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THE DISCURSIVE CONSTRUCTION OF SEXUAL PROPRIETY IN SIXTH REIGN SIAM (1910 1925)

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Chapter  One    Introduction:  Reexamining  Vajiravudh’s  Literary  Works  and  Hopes     At  the  turn  of  the  twentieth  century,  the  question  of  sexual  propriety  and  roles  of   modern  woman-­‐modern  man  were  debated  in  the  West  and  the  rest  of  the  world  The   discussion   ranged   from   British   women’s   role   in   the   domestic   and   public   spheres   and   their   interaction   with   men,   the   fight   by   Burmese   men   to   avoid   being   emasculated   by   colonialists   and   their   condemnation   on   Burmese   women   marrying   British   men,   and   to   the   alteration   of   the   familial   practice   of   the   late   imperial   China   Through   the   nation-­‐ building  project,  both  colonial  and  non-­‐colonial  states  alike  reconsidered  their  cultural   identity   and   re-­‐defined   gender   roles   and   sexual   mores   following   the   Western   concept   of   civilization  Ann  Stoler  and  Partha  Chatterjee  have  shown  how  sexual  propriety  became   an   essential   part   of   national   identity   through   Bengali’s   nationalist   movement   and   the   colonial   policy   in   the   Dutch   East   Indies,   respectively.1  Although   the   direct   connection   between   ones’   sexual   lifestyle   and   his   or   her   patriotism   became   an   axiom,   each   state   developed  different  forms  of  modernity  to  suit  the  deep-­‐rooted  traditional  practices   The  cultural  policies  of  the  Siamese  monarch,  Vajiravudh  (Rama  VI,  1910-­‐1925)   tended   to   follow   Western   modernity   Having   been   educated   in   England,   Rama   VI   followed  a  Victorian  lifestyle  and  promoted  Siamese  official  nationalism  borrowing  the   British   court’s   concept   of   “God,   King   and   Country”   to   emphasize   “Nation,   Religion   (Buddhism),  and  King”  in  his  project  Scholars  have  examined  his  nationalist  discourse   and  its  linkages  to  his  definition  of  masculinity,  personal  relationship  with  males  and  the   concept   of   family   and   wifedom   However,   Vajiravudh’s   construction   of   the   ideal   modern   woman  -­‐  modern  man,  and  his  standard  of  sexual  propriety  warrant  deeper  examination   through   the   large   pool   of   his   literary   works,   official   documents   as   well   as   personal   records  and  letters                                                                                                                   Partha  Chatterjee,  The  Nation  and  Its  Fragments:  Colonial  and  postcolonial  histories  (New  Delhi,  India:  Oxford  University   Press,  199),  Ann  Stoler,  “Carnal  Knowledge  and  Imperial  Power:  Gender  and  morality  in  the  making  of  race”,  in  Women  in   Asia:  Critical  concepts  in  Asian  studies,  ed  Louise  Edwards  and  Mina  Roces  (Abingdon,  Oxon:  Routledge,  2009),  pp  1-­‐33         Placing   the   Sixth   Reign   in   the   context   when   both   national   and   colonial   states   debated   the   constitution   of   the   modern   woman   -­‐   modern   man,   this   thesis   examines   Vajiravudh’s   discursive   connection   of   “Thainess”,   “civilization”   and   “sexual   propriety”   and  “ideal  gender  roles”  as  articulated  in  his  writings    By  doing  so,  this  thesis  seeks  to   understand  his  personal  and  political  conflicts  with  different  groups  of  people  as  well  as   his  relationship  with  women  While  Rama  VI  persevered  to  make  his  subjects  “progress”   towards  Western  sexual  mores  and  gender  roles,  he  concurrently  attempted  to  maintain   social   and   gender   boundaries   to   serve   his   political   ends   This   thesis   attempts   to   shed   light   on   the   compromises   he   made   and   the   predicaments   he   faced   in   the   process   of   articulating  Thai  modernity     1.1  Literature  Review   Vajiravudh’s   literary   works   on   gender   roles   including,   essays,   speeches,   short   stories   and   verse   dramas   demonstrate   how   the   throne   attached   significance   towards   identifying   cultural   identity   as   much   as   national   political   identity   of   the   absolute   monarchy   While   his   writings   show   the   attempt   to   balance   Western   and   traditional   practices,   various   heroic   characters   also   reflect   how   he   westernized   certain   practices   and  deliberately  branded  them  as  “Thainess”  Such  pursuits  mirror  the  King’s  struggle  to   figure   out   how   his   subjects   should   behave   in   the   modern   world   leading   by   Western   civilization   Arguments   he   made   in   this   transitional   period   therefore   demonstrate   changes   of   ideas   and   contradictions   in   sensitive   issues   including   polygamy   versus   monogamy,  modern  versus  good  women  and  men  Primary  sources  consequently  show   us  how  Vajiravudh’s  construction  of  cultural  identity  was  a  work  in   progress   during   the   fifteen  years  as  ruling  monarch     Historians   pay   attentions   to   Rama   VI’s   literary   works   to   balance   with   their   studies  on  laws,  policies  and  writings  of  Vajiravudh’s  contemporaries  They  succeed  in   critiquing   how   Siam’s   asymmetrical   relationship   with   the   western   imperialists       influenced   Vajiravudh’s   notion   of   gender   and   sexuality   However,   political   struggles   and   personal   conflicts,   which   significantly   impacted   his   ideas,   have   been   left   unexplored   Scholars   and   postgraduate   students   focusing   mainly   on   examining   Rama   VI’s   works   have   also   quoted   some   of   his   celebrated   plays   and   essays   to   praise   how   the   King   promoted  “gender  equality”  Nevertheless,  these  excerpts  in  no  way  represent  the  whole   but  simply  one  part  of  his  attitude  during  a  particular  period  of  his  reign  While  various   genres   of   Rama   VI’s   works   provided   a   number   of   narratives   on   modern   woman   –   modern   man,   different   purposes   and   functions   of   these   works   have   also   been   left   unexamined   Rather,   historians’   arguments   are   based   on   three   sets   of   questionable   assumptions,  as  outlined  below     Assumption  1   Rama  VI  followed  his  predecessors’  approach  of  separating  Thai   traditions   from   Western   social   norms   across   the   board,   including   gender   and   sexual   issues   The   Thai/Western   dichotomy   set   in   place   in   the   Fourth   and   Fifth   Reign   has   been   explored   by   Thongchai   Winichakul,   Tamara   Loos,   Thamora   Fishel,   and   recently,   Surachet   Suklarpkit   Their   analyses   echo   Partha   Chatterjee’s   arguments   on   the   Bengali   nationalists’  logical  reasoning  to  place  Hindu  culture  in  the  spiritual  realm  and  Western   values   in   the   material   sphere  Likewise,   Thongchai   argues   that   the   Fifth   Reign   separated   Thainess   and   Buddhism   from   Western   knowledge   and   Christianity   Examining  questions  of  gender  and  sexuality,  Loos,  Fishel  and  Surachet  explore  the  Sixth   Reign’s   construction   of   sexual   propriety   and   familial   practice     Based   on   well-­‐known   royal   writings,   they   assume   that   Rama   VI’s   nationalism   opposed   what   the   King   called   the   “Western   path”   to   Thai   traditions   Loos   argues   for   the   Fifth   Reign’s   ‘alternative   modernity’   with   reference   to   King   Chulalongkorn’s   view   of   polygamy   as   a   Thai   tradition                                                                                                                    Partha  Chatterjee,  The  Nation…,  pp  116-­‐135    Thongchai   Winichakul,   “Coming   to   Terms   with   the   West:   Intellectual   strategies   of   bifurcation   and   post-­‐westernism   in   Siam”,  in  The  Ambiguous  Allure  of  the  West:   Traces  of  the  colonial  in  Thailand,  ed  Rachel  V  Harrison  and  Peter  A  Jackson   (Hong  Kong:  Hong  Kong  University  Press,  2010),  pp  135-­‐142       and   rejection   of   monogamy.4  By   examining   law   codes,   Loos   sees   Vajiravudh’s   familial   practices  and  sexual  propriety  as  following  this  binary  opposition  Accordingly,  she  finds   that   “Officials   and   Kings   concerned   themselves   with   defending   polygyny   as   a   Buddhist   and  Siamese  customary  practice”,5  while  Vajiravudh’s  attacks  were  focused  on  modern   men  who  were  susceptible  to  “all  things  western”  and  being  sexually  promiscuous.6   Following  Thongchai  and  Loos,  Surachet  argues  that  monogamy  was  impossible   to   enforce   in   the   law   code   by   the   absolute   monarchy,   which   considered   polygamy   as   Thainess.7  In   reading   the   court   document,   Surachet   is   also   convinced   that   Rama   VI   advocated  polygamy  as  part  of  the  Thai  identity.8  He  thus  claims  that  enacting  the  law  of   monogamy   was   only   possible   in   the   1930s   because   the   constitutional   government   did   not  consider  monogamy  as  exclusively  Western  practice.9  Fishel,  however,  realized  the   dilemma   of   Vajiravudh   in   coping   with   both   Thai   identity   and   the   civilized   practices   of   the   West   as   will   be   explained   in   detail   below   Nevertheless,   in   her   analysis   of   Vajiravudh’s   1921   verse   drama,   “Huachai-­‐chainum”   (The   heart   of   a   young   man,   หวั ใจชายหนุ่ม),   she   concludes   that   Vajiravudh   interpreted   “westernized”   or   “modern”   women   as   a   threat,   unsuitable   to   Thainess.10  The   rejection   of   the   modern   woman   by   Vajiravudh,   Fishel   argues,   was   to   protect   Thainess.11  These   historians   therefore   argue   for   a   binary   conceptual   opposition   underlying   Rama   VI’s   definition   of   sexual   propriety   and  gender  roles       Assumption         Vajiravudh’s   homoeroticism   led   him   to   regard   women   as   outsiders  Placing  women’s  role  in  the  domestic  area  and  prioritizing  men’s  role  in  the   public  sphere,  the  King  ignored  men’s  role  as  a  husband                                                                                                                    Tamara  Loos,  Subject   Siam:   Family,   law,   and   colonial   modernity   in   Thailand  (Ithaca:  Cornell  University  Press,  2006),  pp   110-­‐111,122-­‐123    Ibid.,  p.124    Ibid.,  pp  170-­‐171   7Surachet  Suklarpkit,  “Monogamy  in  Modern  Thai  Society,  1870s-­‐1940s”,  M.A  Thesis,  Chulalongkorn  University,  2013,  pp   22-­‐82    Ibid.,  pp    79-­‐82,103-­‐106    Ibid.,  pp    154-­‐155   10  Tamora   Fishel,   “Romances   of   the   Sixth   Reign:   Gender,   sexuality,   and   Siamese   nationalism”,   in   Genders  and  Sexualities  in   Modern  Thailand,  ed  Peter  A  Jackson  and  Nerida  M  Cook  (Chiang  Mai:  Silkworm  Books,  1999),  pp  158-­‐162   11  Ibid.,  pp  158-­‐163       When   discussing   Rama   VI’s   nationalism,   scholars   tend   to   emphasize   the   monarch’s   regulation   of   men’s   sexual   propriety   and   their   duty   towards   the   throne   However,   a   number   of   literary   works,   which   demonstrate   Vajiravudh’s   concerns   on   women’s   roles   and   his   association   with   women   in   his   late   years   have   been   largely   ignored   This   neglect   might   be   due   to   the   fact   that   the   King’s   relationships   with   each   woman   were   quite   brief,   and   thus   seems   justified   to   see   such   unions   as   “a   rather   functional  affair”.12  Instead,  it  is  the  King’s  homoeroticism  and  relations  with  young  men   that  attract  most  academic  attention   As  Rama  VI’s  homosexual  inclination  has  been  accepted  by  many  historians,  the   main   question   is   to   what   extent   did   Rama   VI’s   homosexuality   influence,   if   at   all,   his   administration? Benedict  Anderson  maintains  Vajiravudh’s  homosexuality  had  a  direct   connection   to   his   “policies,   style,   mistakes   and   problems”.13  Anderson   elaborates   that   male  favorites  had  different  functions  and  impacts  from  female  royal  courtiers,  who  no   matter   how   powerful   they   might   be   behind   the   stage,   could   not   compete   with   male   aristocrats  and  princely  ranked  officials.14  Taking  this  analysis  into  account,  Loos  further   explores  Vajiravudh’s  nationalist  policies  but  reluctant  to  affirm  the  impact  of  the  King’s   sexual   preferences   on   his   policies   Instead,   Loos   suggests   that   to   evaluate   such   connection,  a  study  comparing  his  policies  with  Rama  VI’s  other  works  and  with  other   monarchs’  sexuality  is  necessary.15   Building   up   on   these   arguments,   Fishel,   Chanan   Yodhong   and   Craig   Reynolds   read   Vajiravudh’s   literary   works   as   well   as   writings   of   the   King’s   contemporaries   and   perceive   the   direct   linkage   between   Vajiravudh’s   sexual   orientation   and   state   policies   While  Fishel  explores  the  ideological  level  by  equating  Rama  VI’s  homoeroticism  to  the                                                                                                                    Craig  Reynolds,  “Homosociality  in  Modern  Thai  Political  Culture”,  Journal   of   Southeast   Asian   Studies  45,2  (June,  2014),   p  266   13  Benedict   Anderson,   "Studies   of   the   Thai   State:   The   state   of   Thai   studies",   in   The   Study   of   Thailand:   Analyses   of   knowledge,   approaches   and   prospects   in   anthropology,   art   history,   economics,   history,   and   political   science,   ed   Eliezer   B   Ayal  (Athens:  Ohio  University  Center  for  International  Studies,  Southeast  Asia  Program,  1978.),  p  208   14  Ibid     15  Tamara  Loos,  Subject…,  p  171   12     re-­‐channeling   of   male   passion   towards   the   throne, 16  Chanan   and   Reynolds   see   the   influence   that   spurred   him   to   establish   the   homosocial   community   as   originating   from   his  education  in  England.17     Scholars   affirm   masculinity   as   a   priority   in   Rama   VI’s   nationalist   project,   and   therefore   disconnect   it   from   femininity   They   accordingly   pay   less   attention   to   the   aspect   of   his   relationship   with   women   and   his   discussion   on   modern   women   On   this   topic,   Loos   briefly   discusses   how   Rama   VI’s   idea   on   women’s   roles   was   shaped   by   the   impact  from   the   regulation   of   males’  sexuality   and   construction   of   “modern”  family.18  In   other  words,  Loos  argues  that  these  two  processes  invoked  an  ideal  woman  image  that   stranded  two  poles  as  being  either  honorable  or  undignified  according  to  the  criteria  of   sexual  propriety.19     The  recent  book  of  Chanan  has  delved  into  various  types  of  secondary  sources  to   demonstrate  the  King’s  homosexuality  and  homoeroticism  shared  among  royal  courtiers   and  male  favorites,  whom  he  calls  nai  nai  (นายใน)  Depicting  Vajiravudh  as  a  misogynist   in   one   section   entitled   “Stay   away   from   women”,20  Chanan   is   selective   on   sources   and   intentionally   ignores   the   monarch’s   notion   of   women’s   rights   and   their   position   as   mother  of  the  nation  articulated  in  a  number  of  his  writings  Instead,  referring  mainly  to   Rama   VI’s   attacks   on   promiscuous   women   and   prostitutes,   Chanan   generalizes   such   hostile   comments   as   Rama   VI’s   main   attitude   on   women.21  Reviewing   this   thesis,   Craig   Reynolds   praises   Chanan   for   pointing   out   the   inseparable   connection   between   the   throne’s   personal   life   and   politics.22  While   such   linkage   proves   true   the   throne’s   close   relationship   with   males,   it   is   far-­‐fetched   for   Reynolds,   who   is   presumably   not   familiar   with  Vajiravudh’s  literary  works,  to  confirm  Chanan’s  claims  that  “women  were  kept  out                                                                                                                    Tamora  Fishel,  “Romances…”,  pp  162-­‐165    Chanan   Yodhong,     ‘Nai-­‐nai’   Samai-­‐ratchakan   Thi-­‐hok   (Male   royal   courtiers   of   the   Sixth   Reign)   (Bangkok:   Matichon,   2013),  pp  202-­‐218  Craig  Reynolds,  “Homosociality  in  Modern  Thai  Political  Culture”,  Journal  of  Southeast  Asian  Studies   45,2  (June,  2014),  pp  271-­‐272   18  Tamara  Loos,  Subject…,  pp  153-­‐154   19  Ibid.,  pp.153-­‐154,  172   20  Chanan  Yodhong,    ‘Nai-­‐nai’,  pp  148-­‐154   21  Ibid   22  Craig  Reynolds,  “Homosociality ”,  p  277   16 17     of   his   life”,23  that   “there   was   hardly   any   male-­‐female   love   in   his   script”,24  and   that   “only-­‐ male-­‐to-­‐male  friendships  could  be  found”.25   Thai   postgraduate  students  working  on  Vajiravudh’s  definition  of  femininity  and   exploring   a   wider   range   of   primary   sources   would   disagree   with   such   claims     However,   these   scholars’   focus   has   been   on   women’s   role   without   connecting   it   to   the   King’s   epistemology   of   national   identity,   his   policies   on   homoerotic   nationalism   and   male’s   sexuality   Reading   Vajiravudh’s   writings   to   examine   his   attitudes   towards   the   female’s   socializing   practice26  and   his   redefinition   of   “wife”,  27  students   of   history   tend   to   claim   Vajiravudh  cultural  policies  as  simply  to  promote  status  of  women   Fishel   considers   the   dilemma   of   preserving   Thainess   or   imitating   the   West   by   analysing   Vajiravudh’s   notion   of   Siamese   sexual   identity   Reading   “Hauchai-­‐chainum”,   she   comes   to   the   conclusion   that   homoerotic   sentiment   was   the   central   aspect   “in   the   construction   of   love   of   nation,   for   the   despite   all   the   uses   of   familial   and   conjugal   metaphors   such   as   ’motherland,’   ‘fatherland,’   or   ‘wife,’   love   of   nation   is   exposed   as   fundamentally   homosocial,   consisting   of   deep   erotic   bonds   between   men” 28  Thus   women,   she   concludes,   only   had   adjunct   roles   in   Rama   VI’s   ideological   framework.29   Penny   Esterik   and   Peter   Jackson   also   suggest   that   Vajiravudh’s   policy   on   women   was   superficial   and   dictated   only   women’s   appearance,   public   image   and   socialized   activity.30  Esterik   further   argues   that   Rama   VI   excluded   women   from   his   nationalism   and  positioned  them  only  in  the  domestic  sphere.31   Moreover,   as   masculinity   was   linked   to   men’s   loyalty   to   the   throne,   historians   agree   that   the   Victorian   model   of   the   family   man   was   also   absent   from   Vajiravudh’s                                                                                                                    Ibid.,  p  261    Ibid.,  p  266   25  Ibid.,  p  272   26  Pechsupa  Tasanapan,  “The  Idea  of  “Socializing”  and  its  Impact  on  Thai  women,  1918-­‐1932”  M.A  thesis,  Chulalongkorn   University,  1999,  pp  54-­‐66   27  Irapatra  Suriyapan  “Concepts  of  “Mia”  in  Thai  Society  (1851-­‐1935)”  M.A  Thesis,  2009,  Chulalongkorn  university,  p  101   28  Tamora  Fishel,  “Romances…”,  p  164   29  Ibid.,  p  158   30  Penny   Esterik,   Materializing   Thailand   (New   York:   Berg,   2000),   pp   98-­‐99   Peter   Jackson,   “Performative   Genders,   Perverse   Desires:   A   bio-­‐history   of   Thailand's   same-­‐sex   and   transgender   cultures”,   Intersections:   Gender,   history   and   culture  in  the  Asian  context,  9(  August  2003),  15   31  Penny  Esterik,  Materializing,  p  100   23 24     policies  Loos  claims  that  “…the  discourse  of  national  identity  defined  men  less  in  terms   of   their   familial   position   as   husbands   and   fathers   than   in   terms   of   their   loyalty   to   the   monarch” 32  Reading   Chanan,   Reynolds   elaborates   that   Rama   VI’s   patriarchy   was   different   from   Victorian   patriarchy   in   that   Vajiravudh   “did   not   involve   authority   over   the  nuclear  family  The  nai  nai  were  his  family  and  he  thought  of  them  as  his  children”.33   Chanan  himself  explains  how  Vajiravudh’s  policies  were  different  from  Victorian  culture   as   his   definition   of   masculinity   disdained   marriage   and   the   association   with   women.34   Thus,  men’s  role  in  the  family  has  not  been  sufficiently  explored  by  historians,  even  by   Thai   scholars   who   could   easily   gain   access   to   primary   sources   discussing   about   this   issue     Assumption  3  King  Vajiravudh’s  perspectives  on  gender  roles  and  sexual  mores   were  static  and  remained  unchanged  over  the  course  of  his  reign   Being   a   prolific   writer,   Rama   VI   has   left   us   numerous   writings   for   analysis   By   selecting   some   of   his   works   over   others,   scholars   propose   different   arguments   Some   praise   the   monarch’s   unequivocal   support   for   gender   equality   and   view   his   nationalist   discourse   as   the   tool   to   educate   his   band   of   young   men   to   treat   women   with   respect   Others   point   to   sources   that   express   his   homosexual   tendency   coupled   with   his   unflattering  attitude  towards  women  What  historians  agree,  however,  is  how  the  King   formulated  his  ideas  Education  and  Victorian  culture  he  learned  from  London  are  taken   to   have   been   the   main   factor   contributing   to   his   model   of   sexual   mores   since   the   beginning   through   the   end   of   his   reign   Loos   maintains   that   the   sexual   morality   the   throne  adopted  had  developed  during  his  childhood  growing  up  in  turn-­‐of-­‐  the-­‐century   London 35  Pechsupa   also   stresses   the   influence   of   the   education   in   London   and   experiences   in   Europe   on   his   notions   of   gender   roles,   proper   manners   and   modern                                                                                                                    Tamara  Loos,  Subject…,  p  154    Craig  Reynolds,  “Homosociality ”,  p  275   34  Chanan  Yodhong,    ‘Nai-­‐nai’,  pp  247-­‐253   35  Ibid.,  p  171   32 33     lifestyle 36     Fishel   proposes   that   the   British   boarding   school   system   cultivated   Vajiravudh’s  mindset  of  having  “homosocial  and  sexual  bonds  among  men”37  as  the  style   of  leadership  and  relationship  with  men  in  his  circle.38  Fishel  elaborates  on  how  the  King   channeled   such   sentiment   in   the   service   of   the   nation   by   adopting   Mosse’s   analysis   of   European   nationalism   and   respectability.39  Chanan,   agrees   with   Fishel,   and   compares   Rama  VI’s  homosocial  community  of  nai   nai  to  male  homosocial  student  circles  in  Eton   and   Harrow.40  Nonetheless,   Reynolds   rightly   argues   against   Fishel   and   Chanan   that   Vajiravudh  did  not  attend  any  boarding  school  in  England,  but  was  tutored  privately  in   his   early   years   in   London.41  The   influence   came   from   his   last   years   at   Oxford   University,   where   the   cultural   revival   of   Hellenism   could   have   shaped   his   perspective   of   male   friendship.42     Although  the  western  influence  during  his  reign  is  well  taken,  Western  and  Thai   historians  tend  to  ignore  shifting  politics  and  personal  conflicts  that  also  contributed  to   his   attitudes   Primary   sources   subsequently   have   not   been   examined   through   the   political   and   personal   life   situations   of   the   monarch   Scholars,   instead,   perceive   Vajiravudh’s  ideas  as  static  and  consider  his  policies  as  pursued  consistently   More   importantly,   when   applying   this   Western   model   to   understand   his   concept   of   sexual   mores   and   gender   roles,   Vajiravudh’s   different   approaches,   as   shown   in   his   literary   works,   contradict   each   other   While   Western   historians   have   not   paid   much   attention   to   such   contradiction,   some   Thai   scholars   attempt   to   make   sense   of   these   sources  by  tracing  the  King’s  changing  ideas  Unfortunately,  their  analyses  cover  only  a   small   section   of   the   chapter   with   confusing   dating   of   the   writing’s   composition     Thus,   they  fail  to  provide  thoroughly  critiques  on  Rama  VI’s  shifting  ideas                                                                                                                    Pechsupa  Tasanapan  “The  Idea…”,  pp  33-­‐35      Tamora  Fishel,  “Romances…”,  pp  164-­‐165   38  Ibid   39  Ibid.,  pp  165-­‐166   40  Chanan  Yodhong,    ‘Nai-­‐nai’,  pp  113-­‐116   41  Craig  Reynolds,  “Homosociality ”,  p  271   42  Ibid.,  p  272   36 37     Therefore,   scholars   have   not   elaborated   in   detail   about   Vajiravudh’s   shifting   ideas,  whose  causes  have  therefore  never  been  truly  examined  These  small  numbers  of   literary  works,  they  explored,  consequently  need  to  be  compared  with  other  works  and   to  be  looked  through  the  lens  of  the  political  and  personal  conflicts  developing  around   Rama  VI  as  well  as  the  immediate  predicaments  he  encountered      2  Conceptual  Framework  and  Outline   Reading  Rama  VI’s  essays,  speeches  and  dramaturgical  works,  scholars  consider   Vajiravudh  as  a  monarch  who  expressed  ideas  and  pursue  certain  policies  with  a  clear   sense   of   direction   However,   a   re-­‐examination   of   his   writings   according   to   the   date   of   composition  sheds  lights  on  the  shifts  in  the  King’s  articulation  of  Thainess,  civilization,   sexual   morality   and   gender   roles   This   articulation   was   influenced   by   Siam’s   asymmetrical   relationship   with   the   West   since   the   mid-­‐nineteenth   century     Although   Siam   escaped   direct   colonization,   Vajiravudh   viewed   Western   imperialism   as   a   threat   and   more   importantly,   as   a   model   Against   this   backdrop,   Rama   VI   also   experienced   personal  and  political  conflicts  with  different  groups  of  people  ranging  from  his  parents,   uncles   and   siblings   who   opposed   his   lifestyle   and   notion   of   familial   practice   Another   social   group   the   throne   considered   a   threat   was   “modern   men”   consisting   of   elite   commoners   and   the   young   generation   of   officials,   clerks   and   professionals   These   young   men   were   receptive   to   western   ideas,   which   led   them   to   contest   official   nationalism.43   Writings,   stage   performances   and   speeches   were   therefore   Vajiravudh’s   space   to   express  his  political  point  of  view  responding  to  both  Western  imperial  modernity  and   internal  political  conflicts     While   his   literary   works   demonstrate   his   aims   to   gradually   move   away   from   traditional   familial   practice   of   polygamy   and   adopt   Western   model   of   monogamy,   the                                                                                                                    For   the   discussion   about   popular   nationalist   movements,   see,   Nakarin   Mektrairat,   “An   Intellectual   History   of   Siam's   Political   Transformation   During   2470-­‐2480   B.E.”,   M.A   Thesis,   Chulalongkorn   University,   1985   Matthew   Copeland,   “Contested   Nationalism   and   the   1932   Overthrow   of   the   Absolute   Monarchy   in   Siam”   Ph.d   Dissertation,   Australian   National  University,  1993       43   10   order  As  an  artist,  Vajiravudh’s  dramatic  productions  reveal  how  his  creativity  brought   him   to   inconsistently   highlight   and   blur   the   line   of   Thai   and   West   dichotomy   These   attempts   reflect   not   only   his   personal   condition   of   reigning   under   constant   internal   conflict   but   also   his   hope   to   justify   his   precarious   position   both   as   a   “ruling”   monarch   and  as  a  “masculine”  man                                         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Thang-­‐kanmueang”   (‘Asvabahu’   and   the   Use   of   Literature   for   the   Dissemination   of   Political   Thought   and   Ideology)   M.A   Thesis,  Chulalongkorn  University,  1995   Sumalee   Limprasert,   “Tualakhon-­‐yingnaibotlakhon   Phraratchaniphonphrabatsomdet-­‐ phramongkutklaochaoyuhua:  Sue-­‐nai  kan-­‐op-­‐rom  yingthai”  (Female  characters   in  King  Rama  VI’s  plays:  The  models  of  moral  education  for  Thai  women)  M.A   Thesis,  Silpakorn  University,  1995   Surachet   Suklarpkit,   “‘Phua-­‐diaw   mia-­‐diaw’   naisangkhomthai-­‐samai-­‐mai-­‐chakthot-­‐ sawat   2410   thuengthot-­‐sawat   2480”   (Monogamy   in   modern   Thai   society,   1870s-­‐1940s)  M.A  Thesis,  Chulalongkorn  University,  2013   Thep   Boontanond,   “Phrabatsomdetphramongkutklaochaoyuhuakap   Kansa-­‐daeang-­‐ phap-­‐lak-­‐thangkanthahan”   (King   Vajiravudh   and   the   Making   of   His   Military   Image)  M.A  Thesis,  Chulalongkorn  University,  2013   Yuphapon   Changchankhit   “Kansueksa-­‐khong-­‐satrithai:   Sueksa   koranichapho   khong   rongrianrachini  pho.so  2447  –  2503”  (The  Education  of  Thai  Women:  The  case   study  on  Rachini  school1904-­‐1960)  M.A  thesis,  Thammasat  University,  1987     Electronic  Source   Rath,   Kayte   “Margot   Asquith:   Britain’s   most   colorful   ‘first   ,  October,  2014                 112   lady’,”                                             113   [...]... Vajiravudh   exploited   the   Western   model   of   sexual   propriety   to   attack   those   who  challenged  his  authority The  thesis  examines  his construction of sexual propriety   by  discussing  these  responses  according  to the  two  directives  outlined  below       1) The  Response  to  Western  Models of  Familial  Practice  and  Femininity   Although   Siam   was   not   directly...   a   divine   King   or   devaraja   Moreover,   the   consecrated   image   of   the   King   was   also   represented   in   the   concept   of   chakkravattin   or   the   position   of   the   King   as   the   universal   monarch   The   King’s   divine   power   showed   in   many   aspects,   such   as   titles,   cosmic   palace   structures,   sacred   rituals   and  numbers of  queens...   Reigns’   responses   to   the   Western   worldview   regarding   gender   roles   and   familial  practice   2.2 The  Alternative  Modernity of  King  Mongkut  and  King  Chulalongkorn   Throughout   the   nineteenth   century,   Western   imperialism   dominated   the   definition   of   civilization-­‐barbarianism   around   the   globe   Since   the   mid   nineteenth   century, the  Siamese...  colonial  states  Thongchai  and  Loos  examine  how   the  Fifth Reign  wielded  absolute  power  to  modernize the  state  and  simultaneously  bore   the  burden of the  extraterritoriality  They  subsequently  maintain  that the  state  authority   of the  Fifth Reign  was  both the  colonial  aggressor  and the  colonized.112 The  ruling  elites   of   this   period   were   consequently...  Dilemma of  Redefining  Women’s  Position     Historians   have   conducted   a   number   of   studies   on   the   changes   in   gender   roles   in   Siam   during   the   modern   era   Thai   scholars   positively   view   the   modern   roles   of   upper   class  women in  several  aspects  Their  arguments  emphasize  various  state  policies in the   Fifth   Reign   concerning   the  ... examined   by   Junko   Koizumi.120  Koizumi   elaborates   on   how   the   rights   of   the   high-­‐ranking   females   became  more  limited  since  Rama  IV  tried  to  develop  a  patriarchal  practice  By  reducing   the   importance   of   the   maternal   line,   fathers   possessed   the   final   decision   on   their   daughters’   family   life 121  Reducing   the   maternal   line   of. ..   Reign. 59 The   thesis   therefore   aims   to   explore   how   Rama   VI   branded   these   particular   notions   of   women’s   role   and   sexual   propriety   as   “true   civilization”   of   Siam     2) Responses  to  Internal  Conflicts   Although   Vajiravudh’s   notions   of   sexual   propriety,   femininity   and   masculinity   might  be  attributed  to  his  formative  years in. .. character   was   opposite   to   these   three   groups   mentioned   above   In   doing   so,   the   thesis   follows   Tamora   Fishel’s   argument   on   the   construction   of   Thai   identity   through the  relationship  with  “others”; the  Chineseness  and the  West  Fishel  argues  that   while   the   Chinese   was   “ the   excluded,   rejected   ‘other’”,61 the   West   was   “a   model...   (and)   sexual   norms,” 62  However,   the   throne   eventually   rejected   the   West   to   maintain   the   ‘unique   Thai   identity.’   ” 63  This   thesis   therefore   explores   Vajiravudh’s   varying   attitude   on   the   triangular   relationship   of   the   Western   practice,   the   “Chineseness”   and   the   “traditional   Thainess”   through   the   characters   of        ... created   the   essence of  Thainess” The  following  section  elaborates  on  how the  gender  boundaries of   this   period   were   still   in   their   infancy,   as   the   monarchs   had   not   yet   firmly   demarcated   ideal   gender   roles   Although   they   adopted   a   binary   opposition   concept,   they   faced   a   dilemma   in   placing   women’s   roles   in   an   undefined ...  mirrors the  civilizing  project  with   the  goal of  maintaining the  gender  hierarchy In the  Inner  palace,  female  courtiers  were   encouraged   to   take   up   training   in   various...   of   these   sources  by  tracing the  King’s  changing  ideas  Unfortunately,  their  analyses  cover  only  a   small   section   of   the   chapter   with   confusing   dating   of   the. ..   the   Western   model   of   sexual   propriety   to   attack   those   who  challenged  his  authority The  thesis  examines  his construction of sexual propriety   by  discussing  these

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