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JLPT N3 GRAMMAR1.ばかり bakari: about to, just did, just, onlyV.plain.nonpast bakariV.plain.past bakariVteform bakari irun (prt) bakariQuantifier bakari A. INTRODUCTION:Bakari is a particle that roughly corresponds to the English words “just” or “only”. However, while the use of bakari implies that “nothing else exists but this”, it also implies “there is a lot of the thing that does exist”.When used in the context of time, bakari means “to be ready to” (when used together with the plain nonpast tense), or “has just happened” (when used together with the plain past tense).Because bakari can be used in many different grammatical situations, it is perhaps best explained by comparative examples. Note the difference that bakari’s position within the sentence has on examples 3 and 4.B. EXAMPLES:1 その部屋は引っ越せるばかりになっている。Sono heya wa hikkoseru bakari ni natte iru.The room is ready for us to move into.
JLPT N3 GRAMMAR ばかり - bakari: about to, just did, just, only V.plain.nonpast bakari V.plain.past bakari Vte-form bakari iru n (prt) bakari Quantifier bakari A INTRODUCTION: Bakari is a particle that roughly corresponds to the English words “just” or “only” However, while the use of bakari implies that “nothing else exists but this”, it also implies “there is a lot of the thing that *does* exist” When used in the context of time, bakari means “to be ready to” (when used together with the plain non-past tense), or “has just happened” (when used together with the plain past tense) Because bakari can be used in many different grammatical situations, it is perhaps best explained by comparative examples Note the difference that bakari’s position within the sentence has on examples #3 and #4 B EXAMPLES: その部屋は引っ越せるばかりになっている。 Sono heya wa hikkoseru bakari ni natte iru The room is ready for us to move into 今家に帰ってきたばかりです。 Ima ie ni kaettekita bakari desu I just got back home アレックスはビールを飲んでばかりいる。 Arekkusu wa bīru o nonde bakari iru Alex does nothing but drink beer [and that’s what he does very often.] アレックスはビールばかり飲んでいる。 Arekkusu wa bīru bakari nonde iru Alex drinks nothing but beer [and when he does, he drinks a lot of it] 私はここ３年ばかりあの人に会ってない。 Watashi wa koko san-nen bakari ano hito ni atte nai It’s been about three years since I’ve seen that person C NOTES: When “bakari” follows a noun, it usually replaces other particles, as can be seen in example #4 (“Bakari” has replaced the “wo” that would normally follow the noun “biiru”.) “Bakari” sometimes follows adjectives, but rarely in the sense presented here (See ばかりでなく, ばかりか.) “Bakari” may be followed by the particle “no” as in the following example 生まれたばかりの赤ん坊は病気になりやすい。 Umareta bakari no akanbou wa byouki ni nariyasui Newborn babies are prone to illness 2 ～ようになる - ~yō ni naru: It has come to be that~ * [Verb; dictionary form]＋yō ni ＋ naru * [Verb; nai form]＋yō ni ＋ naru A INTRODUCTION: Using [verb] + yō ni naru indicates a change that occurs naturally without effort It corresponds to "to have finally become" or "to reach the point where " B EXAMPLES: * 毎日、新聞を読むようになる。 [ Mainichi, shinbun o yomu yōni naru ] Lit: I've reached the point where I read newspaper everyday * ファーストフードを食べないようになる。 [ Fāsuto fūdo o tabenai yōni naru ] Lit: I've reached the point where I don't eat fast food 事になる - ことになる - koto ni naru: it has been decided that Verb.plain-nonpast ことになる A INTRODUCTION: "koto ni naru" is an expression used to indicate that something has been decided by someone other than the speaker (Example sentence #1.) It may also be used to indicate a result that follows logically from the antecedent (Example sentences #2 & #3.) The similarly formed "koto ni natte iru" is normally used to indicate rules and long-established trends/customs (Example sentence #4.) B EXAMPLES: 来年東京に行くことになりました。 Rainen Tōkyō ni iku koto ni narimashita It has been decided that I will go to Tokyo next year 物を盗むと警察に捕まることになる。 Mono o nusumu to keisatsu ni tsukamaru koto ni naru If you steal something, you'll get busted 遅くまで起きていると寝坊することになる。 Osoku made okite iruto nebō suru koto ni naru When you stay up late, you'll sleep in 退社前に電灯や暖房器を消すことになっている。 Taisha mae ni dentō ya danbōki o kesu koto ni natte iru You are expected to put out lamps and heaters before you leave the office C NOTES: This expression is usually written in hiragana only とても～ない - totemo –nai: not – possibly * totemo + verb nagative potential form とても 食べられない; totemo taberarenai; can not possibly eat とても 考えられない；totemo kangaerarenai; can not possibly think とても 会えない; totemo aenai; can not possibly meet/see A INTRODUCTION: "totemo (とても)," when it is used in a negative construction clause, it works to strengthen the negative meaning It is equivalent to "not possibly" or "there is no possibility at all." It is usually used with a negative potential form to mean "can not possibly something" like totemo dekinai ( とて も～できない; can not possibly something) B EXAMPLES: あの大声には、とても耐えられない。 I can't possibly put up with that loud voice とても、そんなに速く走れないよ。 I can't possibly run so fast あの話は、とても先生には言えないね。 We can't tell the teacher about that story, can we? らしい - rashii: seems like, looks like, I hear/heard, like something/someone Formation V.informal + rashii i-adjective + rashii na-adjective + rashii noun + rashii A INTRODUCTION: The auxiliary adjective rashii is the commonly used informal phrase to convey "seems like, looks like, I hear/heard, like something/someone." It expresses the speaker's conjecture based on what the speaker knows or has heard or seen Rashii is used to express that something/someone is like something/someone This usage may be best exemplified by the fact that rashii can be directly appended to a person's name to indicate that some act, speech, etc is highly characteristic of the person whose name rashii has been appended to B EXAMPLES: よしはその格好で出かけた！！！よしらしい。 Yoshi wa sono kakō de dekaketa!! Yoshi rashii Yoshi went out looking like that!! That's just like Yoshi C NOTES: Rashii is often used in informal Japanese to substitute for sō desu て初めて - てはじめて - te hajimete: not until; only after; for the first time A NOTES: te form of Verb + hajimete (はじめて） ex 書いてはじめて；かいてはじめて；only after you write B INTRODUCTION: te hajimete is a phrase which expresses the idea that someone does something, or that something happens only after something else happens C EXAMPLES: 海外で生活して初めて日本社会のことが分かってきた。 Kaigai de sēkatsu shite hajimete nihon shakai no koto ga waka tte kita It was not until I lived overseas that I started to understand Japanese society 昨日、生まれて初めて海を見ました。 Kinō umare te hajime te umi o mimashita Yesterday I saw the sea for the first time in my life ないで - nai de: without doing something negative form of verb + de (で) A INTRODUCTION: "nai de" is a negative te-form of a verb It is used to express that someone does not something that he or she is expected to Also it is used with "kudasai" to form the command "please don't do~." B EXAMPLES: 努力しないで合格しようなんて考えがあまい。 Doryoku shinai de gōkaku shiyō nante kanngae ga amai Wanting to pass an exam with effort is just wishful thinking 図書館では飲食はしないでください。 Toshokan dewa inshoku wa shinaide kudasai Please don't eat or drink anything in the library 動物にえさをあたえないでください。 Dōbutsu ni esa o ataenaide kudasai Please don't feed the animals C NOTES: ないで 〜 ば 〜 程 - 〜 ば 〜 ほど - 〜 ba〜 hodo: the〜 , the〜 Verb.ba-conditional same-verb-repeated ほど V.ba conditional + (same) V + hodo adj-i.ba conditional + (same) adj + hodo adj-na + areba (ba conditional of verb aru) + aru + hodo A INTRODUCTION: The “X ba X hodo Y” construction is used to indicate a relationship between X and Y in which “the more that X happens, the more that Y happens”, or “the more of X that exists, the more of Y that exists.” If X is great, then Y is great If X is small, then Y is small The construction is created by taking the conditional ~ba form of a verb or an adjective, repeating it in its plain form, and adding “hodo” (See ほど.) The thing or state to which it is compared then follows Note that -na adjectives, not directly having a –ba form of their own, use “de areba”, as in example sentence #4 B EXAMPLES: 早ければ早いほどいいです。 Hayakereba hayai hodo ii desu The sooner the better 都市が大きくなればなるほど、空気や水は汚れてくる。 Toshi ga ōkiku nareba naru hodo, kūki ya mizu wa ogorete kuru The bigger a city grows, the dirtier the air and water become 数学は難しければ難しいほどやる気が出ます。 Sūgaku wa muzukashikereba muzukashii hodo yaruki ga demasu The more difficult the math is, the more motivated I am to it 概して、真理が基礎的なものであればあるほど、その実用の可能性も大きくなる。 Gai shite, shinri ga kisoteki na mono de areba aru hodo, sono jitsuyō no kanōsē mo ōkiku naru As a rule, the more fundamental the truth, the greater its practical possibilities この発疹は、かけばかくほど痒くなってくる。 Kono hasshin wa kakeba kaku hodo kayuku natte kuru The more I scratch this rash, the itchier it becomes C NOTES: This expression is usually written in hiragana only 〜 ばかりか - 〜 bakari ka: not only~ but also Adjective ばかりか Adjective さえ Noun ばかりか Noun さえ Verb.plain ばかりか Verb.plain さえ A INTRODUCTION: Bakari is a Japanese particle meaning "only, just" When used together with the particle "ka", they form a conjunction meaning "that's not all" An unexpected state or occurence follows this conjunction This unexpected state is usually followed by one of the particles sae or mo, which serves to strengthen the unexpectedness The construction A ばかりか B さえ is therefore often translated as "not only A, but also B" "A" and "B" may be nouns, verbs in plain form, or adjectives B EXAMPLES: イギリスでは若者ばかりか老人さえクリケットに夢中です。 Igirisu dewa wakamono bakari ka rōjin sae kuriketto ni muchū desu In England, not only young people, but also the elderly, are obsessed with cricket この会社の製品は高いばかりか安全性にも疑問がある。 Kono kaisha no seihin wa takai bakari ka anzensei nimo gimon ga aru Not only are this company's products expensive, but there are also questions regarding their safety 「優良な農地」は荒れ放題だったばかりか「無償譲渡」も空約束だった。 Yūryō-na nōchi wa arehōdai datta bakari ka mushō jōto mo karayakusoku datta Not only has all of the "excellent farmland" been ruined, but promises of its "voluntary conveyance" also proved to be empty 10 始める - はじめる - hajimeru: begin to, start to Verb.masu-stem + 始める A INTRODUCTION: Hajimeru is a verb meaning "to start." It can be used as an auxiliary, attaching to the masu stem of another verb This creates a compound verb meaning "to start to something" For example, the verb 食べる ("taberu", to eat) when combined with 始める gives the compound verb 食べ始める ("tabehajimeru", to start to eat) B EXAMPLES: 半年前から日記を書きはじめました。 Hantoshi mae kara nikki o kakihajimemashita A half a year ago, I started writing a journal 2 働き始めるとすぐ雨が降り始めた。 Hatarakihejimeru to sugu ame ga furihajimeta I had hardly started to work when it began to rain C NOTES: The auxiliary verb 出す ("-dasu") may also be used to indicate the start of an action, however, "dasu" indicates a much more sudden (and often surprising) start For this reason, "-hajimeru", should not be used in combination with such adverbs as 急に ("kyuu ni", suddenly) In such sentences, "-dasu" is used instead 11 さえ - sae: even; if 〜 only; if 〜 just; as long as; the only thing 〜 need is i) Noun + さえ ii) Noun + Prt + さえ iii) te-form of Verb + さえ iv) Verb masu + さえする v) i-Adj stem + さえある vi) na-Adj.stem / N + で + さえある A INTRODUCTION: "sae" is an emphatic particle which expresses the idea of "even" in non-conditional clauses (or sentences) or the idea of "only" in conditional clauses B EXAMPLES: 愛さえあれば生きていけるというのは現実的な見解だろうか。 Ai sae areba ikite ikeru toiu nowa genjitsuteki na kenkai drō ka I wonder if it's realistic to think that we can live as long as we love each other インテリの真理子でさえその嘘を見破れなかった。 Interi no Mariko desae sono uso o miyaburenakatta Mariko won't catch that lie even though she is an intelligent person 彼は金儲けのためなら人殺しさえするような男だ。 Kare wa kanemōke no tame nara hitogoroshi sae suruyoōna otokoda He is the type of person who can go so far as to kill a person to make money 12 程 - ほど - hodo: to the extent of/that, about Noun ほど Verb.plain-nonpast ほど A INTRODUCTION: This is a particle that expresses the degree or extent of which something is, or someone does something This particle follows either nouns, or verbs in plain, non-past form B EXAMPLES: この漢字は頭が痛くなるほど読みにくいです。 Kono kanji wa atama ga itaku naru hodo yominikui desu This kanji is so hard to read that my head starts to hurt 注射をするのは涙が出るほど痛いです。 Chūsha wo suru no wa namida ga deru hodo itai desu Taking a shot is so painful that it brings tears to my eyes 3 昨日のテストはそれほど簡単じゃなかった。 Kinō no tesuto wa sorehodo kantan ja nakatta Yesterday's test wasn't that easy エッフェル塔は東京タワーほど高くないです。 Efferutō wa Tōkyō Tawā hodo takakunai desu The Eiffel Tower isn't as tall as Tokyo Tower C NOTES: This expression is usually written in hiragana only 13 くらい - kurai: approximately, about Number + Counter + kurai (くらい) Demonstrative Pronoun/Adjective + kurai (くらい） Interrogative Pronoun + kurai (くらい) A INTRODUCTION: "Kurai" (also pronounced "gurai") is an adverbial particle used to roughly indicate amount or extent It is usually translated as "about" or "approximately" "Kurai" always directly follows the amount/extent that it modifies B EXAMPLES: 百人くらい集まりました。 Hyakunin kurai atsumarimashita About a hundred people gathered together この靴はだいたい２万円くらいしました。 Kono kutsu wa daitai ni-man-en kurai shimashita These shoes cost about 20,000 yen あとどのくらいで仕上げなければならないの？ Ato donokurai de shiagenakereba naranai no? How much time we have to finish this? 14 まま - mama: as is, unchanged, remain Verb.informal.past + mama (まま) 置いたまま oita mama leaving s.t as is V.informal.negative.nonpast + mama (まま) （ドアを）閉めないまま (doa o) shimenai mama leaving the door unclosed adj-i + mama (まま) 寒いまま samui mama as cold as s.t is adj-na.stem(な) + mama (まま) 綺麗なまま kirei na mama as clean/pretty as s.t is noun + no(の) + mama (まま) 昔のまま mukashi no mama leaving s.t as it was A INTRODUCTION: Mama is a noun expressing that a state or situation remains unchanged B EXAMPLES: 窓を開けたまま寝た。 Mado o aketa mama neta I slept with the window left open 京都のお寺は今でも昔のまま残っています。 Kyōto no otera wa ima demo mukashi no mama nokotte imasu Kyoto's temples remain as they were in the old days 受話器を戻さないまま出かけてしまった。 Juwaki o modosanai mama dekaketeshimatta I went out without hanging up the receiver (Lit.: I went out without returning the receiver.) C NOTES: When the verb placed before mama is in the negative form, it must also be in the nonpast form Mama is often used with the demonstratives kono and sono 15 仮に - かりに - kari ni: tentative supposition, "supposing that " We often use 仮に together with the conditional たら, as in 仮に～としたら, or in a sentence structure such as 仮に ～として 仮に～とする means "to assume something." So 仮に～としたら literally means "if one assumes that ~," and we can translate it as "supposing that—" or "if—." 仮に～として literally means "one assumes that—, and—," and we can translate it as "let's say ~." In most cases, we can use both of them to mean the same thing, but if there is any difference in the nuance, 仮に～と して sounds more like a tentative assumption than 仮に～としたら A INTRODUCTION: 仮に(かりに) is an adverb we use to indicate our tentative supposition, so it means "temporarily" or "provisionally." We often use it in a subordinate clause meaning "supposing that -" or "if -." B EXAMPLES: 仮に、ここに 10 人いるとして、あなたなら、このケーキをどうやって分けますか？ "Let's suppose we had ten people here How would YOU divide the cake?" 仮に、このお金が全部君のものになったら、何に使う？ "Let's say that all of this money became yours What would you spend it on?" 16 ものだ (1) - mono da (1): used to Formation: * Verb, plain past + mono da （～た ものだ＝used to something) Dictionary Plain past 食べる Plain past + mono da Translation 食べた 食べた ものだ used to eat 行く 行った 行った ものだ used to go * i/na-adj, plain past + mono da (～た ものだ＝used to something) Dictionary Plain past 安い 安かった Plain past + mono da 安かった ものだ きれいな きれいだった Translation used to be cheap きれいだった ものだ used to be beautiful A INTRODUCTION: When the speaker is recollecting his or her past nostalgically, this expression is used It means "used to." In this case, the plain past tense of a verb or adjective is used before mono da B EXAMPLES: (verb) 私たちが若い頃は、よく色々なところに旅行したものです。 Watashitachi ga wakai koro wa, yoku iroiro na tokoro ni ryokō shita mono desu When we were young, we used to travel around lots of different places (i-adj) 子供のとき、一人でトイレに行くのが怖かったものです。 Kodomo no toki, hitori de toire ni iku no ga kowakatta mono desu When I was a kid, I used to feel scared of going to the toilet alone (na-adj) 昔は携帯電話がなくて、とても不便だったものです。 Mukashi wa keitaidenwa ga nakute, totemo fuben datta mono desu It used to be inconvenient because there were no mobile phones in the old days C NOTES: mono is contracted into mon in colloquial speech Example: (verb) 学生のときは、一日中、本を読んだもんだ。 Gakusei no toki wa, ichi-nichijū hon o honda mon da When I was a student, I used to read books all day long (i-adj) 昔、海外に行くのは、高くて珍しかったもんだ。 Mukashi, kaigai ni iku no wa, takakute, mezurashikatta mon da In the old days, going abroad was an expensive and rare thing to (na-adj) 私が子供の頃、よく友達と外で遊んだもんだ。 Watashi ga kodomo no koro, yoku tomodachi to soto de asonda mon da When I was a kid, I used to play outside with my friends 17 かえって - kaette: on the contrary, rather, surprisingly A INTRODUCTION: "Kaette" is a word used to indicate that the clause that follows it is something contrary to one's expectation, given the information expressed in the subordinate clause that precedes it B EXAMPLES: うたた寝をしたら、かえって体が重くなった。 Utatane o shitara kaette karada ga omoku natta I took a quick nap, but, surprisingly, I still feel kind of tired 友達五人からアドバイスをもらったら、かえって分からなくなってしまった。 Tomodachi gonin kara adobaisu o moratta kaette wakaranaku natte shimatta I was given advice from five different friends, but, surprisingly, it just ended up confusing me C NOTES: This expression is usually written in hiragana only 18 -っぽい - ppoi: -y, -ish Adjective.stem + っぽい Noun + っぽい Verb.masu-stem + っぽい A INTRODUCTION: ppoi is a suffix used in informal spoken Japanese to change a noun into an adjective It is similar in usage and meaning to the English suffix "-y" in the terms "girly" and "filthy", or "-ish" in the term "childish" Like its English counterpart, ppoi usually has a negative connotation ppoi adjectives are formed by directly attaching the suffix to nouns (including the -masu stems of some verbs) and adjectival stems B EXAMPLES: その黒っぽいコートは彼女の浅黒い肌には合わない。 Sono kuroppoi kōto wa kanojo no usuguroi hida ni wa awanai That dark coat doesn't work well with the dusky color of her skin これは水っぽいお茶だね。 Kore wa miszuppoi o-cha da ne This is some pretty watery tea, eh? あなたは、今日は本当に怒りっぽいね。 Anata wa, kyō wa hontō ni okorippoi ne You're pretty easily irritated today 19 毎 - まい - mai: every A INTRODUCTION: "Mai" is a prefix that is directly attached to words or individual kanji (usually using their on-yomi reading) The resulting kanji compound is a noun/temporal adverb that means "each" or "every" B EXAMPLES: 毎週土曜日は野球をします。 Maishū doyōbi wa yakyū o shimasu I play baseball on Saturday, every week 毎朝、新聞を読んで牛乳を飲みます。 Maiasa shimbun, o yonde gyūnyū o nomimasu Every morning, I read the newspaper and down some milk 毎年、八月に旅行します Maitoshi hachi-gatsu ni ryokō shimasu I go traveling every year in August 20 ～きり - ~kiri: "since" [ Informal past verb + kiri （きり） ] A INTRODUCTION: The phrase kiri (きり) is the noun form of the verb kiru (切る), "to cut" When it is used together with the informal past form of a verb, as in atta kiri (会ったきり), it indicates that since that action took place, nothing has happened (that action has not occured again) In many cases it is followed by a noun consisting of number and counter and means "only," as in futari kiri ( 二人き り), "only two people." B EXAMPLES: 息子が、外に遊びに行ったきり、帰ってこない。 Musuko ga, soto ni asobi ni itta kiri, kaette konai My son hasn't come home since he went out 彼とは、一度電話で話したきり、連絡していない。 Kare to wa, ichido denwa de hanashita kiri, renraku shite inai I haven't contacted him since I first talked with him on the phone このドレスは、彼女が一度着たきり、誰も着ていない。 Kono doresu wa, kanojo ga ichodo kita kiri, daremo kite inai Nobody has worn this dress since she did 21 おかげで - okage de: thanks to something, someone or an action or state i-Adjective, inf + おかげで na-Adj stetm/Noun + の/だった おかげで Verb.plain + おかげで A INTRODUCTION: "Okage de" is a phrase used to indicate that a (usually favorable) result has been caused by someone/something It is roughly equivalent to the English phrase "Thanks to ~~, ~~." It is possible to use "okage de" ironically in a sentence with an unfavorable outcome B EXAMPLES: 川があるおかげで夏は涼しい Kawa ga aru okage de natsu wa suzushii Thanks to this river's being here, the summers are cool 収入が多いおかげで彼は安楽に暮らした。 Shūnyū ga ōi okage de kare wa anraku ni kurashita His large income enabled him to live in comfort C NOTES: This expression is usually written in hiragana only 22 に違いない - にちがいない - ni chigainai: there is no mistaking that, certainly Verb.inf + ni chigainai Adj-i.inf + ni chigainai Noun/Adj-na stem + (datta) ni chigainai A INTRODUCTION: "Ni chigainai" is a Japanese expression indicating one's strong conjecture, roughly equivalent to the English form "there is no mistaking that ~~" The level of certainty expressed by "ni chigainai" is higher than that expressed by "deshou", "hazu" and "kamoshirenai" B EXAMPLES: 彼女はとても熱心に働いたにちがいない。 Kanojo wa totemo nesshin ni hataraita ni chigainai She must have worked very hard 彼がそんなことを言うとはどうかしているにちがいない。 Kare ga sonna koto o iu to wa douka shite iru ni chigainai He must be mad to have said such a thing 彼は私を妹と間違えたにちがいない。 Kare wa watashi o imōto to machigaeta ni chigainai He must have mistaken me for my sister C NOTES: "Chigainai", by itself (without the "ni" particle), may also be used as an expression of agreement A: 嵐になりそうだ。 (Arashi ni narisō da.) B: 違いない、雲行きが怪しい。 (Chigainai, kumoyuki ga ayashii.) A: Looks like a storm is brewing B: No kidding The weather's looking pretty dodgy 23 ため - tame: therefore; in order to * Noun + のため(に) * Verb/i-Adj, inf + ために * na-Adj, stem + な/だった ために A INTRODUCTION: "Tame" is a noun meaning "something useful/advantageous" It often follows uninflectable words (and the particles "no" or "ga") or inflectable words in their participle form In this case, "tame" has one of two context-dependent meanings 1) "Tame" may indicate that the reason for the clause that follows it is the clause that precedes it In this case, "tame" acts similar to the English word "therefore" 2) "Tame may indicate that the purpose of the clause that follows it is the clause that precedes it In this case, "tame" acts similar to the English phrase "in order to" In the above usages, "tame" is often followed by the particle "ni" B EXAMPLES: あなたのためならばなんでもします。 Anata no tame naraba nan demo shimasu I would anything for you 彼は心が広いために尊敬されている。 Kare wa kokoro ga hiroi tame ni sonkē sarete iru He is looked up to for his breadth of mind 彼女に追いつくために私は歩みを速めた。 Kanojo ni oitsuku tame ni watashi wa ayumi o hayameta I quickened my steps to catch up with her C NOTES: This expression is usually written in hiragana only 24 によると /によりますと - ni yoru to/ ni yorimasu to: according to – * ni yorimasu to + sō desu (～そうです) + to iu koto desu (～ということです) + to no koto desu (～とのことです) + opinion/judgment etc * ni yoru to + hearsay expressions/opinion or judgment + sō da(～そうだ) + to iu koto da(～ということだ) + to no koto da(～とのことだ) + opinion/judgment etc A INTRODUCTION: " ni yoru to ( ～ に よ る と )" or " ni yorimasu to ( ～ に よ り ま す と )" indicates the source of information, corresponding to the English "according to -." The verb, "yoru" (よる), means "to depend on -" or "to base on ." As this is used to indicate the source of information, it is often followed by a clause with hearsay expressions like "-sō da (～そうだ)" or " to iu koto da (～ということだ)" or " to no koto da (～とのことだ)," all of which mean "it is said that -." B EXAMPLES: 天気予報によると、明日は雨だそうだ。 Tenki yohō ni yoru to, ashita wa ame da sō da The weather forecast said that it'll be rainy tomorrow A 社のプレスリリースによりますと、来月、新製品が発売されるとのことです。 A sha no puresu rirīsu ni yorimasu to, raigetsu, shinseihin ga hatsubai sareru tono koto desu According to the press release by Company A, they are going to release a new product next month 三郎によると、四郎は今日休みだそうだ。 Saburō ni yoru to, Shirō wa kyō yasumi da sō da Saburo said that Shiro was going to take a day off today C NOTES: Depending on which one is used, " ni yorimasu to" or " ni yoru to," you need to use the same the politeness level in the following clause 25 代わりに - かわりに - kawari ni: instead of, but Noun + の かわりに Verb.inf + かわりに i-Adj.inf + かわりに na-Adj.stem + な/だった + かわりに A INTRODUCTION: "kawari" is a noun meaning "substitute." When suffixed with the (optional) particle "ni", it may be used to connect two clauses or sentences as a conjunction Used in this manner, it indicates one of the two following possibilities: 1) In the case of two actions or states that normally would not exist together, "kawari" means "instead of" (Example sentences #1, #2 and #3.) 2) In the case of two contrasting actions or states that may exist together, "kawari" indicates that there is a tradeoff between two attributes of something (Example sentence #4.) "Kawari" is to be used as a regular noun, directly following verbs in plain form, and adjectives, and nouns (followed by the particle "no") B EXAMPLES: 彼のかわりに私が行きます。 Kare no kawari ni watashi ga ikimasu I'll go instead of him 今日遅くまで遊ぶかわりに明日はまじめに勉強します。 Kyou osoku made asobu kawari ni ashita wa majime ni benkyō shimasu Today, instead of messing around all night, I'm gonna study my butt off 社長の代わりに私がお聞きします。 Shachō no kawari ni watashi ga okiki shimasu Rather than the president asking, I will ask in his stead ４．これは、安い代わりに、量がすくない。 Kore wa, yasui kawari ni, ryō ga sukunai This is cheap, but it's small in amount C NOTES: This expression is often written in hiragana only 26 ～ようにする - ~yō ni suru: to make an effort to [verb] * [Verb; dictionary form]＋yō ni ＋ suru * [Verb; nai form]＋yō ni ＋ suru A INTRODUCTION: [verb in dictionary form/nai form] + yō ni suru means that the speaker is making an effort to the action (or not the action in the case of a negative verb) described by [verb] B EXAMPLES: * 毎日、新聞を読むようにしている。 [ Mainichi, shinbun o yomu yōni shiteiru ] I'm making an effort to read the newspaper everyday * 甘いものを食べないようにしている。 [ Amaimono o tabenai yōni shiteiru ] I'm trying not to eat sweets / I'm making sure that I don't eat sweets 27 ても - temo: even if; although Verbs and i-adjectives: (te-form of the verb/adj) + も Nouns and na-adjectives: (noun or dictionary form of na-adj) + でも A INTRODUCTION: "Te mo" is used in a sentence structure like "subclause + te mo + main clause," when what is expressed in the main clause is not what is expected from the content of the subclause It corresponds with the English "even if [subclause], [main clause]." B EXAMPLES: つかれていても電話をください Tsukarete itemo denwa o kudasai Even if you're tired, please call どんなにがんばっても勝てない Donnani ganbattemo katenai No matter how hard I try, I can't win 走ってもまにあいそうにない Hashittemo maniaisouni nai Even if we run, it looks like we won't make it in time 君は頭がいいから勉強しなくても試験に受かるでしょう。 Kimi wa atama ga ii kara benkyō shinakute mo shiken ni ukaru deshou You'll be able to pass the exam even if you don't study because you are smart 28 v + ように - v + you ni: so that Phr1 + ように + Phr2 A INTRODUCTION: This construction (verb +ように) is used to express "so that" in the pattern Phr1 + ように + Phr2, where Phr1 is the desirable condition, and Phr2 is the means by which one plans to attain this condition The verb is usually in its plain form, but there are cases where this is not so B EXAMPLES: この本は子供でも読めるようにひらがなで書いてある。 このほんはこどもでもよめるようにひらがなでかいてある。 Kono hon wa kodomo demo yomeru yōni hiragana de kaite aru This book is written in hiragana so that kids can also read it そろそろ昼飯を食べるから遠いところまで行かないようにしてください。 そろそろひるめしをたべるからとおいところまでいかないようにしてください。 Sorosoro hirumeshi o taberu kara tōi tokoro made ikanai yōni shite kudasai We'll eat lunch soon, so make sure that you don't go too far away この道は危ないですから、車に轢かれないように注意してください。 このみちはあぶないですから、くるまにひかれないようにちゅういしてください。 Kono michi wa abunai desukara,kuruma ni hikarenai yōni chūi shite kudasai This road is dangerous, so be careful that you don't get hit by a car C NOTES: This construction is very similar in basic meaning to ために , but the statement of purpose with ために is much stronger ように leaves open the possibility that Phr1 may not happen Therefore, these two constructions are not always interchangeable This construction is often used in prayers or written on votive tablets at shrines when asking for something In this case, the polite form of the verb before ように is usually used いい成績を取れますように。 いいせいせきをとれますように。 ii seiseki wo toremasu you ni Please let me be able to get good grades 29 こそ - koso: the very , It is that Particularly * Noun + koso(こそ) 来年こそ；rainen koso; definitely next year * Noun + particle + koso (こそ) 家でこそ; ie de koso; particularly at home * te-form of verb + koso (こそ) がんばってこそ；ganbatte koso; only if someone tries hard * Clause + koso (こそ) あなたが好きだからこそ；anata ga suki da kara koso; precisely because I like you A INTRODUCTION: Koso (こそ) is a particle which comes after a noun, te-form of verb or clause to emphasize them B EXAMPLES: 「すみませんでした。」「いいえ、こちらこそ、すみませんでした。」 "Sumimasen deshita." "Iie, kochira koso, sumimasen deshita." "I'm sorry" "No, it's me who should apologize 私達は、彼にこそ、お礼を言わなければならない。 Watshitachi wa, kare ni koso, o-rei o iwanakereba naranai I should extend our thanks especially to him 君の活躍を期待しているからこそ、アドバイスしているのだ。 Kimi no katsuyaku o kitai shite iru kara koso, adobaisu shite iru no da I'm giving my advice precisely because I'm expecting your success 30 うちに - uchi ni: while, before, during V.inf.nonpast + uchi ni いるうちに・iru uchi ni - while s.o is there 読まないうちに・yomanai uchi ni - before s.o reads 読んでいるうちに・yonde iru uchi ni - while s.o is reading i-adj.nonpast + uchi ni 若いうちに・wakai uchi ni - while s.o is young na-adj.nonpast + na + uchi ni にぎやかなうちに・nigiyaka na uchi ni - which it is lively noun + no + uchi ni 今日のうちに・kyō no uchi ni - before the end of the day A INTRODUCTION: Uchi ni is a conjunction which is used to designate a period in which some condition or situation remains in effect Uchi ni is similar to aida in that they can both be used to express an interval of time However, uchi ni carries the nuance that whatever follows relies on the condition or situation marked by uchi ni, while aida simply indicates the interval B EXAMPLES: 雨が降らないうちに公園でサッカーをしましょう。 Ame ga furanai uchi ni kōen de sakkā o shimashō Let’s play some soccer at the park before it rains 暗くならないうちに帰ってきなさい。 Kuraku naranai uchi ni kaette kinasai Come home before it gets dark 31 どうして - dōshite: why "どうして + Question" A INTRODUCTION: dōshite (どうして) is the interrogative word meaning "why." When it comes before a question, the speaker wants to know the reason for something B EXAMPLES: どうして日本に行きましたか。 Dōshite Nihon ni ikimashita ka Why did you go to Japan? どうして下山さんは東京に住んでいますか。 Dōshite Shimoyama-san wa Tōkyō ni sunde imasu ka Why does Mr Shimoyama live in Tokyo? どうして日本語を勉強していますか。 Dōshite Nihon-go o benkyō shite imasu ka Why are you studying Japanese? 32 がち - gachi: prone to, likely to * Noun + がち 病気がち 留守がち * Verb.masu-stem + がち 休む→休み(ます) → 休みがち 遅れる→遅れ(ます) → 遅れがち A INTRODUCTION: "Gachi", when suffixed to a noun or the masu stem of a verb creates a compound indicating a likelihood or tendency to be in the state expressed by the original noun This compound can be used as a -na adjective (Example sentence #2.) "Gachi" compounds normally carry a negative connotation B EXAMPLES: この時計は進みがちだ。 Kono tokei wa susumigachi da This clock is likely to be fast それは子供にはありがちな行動だ。 Sore wa kodomo ni wa arigachi na kōdō da That's something that children are prone to doing C NOTES: This expression is usually written in hiragana only 33 ～に限る - ～にかぎる - ~ni kagiru: There's nothing like~ [ (Item A) + wa (は） ＋ (Item that goes best with Item A) + ni kagiru (に 限る) ] A INTRODUCTION: The phrase ni kagiru (～に限る) is used when talking about two things to express that one thing goes very well with the other This phrase strongly implies that there is no better match than the two things mentioned, or that when you mention one thing, the next thing automatically comes to mind as the best choice or example because they are closely associated Kagiru 限る is a verb that means "to restrict" or "to limit" B EXAMPLES: 寒い夜は、鍋料理に限る。 Samui yoru wa, nabe ryōri ni kagiru There's nothing like nabe (a warm stew) on a cold night 疲れたときは、甘いものに限る。 Tsukareta toki wa, amai mono ni kagiru When you're tired, sweet things really hit the spot 風邪をひいた時は、寝るに限る。 Kaze o hiita toki wa, neru ni kagiru When you've got a cold, the best thing to is sleep C NOTES: Note that sometimes Item A is not explicitly stated: やっぱり、冷えたビールに限る！ Yappari, hieta bīru ni kagiru! A cold beer really hits the spot! In this case, the full phrase would be: （ビールは、）冷えたビールに限る！ 34 と共に - とともに - totomoni: as well as; with; at the same time Noun + と共に Verb.plain-nonpast + と共に Noun/Adj(na)stem + である + と共に Adj(i)inf-nonpast + と共に A INTRODUCTION: to tomo ni is a compound word composed of the particles to and ni, and the word tomo, meaning "together." When to tomo ni follows uninflectable words, such as nouns, it means "together with" (Example Sentence #3.) When it follows inflectable words, such as verbs (including the copula), it means "at the same time" or "as well as" B EXAMPLES: 彼はサッカー選手であると共に医者でもある。 Kare wa sakkā- senshu de aru totomoni isha demo aru He is a football player, as well as a medical doctor この論文は挑戦的な内容であると共に論争の余地のあるものである。 Kono ronbun wa chāsenteki de aru totomoni ronsō no yochi no aru mono de aru This thesis contains controversial and challenging content 同志と共に歩む。 Dōshi to tomo ni ayumu I'm walking with a friend C NOTES: This expression is often written in hiragana only 35 度に - たびに - tabi ni: every time; whenever Verb.plain-nonpast + たびに Noun + のたびに A INTRODUCTION: tabi ni is a conjunction used to express that whenever the action before tabi ni occurs, the action that follows tabi ni also occurs tabi ni follows verbs directly, and nouns with the particle no B EXAMPLES: この曲は聞くたびに新しい発見がある。 Kono kyoku wa kiku tabi ni atarashii hakken ga aru Every time I listen to this song, I hear something new 子供は会うたびに大きくなっていくので驚きです。 Kodomo wa au tabi ni ōkiku natte iku node odoroki desu I'm surprised to see that that kid keeps getting bigger every time I see him C NOTES: This expression is often written in hiragana only 36 に過ぎない - にすぎない - ni suginai: nothing more than, merely, just, only Counter + にすぎない Noun + にすぎない Verb.plain-nonpast + にすぎない A INTRODUCTION: Ni suginai is a Japanese expression used to indicate maximum extent It is often used derisively, and may imply that the item that precedes it is of little importance Ni suginai follows counters, nouns and verbs in plain, non-past form B EXAMPLES: 地球は宇宙空間に漂う球体にすぎない。 Chikyū wa uchū kūkan ni tadayou kyūtai ni suginai The earth is just a sphere suspended in space 水面に現れているのは氷山の一角にすぎない。 Suimen ni arawarete iru no wa hyōzan no ikkaku ni suginai What appears above the surface of the water is merely the tip of the iceberg それはほんの小さな家にすぎないが私の要求を完全に満たしている。 Sore wa hon no chīsana ie ni suginai ga watashi no yōkyū o kanzen ni mitashite iru It's only a small house, but it suits my needs perfectly C NOTES: This expression is usually written in hiragana only