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THE REGULATION OF TXNIP GENE EXPRESSION FAXING YU (B.Sc. (Hons.), NUS) A THESIS SUBMITTED FOR THE DEGREE OF DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY DEPARTMENT OF BIOCHEMISTRY NATIONAL UNIVERSITY OF SINGAPORE 2009 Acknowledgments I first thank my supervisor, Dr. Yan Luo, for his valuable comments on how to design and perform experiments, for his generous giving of freedom to explore new fields, for his enthusiastic encouragement when I encountered difficulties, and for his critical reading and suggestions on my manuscripts and thesis. It is impossible to have this thesis presented here without Dr. Luo’s patient guidance throughout my graduate study. I wish to thank Drs. Edwin Cheung and Xinmin Cao, my thesis advisory committee members, for sharing their knowledge and wisdom. I also wish to thank Drs. Thilo Hagen and Ruping Dai for their constructive comments and friendly discussions on my projects. I would also like to thank past and present members of Luo lab; all of us have constructed a harmonious and productive working environment. Special thanks to Shuangru Goh, she has experimentally contributed to a portion of results described in this thesis, and Drs. Hongpeng He, Liling Zheng and Mingji Jin, who have given me wonderful suggestions on thesis writing. Finally, I thank my loving wife, my parents, my siblings, my grandpa, and other family members for their understanding, supports and sacrifices in these years. I Table of Contents page Acknowledgments I Table of Contents II Summary IX List of Tables XI List of Figures XII Abbreviations XVII Chapter 1 Introduction 1 1.1 A General Overview of Eukaryotic Gene Transcription 1 1.1.1 RNA Polymerases 1 1.1.2 Core Promoters and General Transcription Factors (GTF) 2 1.1.3 Sequence‐specific Transcription Factors 3 1.1.4 Cofactors 4 1.1.5 Other Regulatory Mechanisms 6 1.2 Extracellular Signals Regulate Gene Transcription 7 1.2.1 Internal Sensors Regulate Transcription Factors 7 1.2.2 Cell Permeable Ligands Regulate Transcription Factors 9 1.2.3 Plasma Membrane Receptors Regulate Nuclear Transcription 9 Factors 1.2.4 Plasma Membrane Receptors Regulate Cytoplasmic Transcription 10 Factors II 1.3 Thioredoxin Interacting Protein (Txnip) 1.4 Txnip Functions 1.4.1 Txnip and Redox State 1.4.2 Txnip and Cell Proliferation and Cell Death 1.4.3 Txnip and Cell Differentiation 1.4.4 Txnip and Cellular Metabolism 1.5 Txnip Expression in Response to Different Signals 1.6 Objectives Chapter 2 Materials and Methods 2.1 Chemicals and Buffers 2.2 Plasmid Constructs 2.3 Purification of Bacterially Expressed Recombinant Proteins 2.4 Mammalian Cell Culture 2.5 Sodium Dodecyl Sulfate Polyacrylamide Gel Electrophoresis (SDS‐PAGE) 2.6 Immuno‐Blot 2.7 RNA Extraction, RT (Reverse Transcription)‐PCR and Real‐Time PCR 2.8 Genomic DNA Extraction 2.9 Small Interfering RNAs (siRNAs) and RNA Interference Assays 2.10 Transfection 2.11 Promoter Activity (Reporter) Assays 2.12 Immunocytometry 2.13 Fluorescence‐activated Cell Sorting (FACS) III 10 14 14 15 18 18 20 23 25 25 25 26 27 27 27 28 29 29 30 30 30 31 2.14 Electrophoresis Mobility Shift Assays (EMSA) 2.15 Chromatin Immunoprecipitation (ChIP) Assays 2.16 Thioredoxin Activity Assays 2.17 Glucose Transport Assays 2.18 Statistical Analyses Chapter 3 Identification of Molecules Modulating Txnip Expression 3.1 Preface 3.2 Results 3.2.1 Adenosine‐containing Molecules Induce Txnip Expression 3.2.1.1 NAD(H) and ATP Stimulate Txnip Expression 3.2.1.2 Molecules Containing Adenosine Group Induce Txnip Expression 3.2.1.3 Adenosine is Necessary and Sufficient for Inducing Txnip Expression 3.2.1.4 Adenosine‐containing Molecules Induce Txnip Expression in a Dose‐dependent Manner 3.2.1.5 Long Term Effect of Adenosine‐containing Molecules on Txnip Expression 3.2.1.6 Adenosine‐containing Molecules Induce Txnip Expression at the Transcriptional Level 3.2.1.7 Adenosine‐containing Molecules Induce Txnip Expression Is Mediated by an Earlier Defined ChoRE 3.2.1.8 The MLX/MondoA Complex Mediates the Induction of Txnip Expression by Adenosine‐containing Molecules 3.2.1.9 Adenosine‐containing Molecules Facilitate MondoA Nuclear Translocation IV 31 34 35 35 36 37 37 38 38 38 40 40 43 44 45 47 49 52 3.2.1.10 Glucose Is Required for the Induction of Txnip Expression by Adenosine‐containing Molecules 3.2.1.11 Glucose Induced Txnip Expression Is Amplified by Adenosine‐containing Molecules 3.2.1.12 Potential Plasma Membrane Target(s) of Adenosine‐ containing Molecules 3.2.1.12.1 Purinergic Receptors Are Not Required for the Induction of Txnip Expression 3.2.1.12.2 Adenosine‐containing Molecules May Target Adenosine Transporters 3.2.1.13 Signaling Pathway(s) Evoked by Adenosine‐containing Molecules for Regulating Txnip Expression 3.2.1.13.1 The Induction of Txnip Expression Requires Intracellular Ca2+ 3.2.1.13.2 The Induction of Txnip Expression Does Not Require cAMP 3.2.1.13.3 The Involvement of MAPK in the Induction of Txnip Expression 3.2.1.13.4 Non‐involvement of AMPK in the Induction of Txnip Expression 3.2.1.14 Adenosine‐containing Molecules Repress Thioredoxin Activity and Glucose Transport 3.2.1.15 Adenosine‐containing Molecules Affect Cell Cycle Progression 3.2.2 Effects of Glucose Analogs on Txnip Expression 3.2.2.1 Effects of Selected Monosaccharides and Disaccharides on Txnip Expression 3.2.2.2 Effect of PD169316 on Glucose, 2DG or Maltose/NAD+ Induced Txnip Expression V 54 56 57 59 59 62 62 64 64 66 67 69 70 70 75 3.2.2.3 A Ca2+ Chelator Abolishes the Stimulatory Effect of Glucose on Txnip Expression 3.2.3 Inhibitors of Oxidation Phosphorylation Repressed Txnip Expression 3.2.3.1 Nitric Oxide (NO) and Sodium Azide (NaN3) Repress Txnip Expression 3.2.3.2 Inhibition of Oxidative Phosphorylation Represses Txnip Expression 3.2.3.3 A Ca2+ Chelator Rescues Txnip Expression in the Presence of Oxidative Phosphorylation Inhibitors 3.3 Discussion 3.3.1 Adenosine‐containing Molecules May Remain Extracellular to Induce Txnip Expression 3.3.2 Potential Membrane Targets for Adenosine‐containing Molecules 3.3.3 Signaling Pathway(s) Involved in the Induction of Txnip Expression by Adenosine‐containing Molecules 3.3.4 The MondoA/MLX Complex Mediates Txnip Expression 3.3.5 Physiological Significance 3.3.6 Two Signaling Pathways Evoked by Glucose for Inducing Txnip Expression 3.3.7 Txnip Expression Is a Sensor of Oxidative Phosphorylation Status 3.4 Conclusion and Perspectives Chapter 4 Regulatory Mechanisms Underlying the Induction of Txnip Expression by Glucose or Adenosine‐containing Molecules 4.1 Preface 4.2 Results VI 75 76 76 80 82 83 83 84 85 87 89 91 93 94 96 96 98 4.2.1 Regulatory Mechanisms at the Promoter Level Governing Glucose or Adenosine‐containing Molecules Induced Txnip Expression 4.2.1.1 Txnip Promoter Regions Critical for Expression Induction by NAD+ or Glucose 4.2.1.2 Tandem ChoREs on Txnip Promoters 4.2.1.3 The MondoA/MLX Complex Binds to Both ChoREs in vitro 4.2.1.4 Both ChoREs are Required for Optimal Txnip Promoter Activity 4.2.1.5 ChoREs Are Not Sufficient for the Induction of Txnip Expression 4.2.1.6 Tandem NF‐Y Binding Sites Are Required for the Induction of Txnip Expression 4.2.1.7 NF‐Y Mediated Induction of Txnip Expression by SAHA Requires MondoA/MLX 4.2.1.8 Txnip Promoter Recruits MondoA/MLX Complex in an NF‐Y Dependent Manner 4.3 The Role of USFs in Txnip Expression 4.3.1 Expression and Purification of His‐tagged USF1 4.3.2 USF1 Interacts with ChoRE Sites in vitro 4.3.3 Down‐regulation of USFs Reduces Txnip Expression 4.3.4 Over‐expression of USFs Induces Txnip Promoter Activity 4.3.5 USF Is Not Involved in the Txnip Induction by Adenosine‐containing Molecules 4.3.6 USF Is Not Involved in the Txnip Induction by Glucose 4.4 Discussion 4.4.1 Tandem ChoREs on the Txnip Gene Promoter VII 98 98 102 105 108 111 111 114 116 121 121 122 125 127 129 132 133 133 4.4.2 Full Induction of Txnip Expression Requires Both ChoREs and CCAAT Boxes 4.4.3 NF‐Y and MondoA/MLX Cooperate to Stimulate Txnip Expression 4.4.4 The Role of USFs on Txnip Expression 4.5 Conclusion and Perspectives References Appendices Appendix I, Buffers/Gels Used in This Study Appendix II, RNA Integrity Appendix III, Primer Specificity Appendix IV, Primers Used in This Study Appendix V, Paper 1 (Abstract) Appendix VI, Paper 2 (Abstract) VIII 134 136 138 140 143 162 162 165 166 167 172 173 Summary Thioredoxin interacting protein (Txnip) is a multifunctional protein involved in regulation of cell cycle events and cellular metabolism. The expression of Txnip is induced by glucose, and this induction is mediated by a carbohydrate response element (ChoRE) on Txnip promoter and its associated transcription factors, MondoA and Max‐like protein X (MLX). In this study, I have discovered that the transcription of the Txnip gene is induced by an array of adenosine‐containing molecules, of which an intact adenosine moiety is necessary and sufficient. The induction of Txnip expression by adenosine‐containing molecules is glucose dependent, and MondoA and MLX have been shown to convey stimulatory signals from extracellular molecules to the Txnip promoter. Therefore, the regulatory role of adenosine‐containing molecules is exerted via amplifying glucose signaling, and this suggests that these molecules may modulate the kinetics of glucose homeostasis. I have also studied the underlying regulatory mechanisms of glucose and adenosine‐containing molecules on Txnip expression. 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Coomassie blue staining solution 50% (v/v) methonal 0.05% coomassie brilliantblue R‐250 10% (v/v) acetic acid 40% sterile water. Destain solution 50% v/v methanol 10% v/v acetic acid 40% sterile water. Transfer buffer (Electro‐blotting) for 4L 20mM Tris Base (pH8.6) 9.7g 150mM Glycine 45.0g 10% Methanol 400.0mL TBST 100 mM Tris base, pH7.6 150 mM NaCl 0.1% v/v Tween‐20 PBS‐TX PBS (1×) 0.1% v/v Triton X‐100 START SOLUTION (10×) 1 mM 2‐deoxyglucose 5 μCi/ml [3H]‐2‐deoxyglucose 162 Appendices KRH Buffer for 1L 50mM HEPES, pH 7.4 5.2g (or 20mL of 1M stock) 136mM NaCl 7.9g (or 27.2 ml of 5 stock) 4.7mM KCl 0.35g (or 4.7 ml of 1M stock) 1.25mM MgSO4 0.3g (or 1.25 ml of 1M stock) 1.25mM CaCl2 0.5ml of 2.5 M stock Bacterial lysis buffer 20 mM Tris pH 8.0 500 mM NaCl 0.5 mg/ml Lysozyme 0.5% Triton 1 mM PMSF 1mM Beta‐Maecaptoethanol or DTT MC buffer (for ChIP) 10 mM Tris‐HCl pH 7.5 10 mM NaCl 3 mMMgCl2 0.5% (v/v) NP‐40 Store up to 1 year at 4◦C 1× GS Buffer (for 1ml) 0.2ml PolydI‐dC‐PolydI‐dC (1mg/ml in H2O) 0.3ml H2O 0.5ml 2× GS 1μl 1M DTT Aliquot and store at ‐20oC 2× GS Buffer 25mM Hepes pH8.4 62.5mM KCl 0.05% NP‐40 or IGEPAL 2mM MgCl2 8% Ficoll‐400 500μg/ml BSA 0.5mM PMSF 2X Protease Inhibitor cocktail 10× TGEMN Running Buffer 62.5mM Tris pH8.2 500mM Glycine 1mM EDTA 10mM MgCl2 0.25% NP40 or IGEPAL Store at RT; 1X TGEMN can be stored at 4°C, add 0.5 mM DTT freshly. 163 Appendices BC100 20 mM Tris‐HCl, pH 7.9 at 4oC 20 % glycerol 0.25 mM EDTA 0.125 mM EGTA 0.025% Triton X‐100 100 mM KCl Before use, freshly add 0.5 mM DTT and 0.25 mM PMSF Gel for EMSA (4%, for 35 ml) 7ml 20% Acrylamide/Bis solution (59:1 linkage) 7ml 20% Glycerol 3.5ml 10X TGEMN 17.3ml H2O 175μl 10% APS 17.5μl TEMED 17.5μl 1M DTT SDS‐PAGE Gel composition Lower Gel (10 ml) 5% 8% 10% 12% 15% 30% Acry‐Bis (29 :1) 1.665 2.665 3.335 4 5 65% Sucrose 0.385 0.59 0.78 1.25 1.565 10× Lower Buffer 1 1 1 1 1 dH2O 6.9 5.74 4.875 3.75 2.44 10% APS 100 100 100 100 100 TEMED 10 10 10 10 10 Stacking gel (5 ml) 4% 30% Acryl‐Bis (29 :1) 0.67 4× Stacking Buffer 1.25 dH2O 3.05 10% APS 50 TEMED 10 164 Appendices Appendix II RNA Integrity RNA (2 μg) prepared using RNeasy Mini Kit was separated and visualized using ethidium bromide agarose gel. The band corresponding to 28S or 18S rRNA was strong and sharp (lanes 2‐6), indicating high‐quality RNA. Lane 1, molecular weight marker (100 bp ladder). 1 2 3 4 5 6 165 Appendices Appendix III Primer Specificity Following Real‐Time PCR (primers against human Txnip or β‐actin), the dissociation curve of PCR products were plotted. As shown below, unique and sharp peak was revealed in dissociation curve for each primer pair, indicating that primers used were specific to their targeting gene. Dissociation curves for primers against other genes were similar (single peak). Txnip β-actin 166 Appendices Appendix IV Primers Used in This Study Primers Remarks GCCTCGAGCTCCAAATCGAGGAAACCG-reverse CCGGCTAGCCCAACAAGAATGAAGAGAG-1299 CCGGCTAGCGGGTACAAGCTGGGGG-760 CCGGCTAGCGAGGCCTGAAAGTTCTC-653 CCGGCTAGCCCTCAGAGACGGTGG-633 CCGGCTAGCGCACTGGCTAAGACTAG-441 CCGGCTAGCACAGCCCCCTCCTTCCC-269 CCGGCTAGCGTGTCCACGCGCCACAGC-169 CCGGCTAGCACGCGCCACAGCGATCTC-163 CCGGCTAGCACAGCGATCTCACTGATTG-157 CCGGCTAGCTCACTGATTGGTCGGGCTC-147 CCGGCTAGCGATTGGTCGGGCTCCTGG-142 Primers for generating serial Txnip promoter deletions. The reverse primer is a common. Numbers indicate the base pairs upstream of the transcription staring site. Restriction sites are underlined. CCGGCTAGCAGCCAATGGGAGGGATG-111 CCGGCTAGCGGGAGGGATGTGCACGAGGG-102 CCGGCTAGCCCTCCGGGCCAGCGCTCG-73 CCGGCTAGCCAATCCTCCGGGCCAGCGCTCG-73cat CCGGCTAGCCCCTCCCATTGGCTGCCCG-Rev95 CCGGCTAGCGGTCCGGAGGCTCGTGCTGC-Rev63 CCGGCTAGCGGTCCGGAGGCTCATACTGC-Rev63mut CCGACGCGTACAGCCCCCTCCTTCCC-269 CCGACGCGTAGCCAGGAGCACACCGTGTC-184 CCGACGCGTAGCCAGGAGTATACCGTGTC-184mut CCGACGCGTCTGATTGGTCGGGCTCCTGG-145 CGTGTCCACGCGCCACAGCGAT-d170fwd CTGGCTGGGAAAATGGTTGTTGCG-d170rev TGTCTATGCGCCACAGCGATCTCAC Primers for generating Txnip‐ TATA fusion promoters. 184mut and Rev63mut were used to generate mutations at ChoREs (one E‐box mutated). Primers with d170 label were used to delete sequences around ‐ 170. Primers for ChoRE‐ b mutation CGGTATACTCCTGGCTGGGAAAATG 167 Appendices Primers Remarks GCAGTATGAGCCTCCGGGCCAGCG Primers for ChoRE‐ a mutation CCTCATACACATCCCTCCCATTGGC Primers for inverted CCAAT box mutation ACTCAGTGAGATCGCTGTGGCG AGTCGGGCTCCTGGTAAACAAG GATGGGAGGGATGTGCACGAGGGC Primers for CCAAT box mutation AGCTGCCCGGTCCTTGTTTACCAG CATAGAGACGTTTCCGCCTCCTGC TCGTAGCCCGGGCCAGAAGAGC Shuffle CGCGTAGCCAGGAGCACACCGTGTCCACGCGCCACCATACC TAGGACTTGGCTGGTCTGGGTGCCAGCGTAGCAAAGGACGG AGGCCACATGATAGGGTGCACGAGGGCAGCACGAGCCTCCG GACCG-fwd CTAGCGGTCCGGAGGCTCGTGCTGCCCTCGTGCACCCTATC ATGTGGCCTCCGTCCTTTGCTACGCTGGCACCCAGACCAGC CAAGTCCTAGGTATGGTGGCGCGTGGACACGGTGTGCTCCT GGCTA-rev dChoRE-b CGCGAGCACACCGTGTCCACGCGCCTGAGCACACCGTGTCC ACGCGCC-fwd CTAGGGCGCGTGGACACGGTGTGCTCAGGCGCGTGGACACG GTGTGCT-rev dChoRE-a CGCGTGCACGAGGGCAGCACGAGCCTGTGCACGAGGGCAGC ACGAGCC-fwd CTAGGGCTCGTGCTGCCCTCGTGCACAGGCTCGTGCTGCCC TCGTGCA-rev ChoRE-ab CGCGAGCACACCGTGTCCACGCGCCTGTGCACGAGGGCAGC ACGAGCC-fwd CTAGGGCTCGTGCTGCCCTCGTGCACAGGCGCGTGGACACG GTGTGCT-rev ChoRE-b CGCGAGCACACCGTGTCCACGCGCC-fwd CTAGGGCGCGTGGACACGGTGTGCT-rev ChoRE-a CGCGTGCACGAGGGCAGCACGAGCC-fwd CTAGGGCTCGTGCTGCCCTCGTGCA-rev pTxnip269_xho1 CCGCTCGAGACAGCCCCCTCCTTCCC pTxnipR_BamH1 GATGGATCCCTCCAAATCGAGGAAACCG mChREBP-EcoRI-F TCTGAATTCCTTCTTCCTGAAGACCCTA 168 Primers for TATA box mutation Synthesized oligonucleotides for making Txnip‐ TATA fusion promoters Transfer promoters from pGL3‐Txnip (WT or Mut) to pEGFP1 Primers for cloning of mouse ChREBPζ Appendices Primers Remarks mChREBP-EcoRI-R TAGGGTCTTCAGGAAGAAGGAATTCAGA mChREBP-Noc1-F CTGCCCCATGGGTACCTGGAACCCGTCT mChREBP-Noc1-R AGACGGGTTCCAGGTACCCATGGGGCAG mChREBP-XhoI CACCTCGAGATGGCGCGCGCGCTGGCGGATCTATCCGTGAA C mChREBP-Mlu1 TACACGCGTTATAATGGTCTCCCCAGGGTGCCCTCTGTGAC TGC mChREBP_seq680 TGCTGCTTGGGGGCTCCGA mChREBP_seq1170 CCAAGATCCCACCTGCTCC mChREBP_seq1510 CAAGCCCTCCTCCCCATCC mMlx-xho1 CACCTCGAGATGACGGAGCCGGGCGCCTC mMlx-xba1 CGCTCTAGATCAGTAGAGTTGGTTTTTCAACTG mMLX_R88S AGTGATGCTATTAAGAGAGGCTAT mMLX_R87A TGCCTTCTGTTCAGCCTGAGTGTG Mlx-Xho1 TCGCTCGAGATGACGGAGCCGGGCGCCTCTC Mlx-Stop-Not1 GTAGCGGCCGCTCAGTAAAGCTGGTTTTTCAATTGGTGCAG Mlx-EcoRVf(human) TCTGATATCATGACGGAGCCGGGCGCCTCTC Mlx-not1r(human) GTGGCGGCCGCACGTAAAGCTGGTTTTTCAATTGGTGCAG mUSF1f-mlu1 TACACGCGTAATGAAGGGGCAGCAGAAAACAGC mUSF1r-not1 TACGCGGCCGCTTAGTTGCTGTCATTCTTGATGACGAC mUSF2f-mlu1 TACACGCGTAATGGACATGCTGGACCCGGGTC mUSF2r-not1 TACGCGGCCGCTCACTGCCGGGTACTCTCGCC USF1f-sMlu1 TACACGCGTAATGTACAGGGTGATCCAGGTGTCTG USF1r-not1 TACGCGGCCGCTTAGTTGCTGTCATTCTTGATGACGAC USF1f-lMlu1 TACACGCGTAATGAAGGGGCAGCAGAAAACAGC USF2f-mlu1 Primers for cloning of mouse ChREBPζ 169 Primers for ChREBP sequencing Primers for cloning of mouse MLXβ Primers for making dominant negative mouse MLX Primers for cloning of human MLX Primers for cloning of human or mouse USF (USF1 or USF2). Primers for cloning of human or mouse USF (USF1 or USF2). Appendices Primers Remarks TACACGCGTAATGGACATGCTGGACCCGGGTC USF2r-not1 TACGCGGCCGCTCACTGCCGGGTGCCCTCGC USF1f-lNde1 TACCATATGAAGGGGCAGCAGAAAACAGC USF1r-BamH1 TACGGATCCTTAGTTGCTGTCATTCTTGATGACGAC Primers for making His‐USF1 (pET vector) MondoA-EcoRVf TCTGATATCATGGCCGCCGACGTCTTCATGTGCTC MondoA-not1r GTGGCGGCCGCACGGACTCTCCCAATCTCTTGCCAATCC MondoA-EcoRIf ATGTCGGAATTCAGCGACACCCTCTT MondoA-EcoRIr AAGAGGGTGTCGCTGAATTCCGACATMondoA-Bgl2f GCATCCTGGTGACAGATCTCGGCCAT MondoA-Bgl2r ATGGCCGAGATCTGTCACCAGGATGC MondoA-Xho1 TCGCTCGAGATGGCCGCCGACGTCTTCATGTGCTC MondoA-Stop-Not1 GTAGCGGCCGCCTAGGACTCTCCCAATCTCTTGCCAATCC MondoA_Seq1 CTGGACGGCTCTGTGGACG MondoA_Seq2 ATCCCAACAACCCACCTGC MondoA_seq3 GCTGGCACTGTCTCCTGTC MondoA_seq4 ATCGGAGCAGAGCCCCAGT MondoAseqR1 CCATCCATCCCCGTGCTTGT MondoAseqR2 AAGGGCTGCGGGACACTCA MondoAsewR3 TTGGACTGGGACACGGTGG MondoA-Not1r GTAGCGGCCGCCCGGACTCTCCCAATCTCTTGCCAATCC Δ237MondoA-not1 CATGCGGCCGCCCGATGAGGACCTCTCCAGCCTGGTC CTGGCAAGTCCGACCCCAAAA Primers for cloning of human MondoA Primers for MondoA sequencing Insert MondoA Δ237 into cas12 vector AACAATTATTCTGGGGAGATTGAG Primers for making the MondoAr gstMdaEcR1 TACGAATTCACGGTCAACAAACAGACGTGCC gstMlxEcr1 TACGAATTCCAGAAGAGGAGGGACGCCATC Primer for making GST‐MondoA Primer for making GST‐MLX 170 Appendices Primers Remarks NFYA-xho1 TACCTCGAGATGGAGCAGTATACAGCAAACAGCA NFYA-not1 TACGCGGCCGCTTAGGACACTCGGATGATCTGTGT pCI-rev (seq) gtatcttatcatgtctgctcg pCI-rev-2 (seq) CCCTGAACCTGAAACATAAA pCI-SEQfar CTTACTGACATCCACTTTGC GCCGACAGGATGCAGAAGGAGATCA Primers for cloing of human NF‐YA Sequencing primers for pCI‐neo vector (pdHA, pdFLAG or pdMyc) β‐actin RT‐PCR primers AAGCATTTGCGGTGGACGATGGA GGCGGGTGTCTGTCTCTGCT Human Txnip RT‐PCR primers GGCAAGGTAAGTGTGGCGGG GACCCCGATGATGAGGACAG MLX RT‐PCR primers TGTAGAACGATGGCTTTGCTG CCTCCACCGTGTCCCAGTC MondoA RT‐PCR primers CTGGGGCTCTGCTCCGATG TCGGACACAGACTCGGAGG ChREBP RT‐PCR primers AGAGGCGTGTGAGTGTGGG GAAGTTACCCGAGTCAAAGC Mouse Txnip RT‐PCR primers CGCAAGTAGTCCAAAGTCTG ATGGCACTGGCGGCAGGTCC Mouse cyclophilin RT‐PCR primers TTGCCATTCCTGGACCCAAA 171 Appendices Appendix V, Paper 1 (Abstract) Yu FX, Goh SR, Dai RP, Luo Y. Mol Endocrinol. 2009 Jun;23(6):932‐42 Adenosine‐containing molecules amplify glucose signaling and enhance txnip expression. Eukaryotic cells sense extracellular glucose concentrations via diverse mechanisms to regulate the expression of genes involved in metabolic control. One such example is the tight correlation between the expression of thioredoxin‐interacting protein (Txnip) and extracellular glucose levels. In this report, we show that the transcription of the Txnip gene is induced by adenosine‐containing molecules, of which an intact adenosine moiety is necessary and sufficient. Txnip promoter contains a carbohydrate response element, which mediates the induction of Txnip expression by these molecules in a glucose‐dependent manner. Max‐like protein X and MondoA are transcription factors previously shown to stimulate glucose‐dependent Txnip expression and are shown here to convey stimulatory signals from extracellular adenosine‐containing molecules to the Txnip promoter. The regulatory role of these molecules may be exerted via amplifying glucose signaling. Hence, this revelation may pave the way for interventions aimed toward metabolic disorders resulting from abnormal glucose homeostasis. 172 Appendices Appendix VI, Paper 2 (Abstract) Yu FX and Luo Y. PLoS ONE. 2009, Dec; 4(12): e8397 Tandem ChoRE and CCAAT motifs and associated factors regulate Txnip expression in response to glucose or adenosine‐containing molecules. Thioredoxin interacting protein (Txnip) is a multifunctional protein involved in regulation of cell cycle events and cellular metabolism. The expression of Txnip is known to be induced by glucose, adenosine‐containing molecules, HDAC inhibitors and other physiological cues; however, the underlying regulatory mechanisms remain elusive. Here, we show identification of an additional carbohydrate response element (ChoRE) on the promoter of Txnip gene, which functions cooperatively with the earlier identified ChoRE to mediate optimal Txnip expression. We also show that the function of ChoREs and associated factors is contingent on tandem CCAAT motifs, in that the occupancy of the Txnip promoter by the CCAAT‐box‐associated nuclear factor Y (NF‐Y) is a prerequisite for efficacious recruitment of MondoA/MLX to ChoREs. Such a strategy suggests a synergy between NF‐Y and MondoA/MLX in enhancing Txnip expression presumably through inducing dynamic chromatin changes in response to diverse physiological inducers. 173 [...]... Figure 25. Inhibitors for purinergic receptors did not inhibit the induction of Txnip expression by NAD+ or ATP. Figure 26. Structures of Adenosine, NBTI, Dipyridamole or Dilazep. Figure 27. The effect of NAD+ or ATP on Txnip expression was blocked by inhibitors of adenosine transporters. Figure 28. Effect of Ca2+ chelators on Txnip expression. Figure 29. cAMP signaling pathway did not mediate the induction of Txnip expression by NAD+. ... Figure 72. The response of Txnip promoter to NAD+ or ATP under USF over expression. Figure 73. Effects of USF over expression on the activities of truncated or mutant Txnip promoters. Figure 74. A‐USF did not repress the induction of Txnip promoter activity by NAD+ or ATP. Figure 75. A‐USF did not repress the induction of Txnip promoter activity by glucose. Figure 76. A model for the transcriptional regulation of the Txnip gene ... Therefore, ARRDC genes might be more ancient than Txnip in evolution. 12 Chapter 1 Figure 4. Gene structures of Txnip, arrestin β2 and ARRDC genes. Drawings on the left indicate the size (in scale) and distribution of exons for each gene. Table on the right contains name, ID and chromosomal positions for each gene. †: ARRDC2, isoform 1 and 2; ‡: arrestin β2, isoform 1. All genes shown are human genes. ... Figure 36. NAD(H) treatments elevated p21cip1 expression level. Figure 37. Structures of glucose analogs and their fate in cellular metabolism. Figure 38. The effect of glucose and glucose homologs on Txnip expression in the absence or presence of NAD+. Figure 39. The effect of PD169316 on Txnip induction by different carbohydrates and/or NAD+. Figure 40. Glucose induced Txnip expression was repressed by BAPTA‐AM. ... 3. A phylogenetic tree of Txnip orthologs from different organisms. The phylogenetic tree was generated using software in UCSC genome browser. 11 Chapter 1 The Txnip gene can be found in all vertebrates (from fish to human) with available genome sequence information; a phylogenetic tree has been constructed based on the similarity of different Txnip orthologs, and clearly, this tree fit well with ... Figure 40. Glucose induced Txnip expression was repressed by BAPTA‐AM. Figure 41. Effects of NO donors and GC inhibitor on Txnip expression. Figure 42. The effect of NO on Txnip expression was not mediated by GC. Figure 43. The effect of NaN3 on Txnip mRNA Levels. Figure 44. A simplified representation of oxidative phosphorylation. Figure 45. Effects of oxidative phosphorylation inhibitors on Txnip or H2B expression. Figure 46. Oxidative phosphorylation inhibitors did not repress Txnip ... isoform 1 and 2; ‡: arrestin β2, isoform 1. All genes shown are human genes. The expression products of Txnip and ARRDC genes also shared high level of similarity (with highest similarity to ARRDC2‐4, Figure 5). All these proteins contain one arrestin N‐terminal domain and one arrestin C‐terminal domain, and the overall primary structure of these proteins are similar to arrestin β2, although the gene structure of arrestin β2 ... the accumulation of dimeric HIF‐1. This in turn induces transcription of several HIF‐ responsive genes, mediated by the HIF‐responsive element (HRE) on their promoters; the induced expression of these genes can promote survival of host cells under hypoxia conditions. Figure 2. Possible mechanisms for the regulation of gene transcription by extracellular molecules and internal environment changes. ... Pol II is a protein complex containing 12 subunits encoded by different genes; among these subunits, some are Pol II‐specific while others are shared with other RNA polymerases (Sklar et al., 1975). The synthesis of protein‐coding mRNAs by Pol II is a complicated process facilitated by many other factors, and is controlled by multiple regulatory pathways to meet the spatial and temporal requirement for the expression of specific genes. The last four decades have witnessed extensive studies ... Figure 46. Oxidative phosphorylation inhibitors did not repress Txnip expression in the presence BAPTA‐AM. Figure 47. A negative feed‐back loop for glucose uptake. Figure 48. A schematic representation of truncated Txnip promoters. Figure 49. Responses of Txnip promoters to NAD+. Figure 50. Responses of Txnip promoters to NAD+ or Glucose. Figure 51. The minimal Txnip promoter sequence required for mediating the stimulatory effect of NAD+. . THE REGULATION OF TXNIP GENE EXPRESSION FAXINGYU (B.Sc.(Hons.),NUS) ATHESISSUBMITTED FOR THE DEGREE OF DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY DEPARTMENT OF BIOCHEMISTRY NATIONALUNIVERSITY OF SINGAPORE 2009 Acknowledgments Ifirstthankmysupervisor,Dr.YanLuo,forhisvaluablecommentsonhowto designandperformexperiments,forhisgenerousgiving of freedomtoexplorenew fields,forhisenthusiasticencouragementwhenIencountereddifficulties,andforhis criticalread. 38 3.2.1.2MoleculesContainingAdenosineGroupInduce Txnip Expression 40 3.2.1.3AdenosineisNecessaryandSufficientforInducing Txnip Expression 40 3.2.1.4Adenosine‐containingMoleculesInduce Txnip Expression inaDose‐dependentManner 43 3.2.1.5LongTermEffect of Adenosine‐containingMoleculeson Txnip Expression 44 3.2.1.6Adenosine‐containingMoleculesInduce Txnip Expression at the TranscriptionalLevel 45 3.2.1.7Adenosine‐containingMoleculesInduce Txnip Expression IsMediatedbyanEarlierDefinedChoRE 47 3.2.1.8 The MLX/MondoAComplexMediates the Induction of Txnip Expression byAdenosine‐containingMolecules 49 3.2.1.9Adenosine‐containingMoleculesFacilitateMondoA NuclearTranslocation 52 IV 3.2.1.10GlucoseIsRequiredfor the Induction of Txnip Expression byAdenosine‐containingMolecules 54 3.2.1.11GlucoseInduced Txnip Expression IsAmplifiedby Adenosine‐containingMolecules 56 3.2.1.12PotentialPlasmaMembraneTarget(s) of Adenosine‐ containingMolecules 57 3.2.1.12.1PurinergicReceptorsAreNotRequiredfor the Induction of Txnip Expression 59 3.2.1.12.2Adenosine‐containingMoleculesMayTarget AdenosineTransporters 59 3.2.1.13SignalingPathway(s)EvokedbyAdenosine‐containing MoleculesforRegulating Txnip Expression 62 3.2.1.13.1 The Induction of Txnip Expression Requires IntracellularCa 2+ 62 3.2.1.13.2 The Induction of Txnip Expression DoesNot RequirecAMP 64 3.2.1.13.3 The Involvement of MAPKin the Induction of Txnip Expression 64 3.2.1.13.4Non‐involvement of AMPKin the Induction of Txnip Expression 66 3.2.1.14Adenosine‐containingMoleculesRepressThioredoxin ActivityandGlucoseTransport 67 3.2.1.15Adenosine‐containingMoleculesAffectCellCycle Progression 69 3.2.2Effects of GlucoseAnalogson Txnip Expression . 105 4.2.1.4BothChoREsareRequiredforOptimal Txnip Promoter Activity 108 4.2.1.5ChoREsAreNotSufficientfor the Induction of Txnip Expression 111 4.2.1.6TandemNF‐YBindingSitesAreRequiredfor the Induction of Txnip Expression 111 4.2.1.7NF‐YMediatedInduction of Txnip Expression bySAHA RequiresMondoA/MLX 114 4.2.1.8 Txnip PromoterRecruitsMondoA/MLXComplexinan NF‐YDependentManner 116 4.3 The Role of USFsin Txnip Expression