Time study method implementation in manufacturing industry

UNIVERSITI TEKNIKAL MALAYSIA MELAKA Time Study Method Implementation In Manufacturing Industry Report submitted in accordance with the partial requirement of the Universiti Teknikal Malaysia Melaka for the Bachelor of Manufacturing Engineering (Manufacturing Process) By Nor Diana Hashim Faculty of Manufacturing Engineering May 2008 ABSTRACT Time study is often referred to as work measurement and it involves the techniques of establishing an allowed timed standard to perform a given task, with due allowance for fatigue and for personal and unavoidable delays Time study are used for two main purposes in CTRM Aero Composites Sdn Bhd., one for bidding new projects and the other one is to monitor the production line Each of the time study techniques is applied under certain condition and the best technique for manual production is the stopwatch time study because human performance is not consistent from time to time The stopwatch time study had been chosen for the case study because 90 percents of the production in CTRM Aero Composites Sdn Bhd are handled manually by man power The aim of this case study is to find the suitable rating factor and allowance for each process in order to conduct the stopwatch time study for the panel produce by the CTRM Aero Composites Sdn Bhd and finally to develope a time study database which will be used as a single source of reference by the company Keywords: Time Study, Rating Factor, Allowances iii ABSTRAK Kajian tentang masa atau juga selalu dirujuk sebagai pengukuran kerja adalah mengenai lebihan masa yang dibenarkan dalam menjalankan sesuatu kerja berdasarkan lebihan masa untuk keletihan, perkara peribadi dan perkara tertangguh Kajian tentang masa digunakan untuk dua tujuan utama di CTRM Aero Composites Sdn Bhd., yang pertama adalah untuk membida projek baru dan yang kedua untuk mengawasi pengeluaran produk Setiap teknik tersebut diaplikasikan dibawah keadaan tertentu Kajian tentang masa menggunakan jam randik telah dipilih untuk menjalankan projek ini kerana 90 peratus produksi di CTRM Aero Composites Sdn Bhd dilaksanakan secara manual dengan tenaga kerja manusia Tujuan utama kajian kes ini adalah untuk mendapatkan faktor kadar dan lebihan masa setiap proses bagi menjalankan kajian tentang masa menggunakan jam randik untuk panel yang dihasilkan oleh CTRM Aero Composites Sdn Bhd dan akhirnya membangunkan suatu pangkalan data kajian tentang masa yang akan digunakan sebagai sumber yang tunggal oleh syarikat tersebut iv CHAPTER INTRODUCTION 1.1 Background As we approach the new millennium, with a widely expanded market and manufacturing capability around the world, both the opportunities and the need for technical competence are growing dramatically According to Niebel (1993), ten years ago the competition was centered in only a few industries - electronics and automotives in particular But today this competition is both industry wide and world wide Each department of these organizations is increasing the intensity of its cost reduction and quality improvement effort in order to survive and expanding Some companies have even expanded their motion and time study method to nonmanufacturing activities with the rise in the importance of indirect factory labor One of the oldest tools used by industrial engineers in work measurements is time study and specifically stopwatch time study Time study that originated by Taylor and developed by Gilbreths was used mainly for determining time standards and motion study According to Rice (1977), over 89 percents of the companies that perform work measurement used time study The technologies are rapidly growing everyday but there are still no tools that can replace time study method completely They only invented equipment that can improved the tools and made it users friendly According to Niebel (1993), computers produce standards from fundamental motion data up to 50 percents faster than manual methods The computers also provides a simple and convenient way to make time studies, monitor and measure machine and equipment performance, make work sampling studies, and perform other data-gathering activities Even though there are many techniques and equipments to perform the time study, but basically the concept is just the same In manufacturing industries, especially for industries that implement 90 percents of manual production time study is very crucial For example, manufacturing plant management need time standards, even before production starts, to determine how many people to hire, how many machines to buy, how fast to move conveyers, how to divide work among employees, and how much the product will costs; after production starts, to determine how much cost reduction will return, who works the hardest, and perhaps who should earn more money; and after production finish, the data are used as reference for bidding new projects and procurement Time study can reduce and control costs, improve working conditions and environment and motivate people Manufacturing management and engineers are prepared to design work stations, develop efficient and effective work methods, establish time standards, balance assembly lines, estimates labor costs, develop effective tooling, select proper equipment, and lay out manufacturing facilities However the most important thing is how to train production workers in these skills and techniques so they can become motion and time conscious The manufacturing management and engineers only design and prepared the skills but the production workers who are going to implement it in the operation So the objective of time study can only be achieved if the production workers are knowledgeable about the time study concept 1.2 Problem Statements CTRM AC used Time Study for two main purposes, one for bidding new projects and the other one is to monitor the manufacturing or production of current projects The current project needs to be monitor by using time study in order to control the cycle time and labor power of one project Another point why time study suited with CTRM AC because 90 percents of the production in this company is manual basis so there’s no better tool to measure the work than time study because it include the rating factor and allowances In the mean time it also can be use as a tool for productivity improvement and increase efficiency Since time study is so important for the company, it had to be done precisely with the element of allowance, rating factor and head count to produce a standard time which can be used as reference to conclude the whole performance of production 1.3 Objectives of the Project (i) To identify the suitable rating factors and allowances for the stopwatch time study that suitable for manual production at CTRM AC (ii) To establishes cycle time from the current project on man hours and machine hours by using time study method (iii) To develop a time study database for the company by using Microsoft Excel 2003 that will be use as a single source reference of standard data information 1.4 Scopes of Project To ensure the objectives will successfully achieve, there are several element that need to be followed as well: (i) Conduct a time study by including cycle time from observation with the allowance and rating factors to produce standard time (ii) The study was undertaken by using stopwatch time study technique (iii) The research is going to be done at CTRM Aero Composites for project Goodrich V2500 (Torque Ring Cone Fairing Panel) CHAPTER LITERATURE REVIEW 2.1 Introduction Time study is one of the oldest fundamental method ever used whose results in increased productivity Since the research are focus on the time study from all aspects, so the history of the time study must be analysis and how it develop into the most useful tools in manufacturing industry Most of the source used for the studied comes from a reliable and trustworthy source The sources include articles, journals and books There actually more than one technique mention in this thesis but the research only focuses on one method only The method is stopwatch time study and it had been chosen because it suitable with the industry in the case studies Any of the work-measurement techniques represent a better way to establish fair production standard All of these techniques are based on facts All establish an allowed time standards for performing a given task, with due allowance for fatigue and for personal and unavoidable delays Accurately establish time standards make it possible to produce more within a given plant, increasing the efficiency of the equipment and the operating personnel Poorly established standards, although better than no standards at all, lead to high costs, labor dissension and possibly even the failure of the enterprise 2.2 Chronology of Time Study The Table 2.1 showed the major milestone of time study in the industry according to year and the persona that contribute to the evaluation of the time study technique The descriptions of the persona are based on the contribution towards the time study fields Table 2.1: Chronology of Time Study No Year 1760 Persona Jean Rodolphe Perronet, French engineer Charles W Babbage, an English economist Frederick W Taylor 1820 1856-1915 1853-1931 Harrington Emerson 1861-1919 Henry Laurence Gantt Contribution Extensive time studies on the manufacture of No common pins and arrived at a standard of 494 per hour (2.0243 hrs/1000) Conducted time studies on manufacture of No 11 common pins It has determined that one pound (5,546 pins) should be produced in 7, 6892 hours (1.3864 hrs /1000) The first person to use a stopwatch to study work content and as such is called the father of time study He accomplishes the four Principles of Scientific Management Responsible for the following innovations stopwatch time study, high-speed steel tools, tool grinders, slide riles and functional-type organization He emphasized the analytical and organizational aspect of work He was the expert that was needed to make Scientific Management, the Taylor system, a household name and his experience proved that the use of efficient methods would lead to tremendous savings Accounts of his work were never extensively published and no comprehensive biography exists but his work is best remembered as an example of how the creative engineer can find the tools to improve any operation He invented the task and bonus system or earned-hour plan He also developed a technique for scheduling work and performance control system Rather than penalizing the less proficient worker, he 1868-1924 Frank and and 1878- Lilian Gilbreth 1972 1900-1984 2.3 Ralph M Barnes advocated a livable wage with a sizable bonus for performance over 100 percents He also designed the antisubmarine tactics known as convoy zigzagging that permitted escort ships to protect the slow freighters Develop method study technique like cyclograph, chronocyclographs, movie cameras, motion picture camera and a special clock called a microchronometer They also study fatigue, monotony, transfer of skills and assisted the handicapped in becoming more mobile Their systematic study of motion reduced costs greatly and founded a new profession of method analysis The Gilbreths also developed flow diagrams, process chart, and operation chart Also the apprentice on the 17 elementary subdivisions of motion, later engineers coined a short word therblig His achievements included writing the longest published text on work measurement, a through description of the Gilbreths micro motion study, time study and the procedure for work sampling Definition of Time Study According to Meyers (2002), time standards can be defined as “the time required to produce a product at a work station with the following three conditions: (1) a qualified, well-trained operator, (2) working at a normal pace, and (3) doing a specific task.” The three conditions are discussed below: (i) A Qualified, Well-Trained Operator Experience is usually what makes a qualified, well-trained operator and time on the job is our best indication of experience The time required to become qualified varies with the job and the person The greatest mistake ever made by new time study personnel is time-studying someone too soon A good rule of thumb is to start with a qualified, fully trained person and to give that person two weeks on the job prior to the time study On new jobs or tasks, predetermined time study systems are used These standards seem hard to achieve at first because the time are set for qualified, well-trained operators (ii) Normal Pace Only one time standards can be used for each job, even though individual differences of operators cause different results A normal pace is comfortable for most people (iii) A Specific Task It is a detail description of what must be accomplished The description should include the prescribed work method, material specification, the tools and equipment being used, the positions of incoming and outgoing material and additional requirement like safety, quality, housekeeping and maintenance tasks Time study is usually referred to as work measurement and it involves the technique of establishing an allowed time standard to perform a given task, based on measurement of the work content of the prescribed method and with due allowance for fatigue, personal or unavoidable delays Establishes time values are a step in systematic procedure of developing new work centers and improving methods in existing work centers Generally time study is used to determine the time required by a qualified and welltrained person working at a normal pace to a specified task The result of time study is the time that a person suited to the job and fully trained in the specific method The job needs to be performed if he or she works at a normal or standard tempo This time is called the standard time for operation Table 2.2: Time Study Techniques by Source No Source Barnes, (1980) Niebel, (1993) Lawrences, (2000) Meyers and Stewart, (2002) Niebel and Freivalds, (2003) 4.1 Time Study Techniques • Standard Data • Work Sampling • Predetermined Time Standard System (PTS) • Stopwatch Time Study • Stopwatch Time Study • Computerized Data Collection • Standard Data • Fundamental Motion Data • Work Sampling and Historical Data • Time Study • Standard Data Systems • Predetermined Time Systems (PTS) • Work Sampling • Physiological Work Measurement • Labor Reporting • Predetermined Time Standard System(PTSS) • Stopwatch Time Study • Work Sampling • Standard Data • Expert Opinion and Historical Data • Time Study • Standard Data and Formulas • Predetermine Time Systems • Work Sampling • Indirect and Expense Labor Standards Time Study in Non-Manufacturing Area Together with the rise in the importance of indirect factory, there has come tremendous increase in office work Some companies have expanded their motion and time study activities to include the office; others have establishes a separate department to study office methods and procedures The use of paper work simplification, office work measurement, systems and procedures analysis, and procedure analysis, and office 10 mechanization, and the installation of data-processing equipment are some of the approaches being utilized to increase productivity and reduce costs in offices Banks, mail orders houses, hospitals, department stores, and supermarket are obtaining worthwhile results from the applications of principles of motion and time study to their activities Great strides are being made in simplifying work on farms, as well as in various branches of the government and military 2.6 Description on Time study Method Predetermined time systems, standard data, work sampling and stopwatch time study are used for measuring work and these five methods of time study had been widely used for various productions in the industry (Meyers and Stewart, 2002) Each of the different method had their own criteria and concept that must be followed Not all suitable for any production, so here is the description of each method: (i) Predetermined time standards system This technique is used during the planning phase of a new project of a new product development At this stage, only sketchy information is available, and the technologist must visualize what is needed in the way of tools, equipment, and work methods The technologist would design a work station for each step of the new product manufacturing plan Each work station would be designed; a motion pattern would be developed Each motion would motion would be measured, a time value would be assigned, and the total of these time values would be the time standard This time standard would be used to determine the equipment, space, and people needs of the new product and its selling price Frank and Lillian Gilbreth developed the basic philosophy of predetermined time motion systems There are 17 wok elements that are known as therbligs Each element was 11 reduced to a time table, and when totaled, a time standards for that set of motion was determined Methods time measurement (MTM), MODular Assignment at Predetermined TimeS (MODAPTS) and Work Factors are popular predetermined time systems inspired by the Gilbreths’ work PTSS was developed from MTM and other predetermined systems for the expressed reason to teach a system within a few hours PTSS is a simplified and good system but additional training is desirable (ii) Stopwatch time study Taylor (1856-1915) had started using the stopwatch around 1880 for studying work This technique is a part of many union contracts with manufacturing companies Several types of stopwatches could be used: (a) Snapback: in one hundredths of a minute (b) Continuous: in one hundredths of a minute (c) Three watch: continuous watches (d) Digital: in one thousandths of a minute (e) TMU (time-measured unit): in one hundred thousandths of an hour (f) Computer: in one thousandths of a minute All but the TMU watch read in decimal minutes The TMU watch reads in decimal hours Digital watches and the computer are much more accurate and have memory functions that improve accuracy Two different time study procedures are: (a) Continuous time study (b) Long-cycle time study 12 (iii) Work sampling Work sampling is the same scientific process used in Nielsen ratings, Gallup Polls, attitude surveys, and federal unemployment statistics We observe people working and draw conclusions Everyone who has ever worked with someone else has done work sampling Supervisors using informal work sampling are forming attitudes about employees all the time Industrial technologists can walk through a plant of 250 people one time and count people who are working and those who are not working and calculate the performance of that plant within ±10 percent Industrial engineering often starts their consulting proposal with such statistics Consultants expect to find 60 percent performance in plants without standards but that is an average (iv)Standard data Standard data should be the objective of every motion and time study department Standard data is the fastest and cheapest technique of setting time standards and standard data can be more accurate and consistent than any other technique of time study Starting with many previously set time standards, the industrial technologist tries to figure out what causes the time to vary from one job to another on a specific machine or class of machine There are several ways of communicating the time standards to future generations of factory workers, supervisors and engineers: (a) Graph (b) Table (c) Worksheet (d) Formula 13 (v) Expert opinion time standards and historical data An expert opinion time standard is an estimation of the time required to a specific job This estimation is made by a person with great experience base and is usually a supervisor but sometimes it could be specialist or planner The expert would estimate every job and maintain a blacklog of work The blacklog of work would give the department time to plan the job, thereby performing the job more effectively Historical data is an accounting approach to expert opinion time standard systems A record is kept of how much time was used on each job When new job comes along, it is compared to a previous job standard The problem with historical time standards is that they not reflect the time the job should have taken Inefficiency is built into such a system, but a bad standard is better than no standard at all 2.7 Time Study Equipments The equipment needed for time study work consists of a timing device and an observation board The devices most commonly used for measuring work area (Barnes, 1980): (i) Decimal stop watches and electronics timers (ii) The motion picture camera and video equipment (iii) Electronic data collector and computer (iv) Electrical and mechanical time recorders (v) Observation board (vi) Speed indicator/tachometer 14 2.8 Making The Time Study The exact procedure used in making the time studies may vary somewhat, depending upon the type of operation being studied and the application that is to be made of the data obtained These eight steps, however, are usually required to perform time study in industries (Barnes, 1980): (i) Secure and record information about the operation and operator being studied (ii) Divide the operation into elements and record a complete description of the method (iii) Observe and record the time taken by the operator (iv) Determine the number of cycle to be timed (v) Rate the operator’s performance (vi) Check to make certain that a sufficient number of cycle have been timed (vii) Determine the allowances (viii) Determine the time standard for the operation 2.9 Introduction to Stopwatch Time Study The actual conduct of a time study is both an art and a science To ensure success, analyst must be able to inspire confidence in, exercise judgment and develop a personable approach to everyone with whom they come in contact In addition, their backgrounds and training should prepare them to understand thoroughly and perform he various functions related to the study These elements include selecting the operator, analyzing the job and breaking it down into its elements, recording the elapsed elemental values, performance rating the operation, assigning appropriate allowance and working up the study itself There are two standard ways to record time study data (Barnes, 1980) The use of either method is a matter of analyst preference or company practice 15 The job must be divided into elements before choosing the method These two methods are: (i) The continuous method The data collection of this method involves starting the stopwatch when the study begins and allowing it to run, uninterrupted, until the study is complete At the conclusion of each element, the current reading, or the elapse time, is recorded on the data sheet The continuous method is also better adapted to measuring and recording very short elements (ii) The snapback method In this method, after the watch is read at breakpoint of each element The watch time is returned to zero As the next element takes place, the time increments from zero A drawback to using the snapback method is the time that elapses while the hand sweep hand returns to zero The snapback method is also better adapted to measuring and recording long elements 2.10 Rating, Leveling and Normalizing Rating is the process of adjusting the time taken by an individual operator to what could be expected from a normal operator The method was developed by Mundel and Danner (1994), eliminates the difficulty of establishing a normal speed criterion for every type of work Rating is a matter of judgment on the part of the time study analyst, and unfortunately there is no way to establish a time standard for an operation without having the judgment of the analyst Rating an operator includes four factors: (i) Skills The effect of skill is minimized by timing only people who are skilled Operators must be fully trained in their work classification before being time-studied Habits of motion patterns must be routine enough that the 16 operator doesn’t have to think about what comes next and where everything is located Very skilled operators make a job look easy, and the industrial technologist must let this skill affect the rating (ii) Consistency Consistency is the greatest indication of skill The operator is consistent when he or she runs the elements of the job in the same time, cycle after cycle Consistency is used to determine the number of cycles A consistent operator needs to run only a few parts before the cycle time is known with accuracy The skill of the operator should be evident to the time study technician, and the technician’s rating of the operator should be high (iii) Working Conditions Working conditions can affect the performance of an operator In the early twentieth century, this was much more of a problem than it is today The way we account for poor working conditions today is to increase the allowance Working conditions are not part of modern rating (iv) Effort Effort is the most important factor in rating Effort is the operator’s speed and/or tempo and is measured based on the normal operator working at 100 percents Psychology has been good to the time study technicians The normal tendency of people being watched is to speed up Being watched makes people nervous, and nervous energy is converted by the body into a faster tempo The time study technician then gets a frequent chance to rate over 100 percent When an operator works at 120 percent, the technologist can give the operator 20 percent more time so that an average person can the job 17 9.1 Rating Methods There are three rating methods that are usually being implemented in the manufacturing industry (Barnes, 1980) The rating factors are as below: (i) Speed rating Speed rating is a performance evaluation method that only considers the rate of accomplishment of the work per unit time In this method, the observer measures the effectiveness of the operator against the concept of a qualified operator doing the same work, and then assigns a percentage to indicate the ratio of the observed performance to normal or standard performance In the speed rating method, analyst first appraise the performance to determine whether it is above or below normal before putting the performance to in the precise position on the rating scale that correctly evaluates the numerical difference between the standard and the performance demonstrated Thus, 100 percent is usually considered normal A rating of 110 percent indicates that the operator was performing at a speed 10 percent greater than normal, and a rating of 90 percent would mean that the operator was performing at a speed 90 percent of normal (ii) Synthetic rating The synthetic rating procedure determines a performance factor for representative effort elements of the work cycle by comparing actual elemental observed times to times developed through fundamental motion data Morrow, (1946) had established the synthetic rating in an effort to develop rating method that would not rely on the judgment of a time study 18 observer and would give consistent result Thus, the performance factor may be expressed algebraically as: P = (F / O) where: (2.1) P = performance or rating factor F = fundamental motion time O = observed man elemental time for the elements us in F (iii) Objective rating The method had been developed by Mundel and Danner (1994), eliminates the difficulty of establishing a normal speed criterion for every type of work This procedure establishes a single work assignment to which the pace of all other jobs is compared After the judgment of pace, a secondary factor assigned to the other job indicates its relative difficulty Factors influencing the difficulty adjustment are: (a) Amount of body used (b) Foot pedals (c) Bimanualess (d) Eye-hand coordination (e) Handling or sensory requirements (f) Weight handled or resistance encountered Numerical values, resulting from experiments have been assigned for a range of each factor The sum of the numerical values for each of the six factors comprises the secondary adjustment The rating (R) can thus be expressed as follows: 19 R=P×D (2.2) where: R = Rating P = Pace rating factor D = Job difficulty adjustment factor 9.2 Rating Applications The first and most important characteristic of any rating system is accuracy Since the majority of rating techniques rely on the judgment of the time study observer, perfect consistency in rating is impossible A rating system that is simple, concise, easily explained, and keyed to well-established benchmarks is more successful than a complex rating system requiring involved adjusting factors and computational techniques that confuse the average shop employee The value of rating is written in the RF column of the time study form The value of normal time can be calculated by using rating performance from the formula below (Niebel and Freivalds, 2003): NT = OT × R / 100 where: OT = mean observed time NT = normal time R = performance rating 20 (2.3) 2.11 Allowance Allowances are extra time added to the normal time to make the time standard practical and attainable No manager or supervisor expects employees to work every minute of the hour Types of allowance (Barnes, 1980): (i) Personal Personal allowances is that time an employee is allowed for personal things such as talking to friends about nonwork subjects, going to the toilet, getting a drink, going to pray or any other operator-controlled reason for not working An appropriate amount of time has been defined as about percent of the work day, or 24 minutes per day (ii) Fatigue Fatigue allowance is the time an employee is allowed for recuperation from fatigue Fatigue allowance time is given to employees in the form of work breaks, more commonly known as coffee breaks Breaks occur at varying intervals and are of varying duration, but all breaks are designed to allow employees to recuperate from on-the-job fatigue Most employees today have very little physical drudgery involved with their jobs, but mental fatigue is just tiring If an employee uses less than ten pounds of effort during the operation of his job, then five percent fatigue allowance is normal A five percent increase in fatigue allowance is given for every tenpound increase in exertion required of the employee The breaks are calculated into the fatigue allowance because the reporting practice is to not report the time spent on breaks separately Because lunch time is punched out and not reported, it does not enter into the allowance calculation Allowance is for times when the employees is expected to perform but can’t 21 (iii) Delay Delay allowances are called unavoidable because they are out of the operator’s control Something happens to prevent the operator from working The reason must be known and the cost accounted for to develop the cost justification The operator’s performance must not be penalized for problems out of his or her control Three methods are available to account for and to control unavoidable delays: (a) Add delay allowances to the standard (b) Time-study them and add them to the time standard (c) Charge the time to an indirect charge For example, if the operator agrees that 15 minutes per day is a good figure, the technologist will calculate a delay allowance as follows: (15 clean-up) / (480 min/shift) = 3% A three percent allowance will be added to the personal allowance of five percent plus a fatigue allowance of five percent to produce a 13 percent total allowance An unavoidable delay is a foreign element that cannot be anticipated will require the operator to charge his or her time to indirect account Supervisors will be required to approve all indirect charges and the time should be more than six minutes to be statistically significant Anything that cannot be live with is not supposed to be in the time standard because it is difficult to get it out once it included 22 2.11.1Allowances Application The fundamental purpose of all allowances is to add enough time to normal production to enable the average worker to meet the standard when performing at standard performance There are two ways of applying allowances (Niebel and Freivalds, 2003) The most common is to add a percentage of the productive time only It is also customary to express the allowance as a multiplier, so that the normal time (NT) can be readily adjusted to the standard time (ST) ST = NT / (1- allowance) (2.4) where : ST = standard time NT = normal time 2.12 Summary of the Category Research The Table 2.3 showed the summary of the category research of time study that related to manufacturing industry The summary is an analysis of the journals that related to the time study and it had been divided into each sub-topic and category The description of each category is provided for better understanding Table 2.3: Summary of the Category Research of Time Study related to Manufacturing Industry SUB-TOPIC CATEGORY Definition of assembly cycle time AUTHOR/S Choi and Ip, 1999; Hushizaki, 1990 23 DESCRIPTION Assembly cycle time is the period of active time from starting to finishing an assembly operation and the operator Hult and Nichols, 1999 Wetherbe, 1995 2.10.1 Introduction of Time Study Definition of cycle time Narasimhan and Jayaram, 1998; Wetherbe, 1995 Escorpizo and Moore, 2007 Patel et al., 1994 Definition of manufacturing cycle time Work measurement 2.10.2 Main elements in Time Study Ballard et al., 2003 Wilding and Newton, 1996 Griffin, 1997 The element 24 (robot/human) is expected to be able to perform the task within the specified cycle time Cycle time is defined as the time takes from initiation to complete of the purchasing process which is often considered one of the most important performance indicators Cycle time is defined as the duration of the supply chain process from initiation to completion Cycle time is the duration of the period between the internal customer’s recognition of a need to the provision of a good and service to that customer The time available to one transfer (pick then place) will be referred to as cycle time The cycle time of a product consists of the actual time to process for each operation, the waiting time before each operation and the transfer time between operations Manufacturing cycle time is the time it takes for a product to be transformed from raw material to finished product Time-based companies measure the cycle times and lead times of all their key activities Time can be considered as the equivalent of [...]... (iii) Estimating the costs of a product before manufacturing it Such information is of value in preparing bids and determining selling price (iv) Determining machine effectiveness, the number of machines which one person can operate, and as an aid in balancing assembly lines and work done on a conveyor (v) 2.5 Determining time standards to be used as a basis for labor cost control Time Study Techniques... result in job interest and satisfaction for each employee 5.1 The Important and Uses of Time Study Although time study originally had its greatest application in connection with wage incentives, it and the other methods measuring work are now used for many other purposes including (Barnes, 1980): (i) Determining schedules and planning work (ii) Determining standard costs and as an aid in preparing budgets... Study • Work Sampling • Standard Data • Expert Opinion and Historical Data • Time Study • Standard Data and Formulas • Predetermine Time Systems • Work Sampling • Indirect and Expense Labor Standards Time Study in Non -Manufacturing Area Together with the rise in the importance of indirect factory, there has come tremendous increase in office work Some companies have expanded their motion and time study. .. obtaining worthwhile results from the applications of principles of motion and time study to their activities Great strides are being made in simplifying work on farms, as well as in various branches of the government and military 2.6 Description on Time study Method Predetermined time systems, standard data, work sampling and stopwatch time study are used for measuring work and these five methods of time. .. Developing the preferred system and method- usually with the lowest cost (ii) Standardizing this system and method (iii) Determining the time required by a qualified and properly trained person working at a normal pace to do a specific task or operation (iv) Assisting in training the worker in the preferred method Corollaries that apply to the principle objective are to (Niebel, 1993): (i) Minimize the time. .. continuous method The data collection of this method involves starting the stopwatch when the study begins and allowing it to run, uninterrupted, until the study is complete At the conclusion of each element, the current reading, or the elapse time, is recorded on the data sheet The continuous method is also better adapted to measuring and recording very short elements (ii) The snapback method In this... operator 20 percent more time so that an average person can do the job 17 9.1 Rating Methods There are three rating methods that are usually being implemented in the manufacturing industry (Barnes, 1980) The rating factors are as below: (i) Speed rating Speed rating is a performance evaluation method that only considers the rate of accomplishment of the work per unit time In this method, the observer measures... research of time study that related to manufacturing industry The summary is an analysis of the journals that related to the time study and it had been divided into each sub-topic and category The description of each category is provided for better understanding Table 2.3: Summary of the Category Research of Time Study related to Manufacturing Industry SUB-TOPIC CATEGORY Definition of assembly cycle time. .. Assembly cycle time is the period of active time from starting to finishing an assembly operation and the operator Hult and Nichols, 1999 Wetherbe, 1995 2.10.1 Introduction of Time Study Definition of cycle time Narasimhan and Jayaram, 1998; Wetherbe, 1995 Escorpizo and Moore, 2007 Patel et al., 1994 Definition of manufacturing cycle time Work measurement 2.10.2 Main elements in Time Study Ballard et.. .Time study is composed of four parts: (i) Developing the preferred method (ii) Standardizing the operation (iii) Determining the time standard (iv)Training the operator 2.4 Objectives of Time Study The principle objectives of time study are to increase productivity and product reliability and lower unit cost, thus allowing more quality goods or services to be ... and time study method to nonmanufacturing activities with the rise in the importance of indirect factory labor One of the oldest tools used by industrial engineers in work measurements is time study. .. value in preparing bids and determining selling price (iv) Determining machine effectiveness, the number of machines which one person can operate, and as an aid in balancing assembly lines and... 2.6 Description on Time study Method Predetermined time systems, standard data, work sampling and stopwatch time study are used for measuring work and these five methods of time study had been widely