The orange book

The The Orange Book Publisher Tetra Pak Processing Systems AB SE-221 86 Lund, Sweden www.tetrapak.com ISBN 91-3428-4 Further copies of The Orange Book can be obtained from your local Tetra Pak company Editor Ulla Ringblom Production Pyramid Communication AB Printer: Ruter Press Printed in 2004 © Copyright No part of The Orange Book may be duplicated in any form without the source being indicated (Tetra Pak) To the best of our knowledge the information presented in this book is correct Nevertheless, Tetra Pak disclaims all responsibility for any detrimental effects resulting from the way in which the information is used I II Sharing an experience A mine of information Because of its refreshing taste and wholesome nature, orange juice dominates the fruit juice market It is unique among juices in that the consumer can easily compare its sensory properties with those of the fresh fruit or juice squeezed directly from fresh oranges This puts high demands on orange juice producers to deliver the same level of quality, or as near as possible, as that consumers expect from fresh fruit The challenge is particularly tough because orange juice is a complex beverage sensitive to the way it is treated Over the years, Tetra Pak has been closely involved with orange juice products We believe that some of this experience could also be of interest to our customers As a supplier of both processing equipment and packaging systems, Tetra Pak has hands-on competence with all steps in the production chain, from the fruit tree to the distribution of packaged orange juice This is what we would like to share with you in the form of this book From bulk concentrate and onwards, much of what is described in The Orange Book is also valid for orange nectars and other types of fruit juices However, the production requirements for pure orange juice are usually more stringent in order to satisfy consumer expectations for this product This book focuses solely on orange juice, but Tetra Pak also has extensive know-how in the processing and packaging of many other types of fruit juices A number of tools help you extract information readily from this book A glossary explains familiar expressions used in the citrus industry, and a list of literature is given for further reading Metric units are used throughout this book except when other specific units are commonly used A list of conversion factors allows you to convert between different units We hope you will find The Orange Book useful in providing consumers with the most enjoyable fruit juice provided by nature A journey with juice Second edition The Orange Book follows the complete journey of orange juice It begins with the various types of orange fruit, proceeds through all the processing and packaging steps, and ends with the distribution of the end product to consumers Along the way there is a chance to look at market information, juice quality and categories, the trading and shipping of products, and industry standards and regulations Consideration is given throughout to the factors that influence end-product quality, including the role of flavour and product blending The first edition of The Orange Book was well received in 1997, and as it went out of print it is followed by this revised edition Valuable comments have been received on the book from many sources in the citrus industry Tetra Pak would particularly like to thank the following persons for their review of relevant sections in the book and suggestions on how to improve it: Professor Robert Braddock of the University of Florida, Antonio Carlos Gonçalves of Louis Dreyfus Citrus, Dr Barrie Preston of Döhler-Eurocitrus, and Martin Greeve, Chairman of the AIJN Code of Practice Expert Group III Contents THE ORANGE FRUIT AND ITS PRODUCTS 1.1 The fruit’s origin and important varieties 1.2 A global overview 1.2.1 Large-scale development 1.2.2 Orange crop diseases 4 1.3 Bridging the seasons 1.4 Fruit selection 1.5 Inside an orange 1.6 Squeezing out every drop 1.7 Primary and secondary products 1.8 Major orange-producing regions 1.8.1 Brazil 1.8.2 Florida 10 10 12 1.9 Other regions 13 ORANGE JUICE QUALITY AND CATEGORIES 17 2.1 Juice quality 2.1.1 Defining quality 2.1.2 Quality specifications 18 18 19 2.2 Important properties of orange juice 2.2.1 Sugars and acids 2.2.2 Cloud and pulp 2.2.3 Flavour 2.2.4 Colour 2.2.5 Promoting health 20 20 22 23 25 26 2.3 Orange juice categories 2.3.1 Ready-to-drink orange juice 2.3.2 Concentrated orange juice 28 28 29 2.4 Regulations governing juice origin 30 THE SUPPLY CHAIN AND GLOBAL CONSUMPTION OF ORANGE JUICE 31 3.1 The chain of supply 3.1.1 Growers 3.1.2 Types of fruit processor 3.1.3 Blending houses 3.1.4 Juice packers 3.1.5 Soft drink producers 32 33 34 35 36 37 3.2 World market pricing for bulk juice products 37 3.3 FCOJ commodity trading and the futures market 38 3.4 Import duties and juice imports 3.4.1 Import duties with some typical examples 39 41 IV 3.5 Global orange juice consumption 3.5.1 Per capita orange juice consumption 42 43 PRINCIPLES OF PROCESSING ORANGE JUICE 45 4.1 Impact of processing on juice quality 4.1.1 Raw materials 4.1.2 Processing 4.1.3 Impact of long-term bulk storage 46 47 47 49 4.2 Air/oxygen in the product 4.2.1 Sources of air/oxygen 4.2.2 Problems caused by air/oxygen in the product 4.2.3 Principles of deaeration 50 51 4.3 Microbiology of orange juice 4.3.1 Relevant microorganisms in orange juice 4.3.2 Microflora of different types of orange juice 4.3.3 Influence of raw materials 4.3.4 Sanitation 54 4.4 Pasteurisation 4.4.1 Purpose of pasteurisation 4.4.2 Inactivation of enzymes 4.4.3 Inactivation of microorganisms 4.4.4 Time-temperature conditions for pasteurisation 59 59 59 61 FRUIT PROCESSING 63 5.1 Processing plant overview 64 5.2 Orange juice production steps 66 5.3 Fruit reception 67 5.4 Juice extraction 5.4.1 Extractor types 5.4.2 The squeezer-type extractor 5.4.3 The reamer-type extractor 5.4.4 Down stream of the juice extractors 68 68 69 71 5.5 Clarification 72 5.6 NFC production 5.6.1 Oil reduction 5.6.2 Primary pasteurisation 5.6.3 Deaeration 5.6.4 Long-term frozen storage 5.6.5 Aseptic storage in tanks 5.6.6 Aseptic storage in bag-in-box containers 5.6.7 Reprocessing of NFC 74 75 76 76 76 77 52 53 54 57 58 58 61 72 78 78 Contents 5.7 Concentrate production 5.7.1 Tubular evaporator systems 5.7.2 Plate evaporator systems 5.7.3 Homogenisation 5.7.4 The centrifugal evaporator 5.7.5 Essence recovery 5.7.6 Concentrate storage 5.7.7 Alternative concentration methods 79 79 80 81 82 82 83 83 5.8 Peel oil (cold-pressed oil) recovery 5.8.1 Straining and concentration step 5.8.2 Polishing 5.8.3 The winterisation process 5.8.4 d-Limonene recovery systems 84 84 85 85 85 5.9 Feed mill operations 86 5.10 Pulp production 5.10.1 Production factors which affect commercial pulp quality 5.10.2 Process steps in pulp production 87 88 88 5.11 Pulp wash production 92 5.12 Essence recovery 92 TRANSPORT AND HANDLING OF BULK PRODUCTS 93 6.1 Packing and shipping preferences 95 6.2 Bulk shipping of FCOJ 6.2.1 From Brazil to Europe 95 96 6.3 Bulk shipping of NFC 6.3.1 Frozen NFC shipments 6.3.2 Bulk units for aseptic NFC shipments 6.3.3 Bulk shipping of aseptic NFC by sea 6.3.4 Transport of bulk product versus retail packaged product 97 97 7.1 An overview of juice packer operations 7.1.1 General requirements for juice packer lines 7.1.2 Process lines 7.2 Raw material reception and handling 7.2.1 Tanks for concentrate storage 7.2.2 Drums with frozen concentrate 7.2.3 Drums containing solid frozen products 7.2.4 Aseptic bag-in-box containers 7.2.5 Tanks for NFC 7.2.6 Reclaim product 97 99 99 6.4 Shipping costs 100 6.5 Terminals for receiving orange juice 6.5.1 Terminals for bulk FCOJ 6.5.2 Terminals for bulk aseptic NFC 100 100 101 6.6 Blending house operations 102 PROCESSING AT THE JUICE PACKER V 103 105 105 105 110 110 111 111 112 112 112 7.3 Water treatment 7.3.1 Water quality 7.3.2 Water treatment methods 7.3.3 In-plant distribution of product water 7.3.4 Deaeration of water 113 113 114 7.4 Blending 7.4.1 Blending of nectars and fruit drinks 7.4.2 Defining the blending formula 7.4.3 Savings made by accurate blending 7.4.4 Comparison of blending methods 7.4.5 Batch blending systems 7.4.6 In-line blending systems 7.4.7 How a refractometer works 7.4.8 How a density meter works 116 116 117 118 118 119 120 121 122 7.5 Pasteurisation and deaeration 7.5.1 Selecting the heat exchanger 7.5.2 The pasteurisation process 7.5.3 Deaeration 7.5.4 System design 7.5.5 Process control 7.5.6 Control of pasteurisation units 122 123 124 125 126 126 127 7.6 Aseptic buffer 7.6.1 Operational steps 128 129 7.7 Hot filling 7.7.1 Process description 129 130 7.8 Aseptic transfer of NFC 130 7.9 Cleaning-in-place 7.9.1 CIP procedures 7.9.2 Pigging 131 132 133 7.10 Quality control of final product 7.10.1 Microbiological control 134 134 115 116 Contents ADD-BACK COMPONENTS – VOLATILE FLAVOURS AND FLOATING PULP 135 8.1 Volatile flavours 8.1.1 Origin of natural volatile orange flavours 8.1.2 Major constituents of flavour fractions 8.1.3 Flavour standardisation and folding of oils 8.1.4 Methods of separating and concentrating flavours 8.1.5 Creation of flavour systems 136 8.2 Floating pulp 8.2.1 Useful terms 8.2.2 Floating pulp properties 8.2.3 Floating pulp concentration 142 142 144 145 8.3 Components added back to juice 146 PACKAGING AND STORAGE OF ORANGE JUICE 149 139 10.2 Orange juice at the retailer 10.2.1 Distribution units 10.2.2 Handling at the retailer 140 141 142 151 9.2 Barrier properties against oxygen 9.2.1 Vitamin C degradation 9.2.2 Colour changes 9.2.3 The impact of oxygen on storage-dependent flavour changes 152 152 154 9.3 Barrier properties against light 156 9.4 Barrier properties against aromas 9.4.1 Composition of orange juice aroma 9.4.2 Properties of different polymers 9.4.3 Properties of different packages 9.4.4 Consequences of flavour scalping 156 156 157 158 159 9.5 Aseptic versus nonaseptic packaging 160 167 10.1 Distribution of product to retailer 169 10.1.1 Delivery directly to the retail store 169 10.1.2 Delivery through wholesalers 169 10.1.3 Delivery to a retailer’s central depot 170 137 9.1 The role of packaging 9.1.1 Product quality parameters to be protected during storage 9.1.2 Factors affecting quality parameters during storage 9.6 Different packages and packaging systems 9.6.1 Carton-based packages 9.6.2 Bottles 9.6.3 Hot filling 9.6.4 Selecting the most appropriate package for a particular juice 10 FROM JUICE PACKER TO CONSUMER 171 171 172 10.3 The orange juice consumer 174 10.3.1 Regional preferences for juice categories 174 10.3.2 Who buys juice in the USA 176 10.3.3 When orange juice is consumed 176 10.3.4 Where orange juice is consumed 177 10.3.5 Why people buy orange juice 178 10.4 Orange nectars and orange drinks 179 10.4.1 Fruit nectars 179 10.4.2 Still fruit drinks 179 11 STANDARDS AND REGULATIONS 151 151 154 160 161 163 165 181 11.1 Standards governing juice composition and labelling 11.1.1 The USA and Canada 11.1.2 The European Union 11.1.3 Other major regions and countries 11.1.4 Fruit juice standards of Codex Alimentarius 182 183 184 186 11.2 The problem of adulteration 11.2.1 Protecting the consumer 11.2.2 Telling wrong from right 188 188 189 12 GLOSSARY 191 13 ABBREVIATIONS, WEIGHTS AND MEASURES 197 13.1 Abbreviations 197 13.2 Unit conversions 198 187 13.3 Density tables for sugar solutions 199 166 VI 14 FURTHER READING AND REFERENCES 201 14.1 Books on orange juice 201 14.2 References 202 14.3 Useful websites 204 INDEX 205 The orange fruit and its products In section you will read about: • The origin and spread of the orange plant from Southeast Asia to the rest of the world • Global orange production and the development of large-scale production • Common orange crop diseases and their control by using resistant rootstocks • The whys and wherefores of single-strength and concentrated juice • How the seasons are bridged to provide consumers with year-round supplies • What’s inside an orange • Nature’s gift Every part of the orange can be used for producing commercial products • Valuable by-products such as pulp, peel oil, essences and animal feed • The most important orange-growing regions 1 The orange fruit and its products A look inside Basically, an orange consists of juice vesicles surrounded by a waxy skin, the peel The peel comprises a thin, coloured outer layer called the flavedo and a thicker, fibrous inner layer called the albedo The endocarp, the edible portion of the fruit, includes a central fibrous core and individual segments containing the juice sacs In large processing plants the complete fruit is utilised By-products are produced to help maximise profits and minimise waste Summary The orange plant originated in Southeast Asia and spread gradually to other parts of the world Today, orange juice products derive from four main groups of orange About 65 million tonnes of oranges per annum are produced globally Of this, around 40 % is processed into juice and the rest consumed as whole fruit Single-strength or concentrated As juice is produced on a seasonal basis, it must be stored between seasons to ensure a year-round supply to consumer markets Most juice is produced as frozen concentrated orange juice, FCOJ, because it can be stored for long periods of time and shipped at lower cost as it contains less water “Not-from-concentrate” juice, NFC, which is at single strength, requires much larger volumes during storage and shipping Most NFC produced is intended for nearby markets but its export is increasing Major players The two most important orange-processing regions are Brazil and the state of Florida in the US Together these regions account for nearly 90 % of global orange juice production Tangerines 17 % Lemons / Limes 11 % 1.1 The fruit’s origin and important varieties The orange is the world’s most popular fruit Like all citrus plants, the orange tree originated in the tropical regions of Asia Oranges are mentioned in an old Chinese manuscript dating back to 2200 BC The development of the Arab trade routes, the spread of Islam and the expansion of the Roman empire led to the fruit being cultivated in other regions From its original habitat, the orange spread to India, the east coast of Africa, and from there to the eastern Mediterranean region By the time Columbus and his followers took plants to the Americas, orange trees were common in the western Mediterranean region and the Canary Islands Grapefruits 6% Oranges 66 % Fig 1.1 World citrus fruit production by types 2001/02 Source: FAO Oranges account for more than two thirds of the world production of all citrus fruits, of which other important species are the lemon, grapefruit and mandarin (see Figure 1.1) Glossary Soluble solids are solid materials that will dissolve in the liquid in question Sugars and acids in citrus juices are commonly referred to as soluble solids Quick Fibre A test method to determine the relative dryness of pulp It indicates how hard the squeezing of pulp to remove juice in the finishers has been Quick Fibre (QF) is also a measure of how wet the pulp is as it exits the final, or drying, finisher in the pulp production line Specific gravity Refers to the actual weight of a liquid in relation to water (at defined temperatures) Also called relative density State Test Ratio Standardised method used in Florida to establish the potential juice yield from a delivered load of fruit Juice extraction is carried out using a State test extractor under well-defined operating conditions The actual juice yield during commercial processing of the same fruit batch is different to, and often higher than, the State Test yield The ratio is obtained by dividing the °Brix of a juice product by the acid content (as % wt) The ratio, also referred to as Brix:acid ratio, is important for describing taste as a measure of the balance between the sweet and sour sensations Consumers prefer a ratio of around 15:1 Sweet oranges Recontamination For orange juice, the sweet orange, Citrus sinensis, is the most important group of orange fruit Regulations in the EU stipulate that orange juice may only be made from the sweet orange, whereas in other markets legislation allows the addition of small amounts of juice from other orange varieties, like mandarins, to balance juice taste Contamination of juice with microorganisms after it has been pasteurised Also known as reinfection Refractive index A measure of how much light is refracted, that is, changes direction, on passing from one medium to another The refractive index for a solution depends on its concentration The measured refractive index can be translated into concentration of soluble solids of a solution such as orange juice Taste Sensations perceived via the taste buds of the tongue when stimulated by certain substances Refractometer An instrument for measuring refractive index Sensory analysis Viscosity Examination of a product by the sense organs Viscosity is a measure of the “thickness” of a fluid It affects the “body” of the juice created primarily by pectin-related stabilisation of the cloud or colloids in the juice The presence of insoluble material also contributes to increased juice body or viscosity Shelf life The time period up to the point when a food product becomes unacceptable from a safety, sensorial or nutritional perspective Single-strength The term assigned to juice at its natural strength, either directly from the extraction process or in a reconstituted form Washed pulp The solid particles remaining from the pulp wash process It is sold in frozen form for addition to fruit beverages, or recovered in the feed mill area for use as animal feed Solids Insoluble solids are, simply put, solids that will not dissolve in the liquid in question In orange juice they consist mainly of cellulosic and insoluble pectic substances generally associated with pulp 196 13 Abbreviations, weights and measures 13.1 Abbreviations The definitions of some abbreviations used in the orange juice industry and in The Orange Book are given below Scientific expressions and products for which abbreviated names are used are given in the Glossary (Section 12) Trade expressions: Units of measurement : cif DPC DPP fca fot fob RTD RTS SSE °Bx °C cP °F fl oz ft gal gpm g h kPa l lb meq µm m mm m2 m3 mg mph oz ppm s t % v/v % w/w cost, insurance and freight direct product cost direct product profit free carrier free on truck free on board ready to drink ready to serve single strength equivalent Materials and packaging manufacture: EVOH ethylene vinyl alcohol PA polyamide PE polyethylene HDPE high density polyethylene LDPE low density polyethylene LLDPE linear low density polyethylene PEN polyethylene naphtalate PET polyethylene terephtalate PP polypropylene EBM extrusion blow-moulding SBM stretch blow-moulding Organisations: AIJN Association of the Industry of Juices and Nectars from Fruits and Vegetables of the European Union FAO Food and Agricultural Organisation (United Nations) FDA Food and Drug Administration (USA) IFU International Federation of Fruit Juice Producers IFT Institute of Food Technologists (USA) JPA Juice Products Association USDA United States Department of Agriculture WHO World Health Organisation (United Nations) degree Brix degree Celsius centipoise (viscosity) degree Fahrenheit fluid ounce feet gallon* gallons per minute gram hour kiloPascal litre pound (weight) milliequivalent micrometre (0.000 001 metre) metre minute millimetre square metre cubic metre milligram miles per hour ounce parts per million (e.g mg/kg) second tonne % volume by volume % weight by weight * Gallon means US gallon (128 fl oz or 0.83 Imperial gallon) in The Orange Book 197 13.2 Unit conversions 13.2 Unit conversions In the orange juice industry several different systems are used around the world for units of measurement The list below shows how you can convert between some of these units To convert boxes boxes ounces pounds (lb) short tons tons (metric) long tons into kg lb kg kg kg kg kg multiply by 40.8 90 0.02835 0.454 907.8 000 016 fluid ounces (US) pints (US) quarts (US) gallons (US) fluid ounces (Imperial) pints (Imperial) quarts (Imperial) gallons (Imperial) cubic feet cubic metres litres litres litres litres litres litres litres litres litres litres 0.02957 0.4732 0.9463 3.785 0.02841 0.5683 1.136 4.546 28.32 1000 gallons/min (gpm) 0.2271 inches feet yards miles cubic metres/hour (m3/hr) metres metres metres metres square feet acres square metres (m2) square metres (m2) 0.09290 047.0 miles/hr (mph) kilometres/hr 1.609 bar kg/cm2 (at) atm (normal atmosphere) pounds/square inch (psi) kPa kPa kPa kPa 100.0 98.1 101.3 6.895 Btu (British thermal units) kilocalories (kcal) kilowatt hour (kWh) kilowatt hour (kWh) 0.0002928 0.001163 horsepower (UK, USA) kilowatts (kW) 0.7457 °Fahrenheit °Celsius (°F x 5/9) - 32 Relationship for liquid volumes: US: gallon = quarts = pints = 128 fluid ounces Imperial: gallon = quarts = pints = 160 fluid ounces 198 0.02540 0.3048 0.9144 609.0 13.3 Density tables for sugar solutions 13.3 Density tables for sugar solutions BRIX LEVELS FOR SINGLE-STRENGTH JUICES The official table for true density values of sucrose solutions (at 20 °C) was published by Plato in 1900 and is still universally used today Relative densities and weight of solids of sucrose solutions were derived from the Plato table (1942) These values were adopted as an official table for determining solids weights in orange juice concentrates by the Florida citrus industry Later the tables were further developed and computerised They are used throughout the citrus industry to provide a uniform reference for determining the quantity of soluble solids (“pounds solids”) in fruit juices and concentrates An abstract from the sugar density tables developed by Chen (1989) is given below The full table includes true density in vacuum, density in air, etc The values in the list below can be used to approximately relate the soluble solids (or sugar) content of orange juice to its specific gravity, for example when calculating the blending formula for reconstituting juice (See subsection 7.4) Orange juice is not a pure sugar solution but contains other solids, both dissolved and insoluble Explanations to the table below: Conc in °Brix or %w = sucrose concentration as %weight Conc in g/l = sucrose concentration as grams sucrose per litre solution at 20 °C Relative density 20/20 = density of sucrose solution at 20 °C relative to the density of water at 20 °C Also referred to as specific gravity 20/20 Conc in °Brix or % w 8.5 8.6 8.7 8.8 8.9 Conc in g/l Relative density 20°/20 °C 1.03385 1.03426 1.03467 1.03508 1.03549 87.63 88.69 89.76 90.83 91.90 9.0 9.1 9.2 9.3 9.4 9.5 9.6 9.7 9.8 9.9 92.97 94.04 95.11 96.18 97.25 98.33 99.40 100.48 101.55 102.63 1.03590 1.03631 1.03672 1.03714 1.03755 1.03796 1.03838 1.03879 1.03920 1.03962 10.0 10.1 10.2 10.3 10.4 10.5 10.6 10.7 10.8 10.9 103.71 104.79 105.87 106.95 108.03 109.11 110.19 111.28 112.36 113.45 1.04003 1.04044 1.04086 1.04127 1.04169 1.04210 1.04252 1.04294 1.04335 1.04377 11.0 11.1 11.2 11.3 11.4 11.5 11.6 11.7 11.8 11.9 114.54 115.62 116.71 117.80 118.89 119.98 121.07 122.17 123.26 124.35 1.04419 1.04460 1.04502 1.04544 1.04586 1.04628 1.04670 1.04712 1.04754 1.04795 12.0 12.1 12.2 12.3 12.4 12.5 12.6 12.7 12.8 12.9 125.45 126.55 127.64 128.74 129.84 130.94 132.04 133.14 134.24 135.35 1.04837 1.04880 1.04922 1.04964 1.05006 1.05048 1.05090 1.05132 1.05175 1.05217 13.0 13.1 13.2 13.4 13.5 136.45 137.56 138.66 140.88 141.98 1.05259 1.05302 1.05344 1.05429 1.05471 Source: Fruit Juice Processing Technology, edited by S Nagy, C.S Chen and P Shaw 199 13.3 Density tables for sugar solutions BRIX LEVELS FOR CONCENTRATES Conc in °Brix or % w 40.0 40.5 41.0 41.5 42.0 42.5 43.0 43.5 44.0 44.5 45.0 45.5 46.0 46.5 47.0 47.5 48.0 48.5 49.0 49.5 50.0 50.5 51.0 51.5 52.0 52.5 53.0 53.5 54.0 54.5 55.0 55.5 56.0 56.5 57.0 57.5 58.0 58.5 59.0 59.5 Conc in g/l 470.17 475.70 484.03 491.01 498.01 505.05 512.11 519.21 526.34 533.49 540.68 547.90 555.15 562.43 569.74 577.08 584.46 591.86 599.30 606.77 614.27 621.80 629.37 636.97 644.60 652.26 659.96 667.69 675.45 683.25 691.08 698.95 706.84 714.77 722.74 730.74 738.78 746.84 754.95 763.09 Relative density 20°/20 °C 1.17875 1.18130 1.18391 1.18650 1.18911 1.19172 1.19434 1.19359 1.19622 1.19886 1.20492 1.20759 1.21026 1.20952 1.21565 1.21835 1.21762 1.22379 1.22653 1.22927 1.23202 1.23478 1.23756 1.24934 1.24313 1.24593 1.24874 1.25156 1.25084 1.25722 1.26007 1.26293 1.26580 1.26867 1.27156 1.27446 1.27736 1.28028 1.28320 1.28614 Conc in °Brix or % w 60.0 60.5 61.0 61.5 62.0 62.5 63.0 63.5 64.0 64.5 65.0 65.5 66.0 66.5 67.0 67.5 68.0 68.5 69.0 69.5 70.0 Source: Fruit Juice Processing Technology, edited by S Nagy, C.S Chen and P Shaw 200 Conc in g/l 771.26 779.47 787.71 795.99 804.31 812.66 821.05 829.47 837.93 846.43 854.96 863.53 872.13 880.77 889.45 898.17 906.92 915.71 924.54 933.41 942.31 Relative density 20°/20 °C 1.28908 1.29203 1.29500 1.29797 1.30095 1.30394 1.30694 1.30996 1.31298 1.31601 1.31905 1.32210 1.32516 1.32823 1.33130 1.33439 1.33749 1.34060 1.34372 1.34684 1.34998 14 Further reading and references 14.1 Books on orange juice Quality Control Manual for Citrus Processing Plants Below is a list of books containing detailed information about orange juice, both as a product and its processing Some of these books have been referred to in The Orange Book as sources of information Vol II, revised and enlarged 1992 349 pp Editors: J Redd, D Hendrix and C Hendrix Jr Publisher: AgScience Inc., Florida sections covering plant operations, citrus blending techniques, and formulating and citrus mathematics It contains practical information about the everyday operation and management of citrus processing plants Production and Packaging of Non-carbonated Fruit Juices and Fruit Beverages 2nd edition, 1995, 423 pp Editor: P.R Ashurst, Publisher: Blackie Academic & Professional, UK 15 sections including general descriptions of processing of common juices such as citrus, apple, grape juice and tropical fruits Also sections on nutritional value, fruit juice legislation and authenticity control for orange juice Individual contributors to respective sections come from the juice and supplier industry Quality Control Manual for Citrus Processing Plants Vol III, 1996, 325 pp Editors: J Redd, P Shaw, C Hendrix Jr and D Hendrix Publisher: AgScience Inc., Florida A comprehensive review of state-of-the-art knowledge on respective topics Sections cover: flavours, speciality and by-products; raw product as applied to processing; processing parameters The editors of this series of books have long experience in the Florida citrus industry, particularly with flavours and by-products Fruit Juice Processing Technology 1993, 713 pp Editors: S Nagy, C.S Chen and P Shaw Publisher: AgScience Inc, Florida 16 sections covering fruit processing of citrus fruits and several tropical fruits, berries and apples (total 22 types of fruit) It gives an overview of how the various fruits are processed and what equipment can be used Handbook of Citrus By-Products and Processing Technology 1999, 247 pp Author: R J Braddock Publisher: John Wiley & Sons, Inc., NY 17 chapters detailing citrus juice and by-products manufacture Included are details of juice and thermal processing including concentrate, NFC, enzyme inactivation kinetics, the properties and manufacture of citrus essential oils, dlimonene chemistry and properties, dried pulp and descriptions of other citrus by-products Quality Control Manual for Citrus Processing Plants Vol I, revised 1986, 250 pp Editors: J Redd, D Hendrix and C Hendrix Jr Publisher: AgScience Inc., Florida sections covering regulations, analytical methods, microbiology and conversion charts It is intended for plant technologists and others involved with analyses and understanding plant operating procedures The first of books compiling and presenting comprehensive information about citrus processing Citrus Processing: Quality Control and Technology 1991, 473 pp Author: Dan A Kimball Publisher: AVI Book of Van Nostrand Reinhold A comprehensive book describing in detail citrus juice properties and processing technology from an analytical and quality control point of view Analytical methods are included Enlarged 2nd edition published in 1999 201 14.1 Books on orange juice Technical Manual - Reconstituted Florida Orange Juice Chen, Chin Shu “Mathematical correlations for calculation of Brix-apparent density of sucrose solutions.” Lebensmittel.-Wissenschaft.Technol, 1989 (22); 154-156 and Technical Manual - Freshly Squeezed Florida Orange Juice 1985 Publisher: Florida Department of Citrus, Scientific Research Department, University of Florida -IFAS-CREC Includes instructions, regulations and analytical procedures for production, packaging and distribution of respective products These manuals are specific to Florida Dürr, P., Schobinger, U., and Waldvogel, R “Aroma quality of orange juice after filling and storage in soft packages and glass bottles.” Alimenta, 1981 (20); 91-93 Goodrich, R.M and Brown, M.G ”European Markets for NFC: Supply and Demand Issues.” Presented at the 7th International Economic Outlook Conference for Citrus and Non-Citrus Juices, Orlando, Florida, 2000 Other books on citrus fruit An Illustrated Guide to Citrus Varieties of the World Johnson, J.D and Vora, J.D “Natural citrus essence: production and application.” Presented at the 43rd Annual Meeting of International Food Technologists, New Orleans, Louisiana, 1983 2nd edition, 2000, 160 pp Author: J Saunt Publisher: Sinclair International Ltd, UK Descriptions and colour illustrations of orange and other citrus varieties Kanner, J., Fishbein, J., Shalom, P., Harel, S., and Ben-Gera, I Compendium on Citrus Diseases “Storage stability of orange juice concentrate packaged aseptically.” Journal of Food Science, 1982 ( 47); 429 2nd edition, 2000, 128pp Editors: L.W Timmer, S.M Garnesey, J.H Graham Publisher: APS American Phytopathological Society Press, Minnesota Descriptions of citrus diseases and classification of pathogens Colour pictures for disease diagnosis Mannheim, Chaim and Havkin, Margalit “Shelf life of aseptically bottled orange juice.” Journal of Food Processing and Preservation, 1981 (5); 1-6 Nonino, Eliseu A “Orange juice quality upgrading.” Fruit Processing, 1995; issue no 11, 372-374 14.2 References Pieper, Gabrielle; Borgudd, Lars; Ackermann, Paul and Fellers, Paul Below follows a list of publications to which reference is made in various sections of The Orange Book “Absorption of aroma volatiles of orange juice into laminated carton packages did not affect sensory quality.” Journal of Food Science, 1992 (57), issue no 6, 1408-1411 Articles and scientific papers Ackermann, P.W and Wartenberg, E.W “Shelf life of citrus juices A comparison between packages.” International Federation of Fruit Juice Producers, Scientific Technical Commission XIX, Symposium The Hague, 1986; 143-160 Redd, J.B Braddock, R.J and Sadler, G.D Shapton, D.A., Lovelock, D.W and Laurita-Longo, R “Distillation Systems.” Presented at the Annual short course for the food industry, International Food Technologists, University of Florida, Gainsville, Florida, 1976 “Chemical changes in citrus juice during concentration processes.” American Chemical Society Symposium Series, 1989 (405); chapter 22 “The evaluation of sterilisation and pasteurisation processes from temperature measurements in degrees Celsius.” Journal of Applied Bacteriology, 1971 (34); issue no 2, 491-500 202 14.1 Books on orange juice Other published and unpublished material Internet links valid August 2004 USDA Foreign Agricultural Services -GAIN reports 2003 Citrus annual reports for various countries USDA FAS: Washington D.C., USA Citrus fruit, fresh and processed: Annual statistics 2002 FAO: Rome, Italy Accessible at www.fas.usda.gov Accessible at www.fao.org/es/ESC Vattenbenbehandlingsmetoder (Water treatment methods.) Vattenteknik AB: Malmö, Sweden, 1992 Citrus Reference Book 2004 Florida Department of Citrus: Lakeland, Florida Publications on fruit juice regulations www.fred.ifas.ufl.edu/citrus/pubs/index.htm Australian New Zealand Food Standards Code -Standard 2.6.1, 2000 Valid for Fruit Juice and Vegetable Juice FSANZ Food Standards Australia New Zealand: Canberra, Australia Code of Practice: Reference Guideline for Orange Juice, 2003 AIJN: Brussels, Belgium www.foodstandards.gov.au/_srcfiles/Standard261_ Juice_v62.pdf Compass Market Statistics Internal publication Tetra Pak: Lund, Sweden, 2002 Codex Alimentarius - Codex Standard 45, 1981 Covers orange juice preserved exclusively by physical means Codex Alimentarius Commission/FAO: Rome, Italy Dairy Processing Handbook Tetra Pak: Lund, Sweden, 2003 Fruit Beverages in the US, 2000 Beverage Marketing Corp.: New York, USA ftp.fao.org/codex/standard/en/CXS_045e.pdf or via www.codexalimentarius.net/web/standard_ list.do?lang=en Fruit/Vegetable Juice Country Reports 2004 Euromonitor: London, UK European regulation for fruit juice - Council Directive 2001/112/EC, 2001 Covers fruit juices and certain similar products intended for human consumption Council of the European Union: Brussels, Belgium Givaudan Roure, Florida, USA Personal communication Livsmedelstabell Energi och Näringsämnen Statens Livsmedelsverk: Uppsala, Sweden http://europa.eu.int/eur-lex/pri/en/oj/dat/2002/l_010/ l_01020020112en00580066.pdf Redd, J.B and Praschan V Quality Control Manual for Citrus Processing Plants AgScience Inc.: Auburndale, Florida, 1975 United States Standards for Grades of Orange Juice, 1983 USDA, Agricultural Marketing Services: Washington DC, USA Robertson, Gordon L Food Packaging: Principles and Practice Marcel Dekker Inc.: New York, USA, 1993 www.ams.usda.gov/standards/cnorange.pdf Juice HAACP Hazard and Controls Guidance, 2004 US FDA, Center for Food Safety & Applied Nutrition: College Park, MD, USA Soft Drinks Report 2003 Canadean: London, UK www.cfsan.fda.gov/~dms/juicgu10.html Technical Vademecum: Beverage manual Döhler-Eurocitrus: Darmstadt, Germany, 1999 203 14.3 Useful websites 14.3 Useful websites UNCTAD* Info Comm - Market information in the commodities area - Citrus Fruit Overview of production, manufacturing and trade Internet links valid August 2004 Below is a list of useful websites covering the orange juice industry *United Nations Conference On Trade And Development http://r0.unctad.org/infocomm/anglais/orange/ market.htm ABECITRUS -The Brazilian Association of Citrus Exporters Presentation of Brazil orange juice industry incl research studies and export statistics FAO - Food and Agriculture Organization of the UN Statistics on fruit crop, processing and utilisation www.abecitrus.com.br CREC- Citrus Research and Education Center at University of Florida Website includes information about citrus training courses, events and research publications www.fao.org/es/ESC Codex Alimentarius Commission Joint FAO/WHO food standards programme www.lal.ufl.edu www.codexalimentarius.net Citrus Flavour and Colour Very informative website published by the flavour research team at CREC AIJN - Association of the Industry of Juices and Nectars From Fruits and Vegetables of the European Union www.crec.ifas.ufl.edu/rouseff/ www.aijn.org FDOC - Florida Department of Citrus Website for and about the Florida citrus industry including commercial and regulatory news IFU - The International Federation of Fruit Juice Producers www.ifu-fruitjuice.com www.floridajuice.com JPA - Juice Products Association www.juiceproducts.org FDOC - Florida Department of Citrus Economic and Market Research Comprehensive website incl production and market data on citrus in various databases and publications TCJJP - Technical Committee for Juice and Juice Products www.tcjjp.org www.fred.ifas.ufl.edu/citrus Ultimate Citrus - The Ultimate Citrus Page A comprehensive list of websites covering the citrus industry www.ultimatecitrus.com 204 Index Topic Acetaldehydes Acidity Acids Acid-tolerant bacteria Activated carbon filtration Adulteration Ad Valorem tariffs AIJN quality requirements Air – see Oxygen Albedo Alcohols – basic structure – in flavour fractions Aldehydes – basic structure – in flavour fractions Australia Aroma compounds – basic structure Ascorbic acid – see vitamin C Aseptic buffer Aseptic storage In tanks In bag-in-box containers Aseptic transfer of NFC juice Bacteria Bag-in-box bulk containers Barrier properties of packaging Bitterness Blending houses Blending systems Batch blending In-line blending Bottles – as packaging Brazil Fruit processors Orange production Orange varieties grown Growers Harvesting Shipping FCOJ to Europe Break bulk Brix Brix corrections Browning Bulk juice products Frozen storage Impact of long-term storage Shipping costs Transport and handling Bulk processors Page Topic 138-140 21 21 54 115 188 39 19, 186 Categories of orange juice Clarification Cloud Cloud loss California Caribbean Carton-based packages Central America Centrifugal clarification Centrifuges China Chlorination of water Citrus aurantium Citrus molasses Citrus reticulata Citrus sinensis Cleaning-in-place (CIP) Colour Colour measurement Colour changes in packaged juice Comminuted citrus base Composition of orange juice Concentrated orange juice Categories Impact of long-term storage Storage at the juice processor Storage at the juice packer Consumption of orange juice By categories Consumer preference Worldwide 6,7 157 139, 140 157 139,140 14, 186 157 128 77 112 130 54 78, 112 152, 156 25 35, 102 Page 28 72 22, 60 60 13 13 161, 162 13 73 73, 75, 84, 85 3, 4, 14 115 3 108, 131 25, 154 25 154 27 28 49 83 110, 111 174, 175 176-178 40, 42, 43 106, 119 107, 120 161, 163-165 Deaeration 76, 116, 122, 125 Deaerators 52, 54, 125 Dealkalisation of water 114 Debittering 92 Defect removal from pulp 89 Density measurement 20, 21 Deoiler oils 138 Depot – retailer´s 170 Diacetyl 54 Direct product profitability (DPP) 173 Diseases - orange crop Distillation for concentrating flavours 141 Distilled oils 138 Distribution of packaged products 169 Distribution units 171 Drum emptying of concentrate 111 34 3-5, 10-16 12 33 10, 11 96 96 20, 21 20 26, 154 76 49 100 93 34, 35 205 Index Topic Endocarp Enzymes Essence aroma Major components Related to flavour Essence oil Major components Related to flavour Essence recovery Esters – basic structure – in flavour fractions Ethyl butyrate Evaporator systems Centrifugal Plate Tubular Export of FCOJ Extractor types Page Topic Fruit reception Fruit sizer Futures market 59, 60 138 24, 137, 138 Glass bottles Grade A (Florida) Grading of orange fruit 138 24, 137, 139 82, 92 157 138, 139 138 Harvesting seasons Heat exchangers Plate Tubular Henry’s law Hermetic centrifuges Hesperidin flavonoid Homogenisation as part of evaporation Hot filling Hybrid oranges Hydrocarbons – basic structure – in flavour fractions Hydrocyclone 82 80 79 10 68 Feed mill operations 86 Finishers 73, 89, 91 Flavedo 6,7 Flavonoids 27 Flavour Changes in flavour during processing 48 Quality parameters 23 Standardisation 140 Volatile 136 Flavour scalping 158, 159 Flavour systems 142 Flocculation for water treatment 114 Florida Fruit processors 34, 35 Orange production 4, 6, 12 Orange varieties grown 12 Growers 33 Harvesting 4, 12 Folding of oils 140 Folic acid 27 Fortified orange juices 29 Freeze concentration 83 Frozen Concentrated Orange Juice (FCOJ) Bulk shipping 95 Commodity trading and futures market 38 Commodity trading, units 38 Definition Microflora 57 Terminals for receiving products 100 Types 29 Fruit growers 33 Fruit processor – types of 34 Fruit processing – overview 64 Import duties with typical examples Import of orange juice Industry structure Iron removal from water Isotope analysis Japan Juice extraction Juice packers Overview Process lines Juice sac Juice vesicle Korea - Republic of Lactic acid bacteria Laminated carton material Light refraction measurement 206 Page 65 68 38 161, 163-165 19, 184 67 4, 80, 123 79, 123 53 75, 85 27 81 129, 165 157 138 89 41 39 32 114 189 14, 41 68 36, 104, 105 105-109 6, 6, 41 54 161, 162 20 Index Topic Page Topic Light – impact on packaged juice 156 d-Limonene 24, 25, 138, 139, 156, 157 Limonin 92 Maillard reaction Major orange-growing regions Mandarin orange Manganese removal from water Marketing processors Mediterranean Membrane filtration Mexico Microflora of different products Microorganisms in orange juice Moulds Nanofiltration of water Nectars Not-from-concentrate (NFC) Aseptic transfer Bulk shipping Definition Frozen storage Impact of long-term storage Microflora Production Reprocessing Types Off-flavours Off-colours Oil content Oil content measurement Orange crop diseases Oil extraction Oil reduction Orange fruit Growers Products Primary Secondary (by-products) Structure Orange juice categories Orange juice consumer Orange juice consumption Orange juice quality Orange nectar Orange varieties Orifice tube Origin of orange fruit Oxygen Effect on products Problems caused by oxygen Removal from liquids Sources Solubility Ozone treatment of water 154 3 114 34, 35 4, 15 83 13 57 54 56 Page 50, 152, 154 52 53 51 51 115 Packages Bottles 163 Carton-based 161, 162 Properties of 157 Types 160 Packaging Quality parameters 151 Secondary 171 Tertiary 172 Types of system 160 Pasteurisation At the juice packer 124 Primary 59, 61, 76 Purpose 59 Secondary 59, 61 Related to deaeration 122 System control 126 Time-temperature conditions for PME 60 Pasteurisation units 126 Pathogenic microorganisms 56 Pectin 9, 22, 49, 60 Pectin methyl esterase (PME) 59-61 Peel oil Concentration 84 Major components 138-140 Polishing 85 Recovery 84 Related to flavour 23, 137-139 Winterisation 85 Pigging (as part of CIP) 133 Plastic bottles 163, 164 Plato 199 Polymers – properties of 157 Press liquor 86, 87 Pricing of bulk juice products 37 Processing – impact on juice quality 46 Processing plant – overview 64 Pulp Floating pulp 7, 23, 142 Production 86 Quality 144 Terminology 143 Sinking pulp 7, 22 Pulp wash production 92 Pulpy juice 68, 143 PVG 49, 155 115 29, 108, 116, 179 130 97 76 49 57 74 78 28 48, 49, 155, 157 26, 154 24, 144 24 71 75 33 8, 8, 6, 28 174 42, 43 18 29 10-12, 25 70 207 Index Topic Quality control Quality of orange juice Quick Fibre Ratio Reamer-type extractor Ready-to-drink (RTD) orange juice Reclaim product Refractometer Regulations Australia and New Zealand European Union Far East Juice quality Latin America Middle East USA and Canada Retailers – handling and distributing products Reverse osmosis Rework product Rotary press extractors Page Topic 110, 134 18, 19 145 Tangerine varieties Terminals for FCOJ Terminals for NFC Terpenes Thawing of solid frozen product Thermal processing Trade tariff terms Trading Turbofilters 21 71 28 112 21, 121 186 30, 184 187 30 186 187 30, 183 UV treatment of water Page 100 101 139-141 111 61 39 38 74 115 4-vinyl guaiacol (PVG) 49, 155 Vitamin C Content in orange and some other fruits 26 Degradation in packaged juice 152, 153 Impact of oxygen on vitamin C degradation 48 Volatile flavours 24, 136, 156 169, 170 115 112 69 Water Deaeration For processing Hardness Quality at the juice packer Treatment at the juice packer Winterisation of peel oil World citrus/orange production Sand filtration of water 114 Shipping costs 100 Shipping FCOJ 95, 96 Shipping NFC 97-99 Squeezer-type extractor 69 Soft-drink producers 37 Solvent extraction for concentrating flavours 141 South Africa 16 Spectrophotometry 22, 25 Spore-forming microorganisms 56 Stabilisation 90 Standards Juice composition and labelling 182 Codex Alimentarius 187 State Test extractor 34 Storage Concentrate at juice packer 110, 111 Fruit 67 Pulp 91 Still fruit drinks 108, 116, 179 Strainer tube 70 Sugars 20 Suspended solids measurement 22 Yeasts Yield of juice from an orange 208 116 47 113 112, 113 113 85 2-5, 10-16 55 © C opyright 2004 Tetra Pak P rocessing Systems A B , L und, S weden Code 63344 en2 0410 www.pyramid.se [...]... Australia South Africa Fig 1.2 The major orange- growing regions Four groups of fruit are of commercial significance in the production of orange juice products: • The sweet orange, also known as the China orange, Citrus sinensis • The sour or bitter orange, also known as the Seville orange, Citrus aurantium • The mandarin orange and tangerine varieties, Citrus reticulata • Hybrid oranges (tangors) which result... components have already been discussed The following text deals with the volatile components of orange juice ‘Volatile’ means that the compounds will vaporise from the juice at elevated temperatures The lower the temperature at which the flavour component evaporates, the more volatile is the component As the orange ripens the volatile components are created and increase The volatiles are of two types – water-insoluble... first added to the sample and then a bromide solution is added slowly Bromide reacts with d-limonene, and as long as there is d-limonene present in the sample the solution remains red When the sample no longer contains any d-limonene the bromide reacts with the colour indicator instead and the red colour disappears As the concentration of the bromide solution and the amount added to reach the colour change... hydrometer in a liquid is directly proportional to the density of the solution Therefore a scale on the neck of the hydrometer can be calibrated to a °Brix scale The °Brix is read on the scale at the point where the liquid meniscus intersects the hydrometer neck Before measuring it is important to deaerate the juice since air in the sample can affect the result Hydrometers are mostly used for singlestrength... a measure of the balance between the sweet and sour sensation As oranges ripen, the acidity decreases while the sugars increase Therefore the Brix:acid ratio will also increase The ratio decides the maturity of the fruit before harvesting Maturity standards for oranges in Florida require a minimum °Brix of 9.0 and a minimum Brix:acid ratio of 10 Consumers prefer a ratio around 15 and therefore it is... used by flavour companies for the manufacture of flavour mixtures for the beverage and other food industries 9 1.8 Major orange- producing regions Mexico 1.7 % Cuba 1.3 % Greece 1.2 % South Africa 0.9 % Australia 1.1 % Egypt 0.4 % Others 1.7 % 1.8 Major orange- producing regions Together, Brazil and the USA grow 50 % of the world’s oranges and produce more than 85 % of the global orange juice supply (12 billion... possible to titrate the juice directly, the oil must first be removed from the juice This is done by heating up a mixture of juice and alcohol; the alcohol and oil evaporate readily from the mixture since they are the most volatile components The alcohol and oil vapours are cooled down and collected The d-limonene content in this mixture can then be determined by titration The titration in the Scott method... is the leading supplier of oranges to the fresh fruit market The dry climate results in oranges with thick skin and good appearance that appeal to consumers The state produced about 2 million tonnes of oranges during the 2001/02 season The dominant sweet orange variety in California is Navel, a seedless variety, followed by Valencia Both are grown primarily for the fresh fruit market About 20 % of the. .. come second with nearly 30 % of total production and their plantation area is increasing The sweet orange crop is dominated by the Valencia variety, and most of the fruit (about 85 %) goes to the fresh fruit market The majority of groves are small, a result of Mexican land reform and regulation that limit the size of farms In the orange- growing areas there is often a shortage of investment money and difficulty... for the European Union are specified in the Code of Practice for the evaluation of fruit and vegetable juices, published by the AIJN (see Section 11) The absolute quality requirements defined in the reference guideline for orange juice are given in Table 2.2 In the USA, the US Department of Agriculture, USDA, is responsible for specifying quality standards for orange juice To be labelled USDA Grade A, orange ... find The Orange Book useful in providing consumers with the most enjoyable fruit juice provided by nature A journey with juice Second edition The Orange Book follows the complete journey of orange. .. and spread of the orange plant from Southeast Asia to the rest of the world • Global orange production and the development of large-scale production • Common orange crop diseases and their control... 2200 BC The development of the Arab trade routes, the spread of Islam and the expansion of the Roman empire led to the fruit being cultivated in other regions From its original habitat, the orange