to study the various usages of different expressions of cause and effect Note that all of these expressions are synonyms of 'because' Punctuation When an adverb clause begins the sentence use a comma to separate the two clauses Example: Because he had to work late, we had dinner after nine o'clock When the adverb clause finishes the sentence there is no need for a comma Example: We had dinner after nine o'clock because he had to work late For more information about how to use these words click on the link for an explanation of the usage Adverb Clauses of Cause and Effect Adverb Clauses of Cause and Effect Because • They received a high mark on their exam because they had studied hard • I'm studying hard because I want to pass my exam • He works a lot of overtime because his rent is so expensive Notice how because can be used with a variety of tenses based on the time relationship between the two clauses • Since he loves music so much, he decided to go to a conservatory • They had to leave early since their train left at 8.30 Since As long as As Inasamuch as Due to the fact that • • • • 'Since' means the same as because 'Since' tends to be used in more informal spoken English As long as you have the time, why don't you come for dinner? 'As long as' means the same as because 'As long as' tends to be used in more informal spoken English As the test is difficult, you had better get some sleep 'As' means the same as because 'As' tends to be used in more formal, written English 'Inasmuch as' means the same as because Inasmuch as the students had succesfully completed their 'Inasmuch exams, their parents rewarded their efforts by giving them a as' is used trip to Paris in very formal, written English We will be staying for an extra week due to the fact that we 'Due to the fact that' haven not yet finished means the same as because 'Due to the fact that' is generally used in very formal, written English Using Adverb Clauses to Express Conditions - Grammar for English Learners These type of clauses are often called "if clauses" in English grammar books and follow conditional sentence patterns Take a look at the chart below to study the various usage of different time expressions Punctuation When an adverb clause begins the sentence use a comma to separate the two clauses Example: If he comes, we will have some lunch When the adverb clause finishes the sentence there is no need for a comma Example: He would have invited me if he had known More information on the correct tense usage for the conditionals More information on the correct tense usage for the conditionals 'If' clauses express the conditions necessary for the result If clauses are followed by expected results based on the condition More information on the correct tense usage for the conditionals • If we win, we'll go to Kelly's to celebrate! If • She would buy a house, if she had enough money Even if • Even if she saves a lot, she won't be able to In contrast to sentences with 'if' afford that house sentences with 'even if' show a result that is unexpected based on the condition in the 'even if' clause Example: COMPARE: If she studies hard, she will pass the exam AND Even if she studies hard, she won't pass the exam • Whether or not • • Unless she hurries up, we won't arrive in time • We won't go unless he arrives soon Unless In case (that), in the event (that) Only if 'Whether or not' expresses the idea that neither one They won't be able to come whether or not condition or another matters; the result they have enough money will be the same Whether they have money or not, they Notice the possibility won't be able to come of inversion (Whether they have money or not) with 'whether or not' • In the case you need me, I'll be at Tom's • I'll be studying upstairs in the event he calls • We'll give you your bicycle only if you well on your exams • Only if you well on your exams will we give you your bicycle Using Adverb Clauses with Time Expressions 'Unless' expresses the idea of 'if not' Example: Unless she hurries up, we won't arrive in time MEANS THE SAME AS: If she doesn't hurry up, we won't arrive in time 'Unless' is only used in the first conditional 'In case' and 'in the event' usually mean that you don't expect something to happen, but if it does Both are used primarily for future events 'Only if' means 'only in the case that something happens and only if' This form basically means the same as 'if' However, it does stress the condition for the result Note that when 'only if' begins the sentence you need to invert the main clause These type of clauses are often called "time clauses" in English grammar books and follow specific patterns Take a look at the chart below to study the various usage of different time expressions Punctuation When an adverb clause begins the sentence use a comma to separate the two clauses Example: As soon as he arrives, we will have some lunch When the adverb clause finishes the sentence there is no need for a comma Example: He gave me a call when he arrived in town For more information about how to use these words click on the link for an explanation of the usage Adverb Clauses with Time When Before After While, as • He was talking on the phone when I arrived • When she called, he had already eaten lunch • I washed the dishes when my daughter fell asleep • We'll go to lunch when you come to visit • We will finish before he arrives • She (had) left before I telephoned • We will finish after he comes • She ate after I (had) left • She began cooking while I was finishing my homework • As I was finishing my homework, she began cooking 'When' means 'at that moment, at that time, etc.' Notice the different tenses used in relationship to the clause beginning with when It is important to remember that 'when' takes either the simple past OR the present the dependent clause changes tense in relation to the 'when' clause 'Before' means 'before that moment' It is important to remember that 'before' takes either the simple past OR the present 'After' means 'after that moment' It is important to remember that 'after' takes the present for future events and the past OR past perfect for past events 'While' and 'as' mean 'during that time' 'While' and 'as' are both usually used with the past continuous because the meaning of 'during that time' which indicates an action in progess By the time Until, till Since As soon as Whenever, every time • By the time he finished, I had cooked dinner • We will have finished our homework by the time they arrive • We waited until he finished his homework • I'll wait till you finish 'By the time' expresses the idea that one event has been completed before another It is important to notice the use of the past perfect for past events and future perfect for future events in the main clause This is because of the idea of something happening up to another point in time 'Until' and 'till' express 'up to that time' We use either the simple present or simple past with 'until' and 'till' 'Till' is usually only used in spoken English I have played tennis since I was a young boy 'Since' means 'from that time' We use the present perfect (continuous) with 'since' 'Since' can also be used with a specific point in time • He will let us know as soon as he decides (or as soon as he has decided) 'As soon as' means 'when something happens - immediately afterwards' 'As soon as' is very similar to 'when' it emphasis that the event will immediately after the other We usually use the simple present for future events, although present perfect can also be used • Whenever he comes, we go to have lunch at "Dick's" • We take a hike every time he visits • 'Whenever' and 'every time' mean 'each time something happens' We use the simple present (or the simple past in the past) because 'whenever' and 'every time' express habitual action • The first, second, third, fourth etc., next, last time • • The first, second, third, fourth etc., next, last The first time I went to New York, I was time means 'that intimidated by the city specific time' We can I saw Jack the last time I went to San Francisco use these forms to be more specific about The second time I played tennis, I began to have which time of a number fun of times something happened Using Adverb Clauses to Show Opposition These type of clauses show an unexpected or non self-evident result based on the dependent clause Example: He bought the car even though it was expensive Take a look at the chart below to study the various usages of adverb clauses showing opposition Punctuation When an adverb clause begins the sentence use a comma to separate the two clauses Example: Even though the it was expensive, he bought the car When the adverb clause finishes the sentence there is no need for a comma Example: He bought the car even though it was expensive For more information about how to use these words click on the link for an explanation of the usage Adverb Clauses Showing Opposition • Even though, though, although • • Whereas, while Notice how 'though, even though' or 'although' show a situation which is Though he loves doughnuts, he has given them contrary to the main up for his diet clause to express Although he course was difficult, he passed with opposition Even though, though and although are the highest marks all synonyms Even though it was expensive, he bought the car • Whereas you have lots of time to your homework, I have very little time indeed • Mary is rich, while I am poor 'Whereas' and 'while' show clauses in direct opposition to each other Notice that you should always use a comma with 'whereas' and 'while' Using Contractions In everyday spoken English forms of the verb 'to be' and other auxiliary verbs are usually contracted: Example: He's been to London, They aren't our neighbors Here is a chart of when to use the most common contractions in English Auxiliary Form Contractions With Contractions With Pronouns Nouns Contractions With Question Words am I'm working this morning What'm I supposed to say? (common only in spoken English) is He's going to come John's at work - Mary's - She's a teacher - playing the piano at the It's easy! moment Who's on the telephone? - What's he doing? are You're a great friend! - They're playing golf this afternoon What're you going to do? has He's been to Paris twice - It's been What's she been doing? - Who's such a long time! - Mary's gone to the store been invited? She's lived there all her life have I've finished my homework They've got two cars The students've finished their homework Where've you been all day? (common only in spoken (common only in spoken English) English) had He'd been waiting for three hours We'd better be going Jack'd worked there What'd you done before that? before he left (common (common only in spoken English) only in spoken English) will I'll get you Peter'll catch the bus to something to eat work We'll be there soon What'll we do? Where'll you take us? would I'd like some fish They'd love to ask Jane'd love to come you some questions Where'd you like to go? (common only in spoken English) - The books're on their way (common only in spoken English) Rule: Do not use the contracted form of the auxiliary in formal writing Example: Dear Mr Brown, I would like to invite you to our company presentation NOT!!: Dear Mr Brown, I'd like to invite you to our company presentation Intensifying Adjectives Intensifying Adjectives: Important Adjective Collocations A collocation is a word pair, in this case adjective and noun, that always goes together There are no specific rules for these collocations, however, it is important to learn some of the standard collocations Here is a guide to collocations with deep, heavy, high (low) and strong Deep deep depression deep devotion a deep feeling deep pockets deep sleep in deep thought in deep trouble Heavy a heavy drinker heavy rain a heavy sleeper a heavy smoker heavy snow heavy traffic High - Low Notice that a number of nouns (but not all) which take 'high' also take 'low' high - or low - cost high - or low - density high - or low - energy high - or low - esteem a high - or low - expectation (of) a high - or low - level (of) a high - or low - opinion (of someone or something) high - or low - pressure a - or low - high price high quality high speed Strong strong criticism strong denial a strong feeling a strong opinion (about something) a strong sense (of) a strong smell a strong taste Prepositional Phrase Reference Here is a reference sheet of some of the most common prepositional phrases arranged by preposition: AT at first at least at most at times at any rate at last at the latest at once at short notice at an advantage at a disadvantage at risk at a profit / loss BY by accident by far by all means by heart by chance by and by by the way by the time by no means by name by sight by now by then FOR for now for instance for example for sale for a while for the moment for ages for a change for better or worse FROM UNDER WITHOUT under age under control under the from now on impression from then on under guarantee from bad to without fail under the worse without notice influence of from my point of without exception under obligation view without someone's under no from what I consent obligation understand without success under suspicion from personal without warning under his thumb experience under discussion under consideration Guide to Verb Structures and Patterns This guide provides a look at common verb structures and patterns used in English Each structure is explained and an example of correct usage is given Verb Type Explanation Examples Intransitive An intransitive verb does not take a direct object They're sleeping They arrived late Transitive They bought the A transitive verb takes a direct object The direct object can be sweater a noun, a pronoun or a clause He watched them Linking The meal looked A linking verb is followed by a noun or adjective which refers to wonderful the subject of the verb He felt embarrassed Verb Patterns There are also many verb patterns which are common in English When two verbs are used, it is especially important to notice which form the second verb takes (infinitive - to - base form - - verb + ing - doing) Verb Pattern Structure Examples verb + infinitive verb + verb + ing This is one of the most common verb combination forms I waited to begin dinner They wanted to come to the party This is one of the most common verb combination forms They enjoyed listening to the music They regretted spending so much time on the project verb + verb + ing OR verb Some verbs can combine with other verbs + infinitive - no change in using both forms without changing the basic meaning meaning of the sentence She started to eat dinner OR She started eating dinner They stopped speaking to each other => They don't speak to each Some verbs can combine with other verbs verb + verb + ing OR verb other anymore using both forms However, with these verbs, + infinitive - change in They stopped to there is a change in the basic meaning of the meaning speak to each sentence other => They stopped walking in order to speak to each other verb + indirect object + direct object An indirect object is usually placed before a direct object when a verb takes both an indirect and direct object I bought her a book She asked him the question She asked her to find a place to stay verb + object + infinitive verb + object + base form (infinitive without 'to') This is the most common form when a verb is followed by both an object and a verb They instructed them to open the envelope This form is used with a few verbs (let, help and make) She made her finish her homework They let him go to the concert He helped him paint the house I observed them This form is less common than verb + object painting the house verb + object + verb + ing + infinitive I heard her singing in the living room verb + object + clause with Use this form for a clause beginning with She told him that 'that' 'that' she would worker harder He informed him that he was going to resign They were instructed where to verb + object + clause with Use this form for a clause beginning with whgo 'wh-' (why, when, where) She told me why she had done it verb + object + past participle This form is often used when someone does something for someone else He had his car washed They want the report finished immediately Adding Emphasis in English - Special Forms There are a number of ways to add emphasis to your sentences in English Use these forms to emphasize your statements when you are expressing your opinions, disagreeing, making strong suggestions, expressing annoyance, etc Use of the Passive The passive voice is used when focusing on the person or thing affected by an action Generally, more emphasis is given to the beginning of a sentence By using a passive sentence, we emphasize by showing what happens to something rather than who or what does something Example: Reports are expected by the end of the week In this example, attention is called to what is expected of students (reports) Inversion Invert the word order by placing a prepositional phrase or other expression (at no time, suddenly into, little, seldom, never, etc.) at the beginning of the sentence followed by inverted word order Examples: At no time did I say you couldn't come Hardly had I arrived when he started complaining Little did I understand what was happening Seldom have I felt so alone Note that the auxiliary verb is placed before the subject which is followed by the main verb Expressing Annoyance Use the continuous form modified by 'always', 'forever', etc to express annoyance at another person's action This form is considered an exception as it used to express a routine rather than an action occurring at a particular moment in time Examples: Martha is always getting into trouble Peter is forever asking tricky questions George was always being reprimanded by his teachers Note that this form is generally used with the present or past continuous (he is always doing, they were always doing) Cleft Sentences: It Sentences introduced by 'It is' or 'It was' are often used to emphasize a specific subject or object The introductory clause is then followed by a relative pronoun Examples: It was I who received the promotion It is the awful weather that drives him crazy Cleft Sentences: What Sentences introduced by a clause beginning with 'What' are also used to emphasize a specific subject or object The clause introduced by 'What' is employed as the subject of the sentence as is followed by the verb 'to be' Examples: What we need is a good long shower What he thinks isn't necessarily true Exceptional Use of 'Do' or 'Did' You have probably learned that the auxiliary verbs 'do' and 'did' are not used in positive sentences - for example: He went to the store NOT He did go to the store However, in order to emphasize something we feel strongly these auxiliary verbs can be used as an exception to the rule Examples: No that's not true John did speak to Mary I believe that you should think twice about this situation Note this form is often used to express something contrary to what another person believes [...]... certain person or thing Example If it weren't for his dedication, this company wouldn't exsist! Supposing 'Supposing' is used in place of 'if' to emphasize the imaginary It is more commonly used in everyday speech Example Supposing he came to visit you, what would you do? Third Conditional Alternate Forms Modals in Result Clause Modals can be used in the result clause to indicate past hypothetical possibilties,... assignment on time, if you had planned more carefully If you hadn't prepared, you should have told the professor But for 'But for' replaces 'if not' and is followed by a noun It is usually used in formal speech Example But for our savings, we wouldn't have been able to make the payments If it hadn't been for 'If it hand't been for' emphasizes that one event depended on another for completion This form