Building citiizens for nationalist china municipal parks and parkways in wuhan (wuchang, hankou and hanyang), 1927 1937

BUILDING CITIZENS FOR NATIONALIST CHINA: MUNICIPAL PARKS AND PARKWAYS IN WUHAN (WUCHANG, HANKOU AND HANYANG), 1927-1937 ZHANG TIANJIE NATIONAL UNIVERSITY OF SINGAPORE 2008 BUILDING CITIZENS FOR NATIONALIST CHINA: MUNICIPAL PARKS AND PARKWAYS IN WUHAN (WUCHANG, HANKOU AND HANYANG), 1927-1937 ZHANG TIANJIE (M.Arch, Wuhan University) A THESIS SUBMITTED FOR THE DEGREE OF DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY DEPARTMENT OF ARCHITECTURE NATIONAL UNIVERSITY OF SINGAPORE 2008 Acknowledgements I owe my deepest debt of gratitude to my supervisor, Prof Li Shiqiao, for his years of effort in guiding me through many challenges, academic, professional, and personal. His enlightening supervision, intellectual guidance, valuable advice, continuous encouragement made my 5-year study enjoyable and memorable. I also owe much of my work to my cosupervisor, Prof Bobby Wong, for giving me much-desired knowledge and critical insights into theoretical issues on modern architecture. For assistance at various stages of my research, I am indebted to Prof Heng Chye Keng, Prof Wong Yunn Chii, Dr Johannes Widodo, Prof Li Xiaodong, Dr Viray Erwin in Department of Architecture, National University of Singapore (NUS), whose simulating comments during my Architectural Research Think Tanks quickened my reframing of thoughts. I am grateful to Prof Liu Hong and Prof Su Jui-Lung in Department of Chinese Studies, NUS, whose seminars broadened my intellectual interests across academic disciplines. I would like to thank Prof Hou Youbin in Beijing, who read early versions of my Chinese papers, and bestowed me lots of books on modern history of Chinese architecture. Many thanks to Prof Zhao Chen at Nanjing University, Prof Zhang Fuhe at Qinghua University and Prof Wu Jiang at Tongji University for their generous suggestions at modern Asia Architecture Network 2004 conference. Particularly, I want to express my deep appreciation to Prof Jeffery Cody at Getty Center in Los Angeles, Dr Lai Delin at University of Louisville, USA, Prof Wong and Dr Widodo in NUS, who spared their precious time to review my dissertation draft, and give me invaluable comments. This dissertation relies on unique materials preserved in archival and library collections in Wuhan, Nanjing, Beijing, Shanghai, Taibei and Singapore. I would like to thank Mr. Liu in Hubei Archives, Ms Xu in Wuhan Archives, Ms Tian in Rare Books Collection of Wuhan University library, who were incredibly helpful in providing access to their valuable collections and reproducing documents and drawings for me. I would also like to thank Yu Gang, Tian Yang, Tan Zhengzhen, Li Ao, Qin Bo and Zhang Jilong, who provided much i needed assistance in navigating the archives and libraries in Nanjing, Shanghai and Beijing. Thanks to Zuo Lingyun, Feng Liang and many other friends in Wuhan University and the Institute of Chinese Modern History in Central China Normal University, who offered generous help during my triple research sojourns in Wuhan. I am also grateful to the dedicated staff at Wuhan Library, Hubei Library, the No.2 National Archives of China, Shanghai Archives, Shanghai Library and the National Library of China. Their scrupulous concern and appreciation for the fragile written remnants make my research possible. Besides, I would like to thank Dr Chen Yu, who kindly brought me much needed documents from the Academia Sinica, Taibei. Especially thanks to Ms Lee Ah Kaw and many other staff at the Chinese Library and Central Library of NUS, who have patiently and timely fulfilled my numerous requests for research materials. The writing of the dissertation has been continuously supported by President’s Graduate Fellowship and Graduate Research Scholarship from NUS. My fieldworks are graciously funded by Asia Research Institute, and Prof Li’s research project of East Asia Modernity in School of Design and Environment, NUS. I would like to thank Department of Architecture, NUS, for offering me favorable research conditions. I would also like to thank all my colleagues at CASA (Center of Advanced Studies in Architecture), for their generous help and intellectual companionship throughout my PhD study. Finally, I owe many personal debts of gratitude to my family. My deepest gratitude goes to my husband, Ze. The dissertation would not have been possible without his patience, his optimism, and his energy. I am also deeply indebted to my parents. I dedicate this work to them; thank you for the constant understanding, continuous support and life long love. ii Table of Contents Acknowledgements i Table of Contents iii Abstract v Chapter Introduction 1.1 The Emergence of Municipal Parks in Early Twentieth-Century China 1.2 Wuhan in the Early Twentieth-Century 1.3 Municipal Parks in Wuhan: 1927-1937 1.4 Relative Research, Knowledge Gap and Research Approach 14 20 Past Research Identification of the Knowledge Gap Literature Review and Research Approach 1.5 An Overview of Chapters and Issues Chapter Remaking Wuhan: 1927-1937 41 48 2.1 The Rise of Technocracy 2.2 New City Administration and Construction 2.3 City Planning Ideas and Experiments Conclusion 49 53 56 74 Chapter Parks and Scientific Knowledge 77 3.1 From Confucian Classics to Modern Science 77 Technological Trappings The Tide of Scientism Technocracy and Scientific City Remaking 3.2 Hankou’s Zhongshan Park 3.3 Systematic Park Planning 3.4 Building More Parks and Parkways 3.5 Scientific Facilities and New Intellectual Power 86 100 121 135 Public Libraries Other Facilities Conclusion Chapter The Popularization of Tiyu 4.1 The Rise of Tiyu 153 157 158 New Physical Culture: Body and Nation From Ticao to Tiyu Tiyu under the Government Control 4.2 Public Athletic Grounds (tiyuchang) 165 Wuchang Public Athletic Ground Hankou Public Athletic Ground 4.3 Athletic Facilities for Women 4.4 Playgrounds for Children Conclusion 193 201 208 iii Chapter Political Mobilization and Discipline 5.1 From Subjects (chenmin) to Citizens (guomin) 212 213 From “Loose Sand” to Politically Conscious Nationals Disciplined Citizenry under the Cult of Sun Yat-sen 5.2 Establishing a Park in the Name of Sun Yat-sen 5.3 Concretizing National Humiliations (guochi) 5.4 Building Memorial Structures 218 222 229 Chinese Archways (paifang) Cemeteries and Monuments Bronze Statues 5.5 Constructing Settings for Public Speaking (yanshuo) 271 Outdoor Platforms Lecture Halls Popular Tea Gardens (minzhong chayuan) Conclusion Chapter Negotiations between Progress, Privilege and Tradition 6.1 Hankou’s Riverfront Avenue 6.2 Dragon King Park 6.3 The Green Network under Conflicts and Compromises Conclusion Chapter Conclusion 7.1 The Spatial Construction of Citizens 7.2 Continuities and Changes in Comparative Perspectives 7.3 De-park and Re-park in the Following Years 283 287 287 301 308 313 315 315 321 324 Glossary 330 Bibliography 337 iv Abstract This dissertation examines the conceptualization and materialization of municipal parks and parkways in Wuhan during 1927-1937, a great triple metropolis of central China, and articulates a spatial understanding of them against the background of a worldwide public park movement since late nineteenth century, a wider agenda of urban reform in the tri-cities of Wuhan, and broader efforts to remake Chinese cities in the wake of the foreign encroachment in early twentieth-century China. It construes these parks and parkways as a kind of newlyestablished public open space, and explores their architectural expressions and the social relations which informed their production and use. The empirically-based research intends to articulate the role of these municipal parks and parkways as an explicit spatial manifestation of the body and the mind of the citizen, which was viewed to be essential for constructing a modern nation-state in Nationalist China. Upon the introduction of Western municipal administration and city planning, a group of Wuhan technocrats proposed a park-and-boulevard system in late 1920s as a fundamental part of Wuhan’s urban reconstruction agenda. Based on their professional training and experience in the West, the Wuhan reformers employed new ideas such as efficient land-use zones, diversified and widespread parks, interconnected multi-way parkways, as well as an underground drainage system. The green park system, from one aspect, was a reaction to the urban industrialization in Wuhan and its consequent problems similar to those in the West; it would create purifying lungs and rural oases, order and rationalize city’s development, and transform the city into a healthier environment catering to the needs of the people’s mental and physical well-being. Furthermore, the technocrats in Wuhan regarded public parks essentially as a space for public education. They incorporated a range of scientific facilities into the municipal parks, introducing scientific knowledge and wholesome life styles to the widest masses. The facilities were seen as a way to overcome superstitions and irrational beliefs, to enlighten the citizens and ultimately to revitalize the country. Reacting against the perceived lack of active v life in Chinese tradition, a wide range of athletic facilities was configured in the parks, aiming at building up a new physique for men, women and children as an integral part of nationalism. Besides, Wuhan’s reformers also concretized the national humiliation discourse, deployed a collection of memorial structures, and constructed settings for public speaking, so as to transform imperial subjects “scattered like loose sand” into a politically conscious citizenry. It is worth noting that the process of conceiving and configuring the municipal parks and parkways was neither a simple wholesale transplantation from the West to the East, nor a linear progression of the new replacing the old. Alongside the new elements imported, traditional components remained or were recycled. Furthermore, the municipal park network in Wuhan was largely initiated by the government, emphasizing people’s responsibility to further the development of the nation. Nevertheless, the government’s push to establish a new urban landscape and social order had to be mitigated, to a considerable degree, by residents’ own interests. From this point of view, these parks and parkways were also products of conflicts rather than homogeneous visions, defined, contested and negotiated by a constellation of promoters, designers, elite and ordinary parkgoers, under the pressing demands of state building, social rights and civic ambitions. vi Chapter Introduction Municipal parks are a form of public parks. The public park proper is an open space belonging to the public as of right and provided with a variety of facilities for the enjoyment of leisure.1 “Public” implies free and uninhibited access, but this was not necessarily the case in China. For instance, in some parks only limited areas were accessible to the public; some opened for merely a restricted period; and others charged an admission fee. Generally speaking, the term public park was used very loosely in China with different degrees of accessibility. In comparison, “municipal” means pertaining to the local self-government or corporate government of a city or town. Municipal parks are mainly promoted, funded and administered by certain local government or park committee under its direction, and offer free access to the public. Accordingly, their advantage over all other forms of public parks is that complete control rests with the local authority and the unalienable right of public access for recreation is secured.2 1.1 The Emergence of Municipal Parks in Early TwentiethCentury China For China, the concept of public park (gongyuan), where common people can go for relaxation and recreation, is purely Western and modern.3 Linguistically, although the Chinese characters gongyuan had existed in the classical Chinese lexicon, they actually referred to official gardens or land owned by the emperor, something quite different from the Western notion of the park as a public space. The term gongyuan was a “return graphic loan word”, which refers to classical Chinese-character compounds that were used by the Japanese Spiro Kostof, The City Assembled: The Elements of Urban Form through History (London: Thames and Hudson, 1992), 165. Hazel Conway, People’s Parks: The Design and Development of Victorian Parks in Britain (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1991), 1-8. Jermyn Chi-Hung Lynn, Social life of the Chinese in Peking (Peking-Tientsin: China Booksellers, 1928), 59-60. to translate modern European words and were reintroduced into modern Chinese.4 A gongyuan with the Western concept of a public park, then became very different from yuanlin (garden groves), a term used in both classical and modern Chinese. Historically, especially in the Ming and Qing China, gardens groves were private or imperial ventures for the enjoyment of the owners and their invited guests, and represented a highly Confucian version of conspicuous consumption among the literati.5 While yuanlin meant imperial or private preserves, gongyuan implied public ownership and public access. Public parks were first promoted in industrializing Europe during the mid-nineteenth century. The construction of a public park, useful landscape within the town for the use and enjoyment of the larger public, was essentially a Victorian idea, as a response to problems of sanitation and urban growth in Britain, the forefront of the Industrial Revolution.6 From the 1820s or 1830s, the English towns were at the outset of industrial urbanization, undergoing ever-quickening increases in size. But still under weak administration by outdated authorities, their space pressures visibly intensified as never before. Building could not keep pace with the demand for accommodation, and consequently what houses already existed became more and more dense. Without drains, privies, and water supply, the tenements lacked ventilation and filled with faecal deposits and dirt. Furthermore, among the sunless and moist cellar dwellings, the city residents at times suffered grievously from epidemics such as Asiatic cholera and yellow fever.7 In the face of the dreadful conditions in cities, people began to notice the value of public walks and parks. Some reformists like John Claudius Loudon (1783-1843) indicated that Lydia He Liu, Translingual Practice: Literature, National Culture, and Translated Modernity--China, 19001937 (Stanford, Calif.: Stanford University Press, 1995), 302-29; Huang Yiren, “Gongyuan kao,” Dongfang zazhi [Eastern Miscellany] 9, no.2 (1912): 1-3. Literary gatherings were often held in such gardens, and their names became synonymous with poetry and intellectual discussions. Craig Clunas, Fruitful Sites: Garden Culture in Ming Dynasty China (Durham: Duke University Press, 1996); J. Handlin-Smith, “Gardens in Ch’i Piao-chia’s Social World: Wealth and Values in Late Ming Kiangnan,” Journal of Asian Studies 51, no.1 (1992): 55-81; Christopher Thacker, The History of Gardens (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1979), 43-44; Stanislaus Fung, and John Makeham, eds. “Chinese Gardens: In Honor of Professor Chen Congzhou of Shanghai,” Special issue, Studies in the History of Gardens and Designed Landscapes 18, no.3 (1998). Alessandra Ponte, “Public Parks in Great Britain and the United States: From a ‘Spirit of the Place’ to a ‘Spirit of Civilization’,” in The Architecture of Western Gardens: A Design History from the Renaissance to the Present Day, ed. Monique Mosser and Georges Teyssot (Cambridge, Mass.: MIT Press, 1991), 373. George F Chadwick, The Park and the Town: Public Landscape in the 19th and 20th Centuries (New York: F. A. Praeger, 1966), 48-49. historical materials about Zhongshan Mausoleum]. Nanjing: Jiangsu guji chubanshe, 1986. Needham, Joseph. Science and Civilisation in China. vols. Cambridge, England: University Press, 1954. Nolen, John. “The Parks and Recreation Facilities in the United States.” Annals of the American Academy of Political and Social Science 35, no. 2, Public Recreation Facilities. (Mar. 1910): 1-12. ———, ed. City Planning: Aeries of Papers Presenting the Essential Elements of a City Plan. New York and London: D. Appleton And Company, 1916. ———. “Park Systems,” in City Planning: Aeries of Papers Presenting the Essential Elements of a City Plan, edited by John Nolen, 159-180. New York and London: D. Appleton And Company, 1916. Olmsted, Frederick Law, “Public Parks and the Enlargement of Towns.” In The Papers of Frederick Law Olmsted: Writings on Public Parks, Parkways, and Park Systems, edited by Charles E. Beveridge and Carolyn R. Hoffman, 171-205. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1997. Ono, Kazuko. Chinese Women in a Century of Revolution, 1850-1950, edited by Joshua A. Fogel, translated by Kathryn Bernhardt and others. Stanford, Calif.: Stanford University Press, 1989. Osterhammel, Jürgen. “Imperialism in Transition: British Business and the Chinese Authorities, 1931-37.” The China Quarterly, no. 98. (Jun. 1984): 260-286. Pan, Guxi 潘谷西, ed. Zhongguo jianhushi 中国建筑史 [History of Chinese architecture]. 4th edition. Beijing: China Architecture and Building Press, 2001. Pease, Catherine E. “Remembering the Taste of Melons: Modern Chinese Stories of Childhood.” In Chinese Views of Childhood, edited by Anne Behnke Kinney, 279-320. Honolulu : University of Hawaii Press, 1995. Pepper, Suzanne. Radicalism and Education Reform in 20th-Century China: The Search for an Ideal Development Model. Cambridge England; New York: Cambridge University Press, 1996. Percival, William Spencer. The Land of Dragon: My Boating and Shooting Excursions to the Gorges of Upper Yangtze. London: Hurst and Blackett, 1889. 356 Peterson, Jon A. The Birth of City Planning in the United States, 1840-1917. Baltimore; London: The Johns Hopkins University Press, 2003. Pi, Mingxiu 皮明庥. Wuhan geming shiji yaolan 武汉革命史迹要览 [Overview of historical sites of Wuhan revolutions]. Wuhan: Hubei renmin chubanshe, 1981. ———, ed. Jindai Wuhan chengshishi 近代武汉城市史 [Urban history of modern Wuhan], Beijing: Zhongguo shehui kexue chubanshe, 1993. ———, and Wu Yong 吴勇, eds. Hankou wubainian 汉口五百年 [Five hundred years of Hankou]. Wuhan: Hubei jiaoyu chubanshe, 1999. ———, and Zou Jinwen 邹进文, ed. Wuhan tongshi: Wan Qing juan (shang) 武汉通史：晚 清卷（上）[General History of Wuhan: the volume during the late Qing period, first half]. Wuhan: Wuhan chubanshe, 2006. ———, ed. Wuhan tongshi: Wan Qing juan (xia) 武汉通史：晚清卷（下）[General History of Wuhan: the volume during the late Qing period, second half]. Wuhan: Wuhan chubanshe, 2006. Preston, Diana. A Brief History of the Boxer Rebellion: China’s War on Foreigners 1900. London: Robinson, 2002. Ponte, Alessandra. “Public Parks in Great Britain and the United States: From a ‘Spirit of the Place’ to a ‘Spirit of Civilization’.” In The Architecture of Western Gardens: A Design History from the Renaissance to the Present Day, edited by Monique Mosser and Georges Teyssot, 373-86. Cambridge, Mass.: MIT Press, 1991. Qiao, Xinhuan 乔辛焕. “Jianshe Zhongshan Gongyuan ji Kuoda Yijianshu” 建设中山公园 及扩大意见书 [Suggestions on the construction and enlargement of Hankou Zhongshan Park], Hankou mingguo ribao 汉口民国日报 [Hankou Republican Daily], December 28-29, 1928. Ren, Changtai 任常泰, and Meng, Yanan 孟亚男, eds. Zhongguo yuanlin shi 中国园林史 [History of Chinese gardens and groves]. Beijing: Beijing yanshan chubanshe, 1995. Ren, Hai. “China and the Olympic Movement.” In Sport and Physical Education in China, edited by James Riordan and Robin Jones, 202-213. London; New York: Routledge, 1999. Ren, Tong 任桐, ed. Shahu zhi 沙湖志 [Gazetteer of Sha Lake]. Wuchang, traditional thread binding, 1926. 357 Riordan, James. Sport, Politics, and Communism. Manchester: Manchester University Press, 1991. ———, and Dong Jinxia. “Chinese Women and Sport.” In Sport and Physical Education in China, edited by James Riordan and Robin Jones, 159-184. London; New York: Routledge, 1999. Robinette, Margaret A. Outdoor Sculpture: Object and Environment. New York: Whitney Library of Design, 1976. Robinson, Charles Mulford. City Planning: with Special Reference to the Planning of Streets and Lots. New York: G.P.Putnam’s Sons, Knickerbocker Press, 1916. Rogers, Elizabeth Barlow. Landscape Design: A Cultural and Architectural History. New York: Harry N. Abrams, 2001. Rowe, Peter G., and Kuan, Seng. Architectural Encounters with Essence and Form in Modern China. Cambridge, Mass.: MIT Press, 2002. Rowe, William T. Hankow: Commerce and Society in a Chinese City, 1796-1889. Stanford, Calif.: Stanford University Press, 1984. ———. Hankow: Conflict and Community in a Chinese City, 1796-1895. Stanford, Calif.: Stanford University Press, 1989. ———. “Review of Remaking the Chinese City: Modernity and National Identity, 1900-1950, by Joseph W. Esherick.” The Journal of Asian Studies 59, no.3 (2000): 706-07. Rosenzweig, Roy, and Elizabeth Blackmar. The Park and the People: A History of Central Park. Ithaca, N.Y.: Cornell University Press, 1992. Ruan, Rongchun 阮荣春, and Hu, Guanghua 胡光华. Zhonghua minguo meishu shi, 1911-1949 中华民国美术史，1911-1949 [The history of fine arts in the Republic of China, 1911-1949]. Chengdu: Sichuan meishu chubanshe, 1992. Ruan, Weicun 阮蔚村. “Lijie quanguo yundonghui lishi yu chengji” 历届全国运动会历史 与成绩 [The history and records of all previous the National Games]. Qinfen tiyu yuebao 1, no.1 (1933): 31-34. Rybczynski, Witold. A Clearing in the Distance: Frederick Law Olmsted and America in the Nineteenth Century. New York: Scribner, 1999. Schinz, Alfred. Cities in China. Berlin: G. Borntraeger, 1989. 358 Schoppa, Keith. “Review of Hankow: Conflict and Community in a Chinese City, 1796-1895.” The American Historical Review 96, no.1 (1991): 230-31. Schuyler, David. The New Urban Landscape: The Redefinition of City Form in Nineteenth-Century America. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1986. Scuttmeier, Richard P. “Party Views of Science: The Record from the First Decade.” The China Quarterly, no.44 (1970): 146-168. Seng, Samuel. “Can the American Library System Be Adopted in China?” The Library Journal 41 (June 1916): 387-388. ———. “Miss Mary Elizabeth Wood: The Queen of the Modern Library Movement in China.” Boone Library School Quarterly 3, no.3 (Sep. 1931), 8-9. Shanghai tushuguan 上海图书馆, ed. Lao Shanghai fengqing lu 4: Titan huimou juan 老上海 风情录四：体坛回眸卷 [Recording customs and practices in old Shanghai, part 4: The volume recalling sports circle]. Shanghai: Shanghai wenhua chubanshe, 1998. Shang, Ruobing 商若冰. “Hankou diyi gongyuan – Zhongshan Gongyuan” 汉口第一公园— —中山公园 [The First Park in Hankou – Zhongshan Park]. In Hankou wubainian 汉 口五百年 [Five hundred years of Hankou], edited by Pi Mingxiu 皮明庥 and Wu Yong 吴勇, 210-11. Wuhan: Hubei jiaoyu chubanshe, 1999 Shao, Qin. Culturing Modernity: The Nantong Model, 1890-1930. Stanford, Calif.: Stanford University Press, 2004. Sheard, Rod. The Stadium: Architecture for the New Global Sporting Culture. Singapore: Periplus, 2005. Shi, Mingzheng. “Beijing Transforms: Urban Infrastructure, Public Works, and Social Change in the Chinese Capital, 1900-1928.” PhD diss., Columbia University, 1993. ———. “From Imperial Gardens to Public Parks: The Transformation of Urban Space in Early Twentieth-Century Beijing.” Modern China 24, no.3 (1998): 219-54. Simo, Melanie L. “John Claudius Loudon on Planning and Design for the Garden Metropolis.” In Garden History 9, no.2 (1981): 184-201. Skinner, William G. “Regional Urbanization in Nineteenth-Century China.” In City in Late Imperial China, edited by William G. Skinner, 211-49. Stanford, Calif.: Stanford University Press, 1977. 359 ———. “Cities and the Hierarchy of Local Systems.” In The City in Late Imperial China, edited by G. William Skinner, 275-351. Stanford: Stanford University Press, 1977. Solomon, Susan G. American Playground: Revitalizing Community Space. Dartmouth: University Press of New England, 2005. Song, Ruhai 宋如海. Wo neng bi ya: Shijie yundonghui conglu 我能比呀：世界运动会丛录 [Records of Olympic Meetings]. Shanghai: The Commercial Press, 1930. ———. “Hankow’s Greatest Flood Catastroph in a Century.” In Hankou dashui xiezhen 汉 口大水写真 [Portraying the Hankou flood], ed. Song Ruhai, 1-4. Hankou: Ziyou xibao guan, 1931. ———. “Qingnianhui duiyu tiyu zhi gongxian” 青年会对于体育之贡献 [YMCA’s contribution to tiyu]. In Zhonghua jidujiao qingnianhui wushi zhounian jiniance: 1885-1935 中华基督教青年会五十周年纪念册:1885-1935 [Commemorative work for 50th anniversary of Chinese YMCA: 1885-1935], edited by Zhonghua jidujiao qingnianhui quanguo xiehui 中华基督教青年会全国协会 [Chinese YMCA], 59-62. Shanghai: Zhonghua jidujiao qingnianhui quanguo xiehui, 1935. Stapleton, Kristin Eileen. Civilizing Chengdu: Chinese Urban Reform, 1895-1937. Cambridge, Mass.: Havard University Press, 2000. ———. “Yang Sen in Chengdu: Urban Planning in the Interior.” In Remaking the Chinese City: Modernity and National Identity, 1900-1950, edited by Joseph W. Esherick, 90-104. Honolulu: University of Hawaii Press, 2000. Stevenson, Elizabeth. Park Maker: A Life of Frederick Law Olmsted. New York: Macmillan, 1977. Stieber, Nancy. “Microhistory of the Modern City: Urban Space, Its Use and Representation.” JSAH 58, no.3 (1999): 382-91. ———. “Editorial: Architecture Between Disciplines.” JSAH 62, no.2 (2003): 176-77. Strand, David. “New Chinese Cities.” In Remaking the Chinese City: Modernity and National Identity, 1900-1950, edited by Joseph Esherick, 211-224. Honolulu: University of Hawaii Press, 2000. ———. “Citizens in the Audience and at the Podium.” In Changing Meanings of Citizenship in Modern China, edited by Merle Goldman and Elizabeth J. Perry, 44-69. Cambridge. Mass.: Harvard University Press, 2002. 360 Su, Yunfeng 苏云峰. Zhang Zhidong yu Hubei jiaoyu gaige 张之洞与湖北教育改革 [Zhang Zhidong and educational reform in Hubei]. Taibei: Institute of Modern History, Academia Sinica, 1976. ———. Zhongguo xiandaihua quyu yanjiu: Hubei sheng, 1860-1916 中国现代化区域研究： 湖北省, 1890-1916 [Regional studies of China’s modernization: Hubei Province, 1860-1916]. Taibei: Institute of Modern History, Academia Sinica, 1981. Sun, Ke 孙科. “Dushi guihua lun” 都市规划论 [On city planning]. In Sunke wenji 孙科文集 [Collected works of Sun Ke], 218-30. Taiwan: Commercial Press, 1970. Sun Wen 孙文, edited by Zhongguo Guomindang zhongyang dangshi shiliao bianzuan weiyuhui 中国国民党中央党史史料编纂委员会. Guofu quanji 国父全集 [The complete works of Sun Yat-sen]. 3vols. Taipei: Guofu biannian dancheng chouweihui, 1965. Sun, Yat-sen, edited by Mu Zhi 牧之, Fang Xing 方新, and Shou Yi 守义. Jianguo fanglüe 建 国方略 [The Fundamentals of National Reconstruction]. Shenyang: Liaoning People Press, 1994. Tang, Leang-li, ed. Reconstruction in China: A Record of Progress and Achievement in Facts and Figures. Shanghai: China United Press, 1935. ———. The New Social Order in China. Shanghai: China United Press, 1936. Tang, Shu唐淑. “Woguo you’eryuan shehui lingyu jiaoyu chuchuang jieduan yanjiu shulue” 我国幼儿园社会领域教育初创阶段研究略述 [Brief review of initial social education in Chinese kindergartens]. Xueqian jiaoyu yanjiu学前教育研究, no.2 (2006): 8-10. Tang, Xiaobing. Global Space and the Nationalist Discourse of Modernity: The Historical Thinking of Liang Qichao. Stanford, Calif.: Stanford University Press, 1996. Tang, Xingtian 唐性天. “Zhongguo shehui wenti zhi yanjiu” 中国社会问题之研究 [Research on Chinese social problems]. In Shehui 社会, edited by Hankou tebieshi shehuiju 汉口特别市社会局 [Social Bureau of Hankou Special Municipality], 1-4. Hankou: Hankou tebie shi shehuiju, 1929. Tang, Zhenglong 汤震龙. “Wuchang shizheng gongcheng quanbu juti jihuashu” 武昌市政工 程全部具体计划书 [The completed plans of Wuhan public works]. Zhongguo jianshe 中国建设 [Construction of China] 3, no.6 (1932): 76-82. Teaford, Jon C. The Unheralded Triumph: City Government in America, 1870-1900. Baltimore: The Johns Hopkins University Press, 1984. 361 Tehranian, Katharine Kia. Modernity, Space, and Power: The American City in Discourse and Practice. Cresskill, NJ: Hampton Press, 1995. Thacker, Christopher. The History of Gardens. Berkeley: University of California Press, 1979. Tolley, Kemp. Yangtze Patrol: The U.S. Navy in China. Annapolis: Naval Institute Press, 1971. Tsin, Michael Tsang-Woon. Nation, Governance, and Modernity in China: Canton, 1900-1927. Stanford, Calif.: Stanford University Press, 1999. Tyau, Min-ch’ien T. Z. China Awakened. New York: Macmillan, 1922. ———, ed. Two Years of Nationalist China. Shanghai: Kelly and Walsh, 1930. Tu, Wenxue 涂文学, ed. Wuhan laoxinwen 武汉老新闻 [Old news of Wuhan]. Wuhan: Wuhan chubanshe, 2002. ———, ed. Wuhan tongshi: Zhonghua Minguo juan (shang) 武汉通史：中华民国卷（上） [General History of Wuhan: the volume during the Republican era, first half]. Wuhan: Wuhan chubanshe, 2006. ———, ed. Wuhan tongshi: Zhonghua Minguo juan (xia) 武汉通史：中华民国卷（下） [General History of Wuhan: the volume during the Republican era, second half]. Wuhan: Wuhan chubanshe, 2006. Tu, Yong 涂勇, ed. Wuhan lishi jianzhu yaolan 武汉历史建筑要览 [An Introduction of Wuhan historical architecture]. Wuhan: Hubei renmin chubanshe, 2002. Upton, Dell, “Architectural History or Landscape History?” Journal of Architectural Education 44, no.4 (1991): 195-99. Dorn, Van, and Harold Archer. Twenty Years of the Chinese Republic: Two Decades of Progress. London: Hurst & Blackett, 1933. Wakeman, Frederic E. Policing Shanghai, 1927-1937. Berkeley: University of California Press, 1995. Walter, Weyl. “The Chicago of China,” Harper’s 18 (October 1918): 716-24. Wang, Changfan 王昌藩, ed. Wuhan yuanlin: 1840-1985 武汉园林: 1840-1985 [Wuhan gardens, groves and parks: 1840-1985]. Wuhan: Wuhan shi yuanlinju, 1987. 362 Wang, Di. Street Culture in Chengdu: Public Space, Urban Commoners, and Local Politics, 1870-1930. Stanford, Calif.: Stanford University Press, 2003. Wang, Dong. China’s Unequal Treaties: Narrating National History. Lanham, MD: Lexington Books, 2005. Wang, Fudan 王复旦. “Shanghai shi yundongchang tianjingchang jianzhu gaikuang” 上海市 运动场田径场建筑概况 [Introduction to the ground track field in Shanghai Stadium]. Qinfen tiyu yuebao 5, no.2 (1937): 157-58. Wang, Joseph Cho. The Chinese Garden. Oxford; New York: Oxford University Press, 1998. Wang, Ke-wen, ed. Modern China: An Encyclopedia of History, Culture, and Nationalism. New York: Garland Pub., 1998. Wang, Liping. “Creating a National Symbol: The Sun Yatsen Memorial in Nanjing.” Republican China 21, no.2 (1996): 23-63. ———. “Paradise for Sale: Urban Space and Tourism in the Social Transformation of Hangzhou, 1589-1937.” Ph.D. diss., University of California, San Diego, 1997. Wang, Yeu-farn. China’s Science and Technology Policy: 1949-1989. Aldershot, Hants: Avebury, 1993. Wang, Zhuangfei 王壮飞. Tiyuchang zhinan 体育场指南 [Manual of public athletic grounds]. Shanghai: Qinfen shuju, 1931. Wasserstrom, Jeffrey N. and Elizabeth J. Perry. Popular Protest and Political Culture in Modern China, Politics in Asia and the Pacific. Boulder: Westview Press, 1994. Wenshi ziliao weiyuanhui 文史资料委员会 [Who’s who of Hubeinese in Taiwan], “Wu Jingming xiangsheng” 吴经明先生 [Mr. Wu Jingming]. In Wu Guozhen boshi ji qi fuxiong 国桢博士及其父兄, edited by Zou Haiqing 邹海清, 295-99. Wuhan: Xin shiji chubanshe, 1993. White, Dana F. “Frederick Law Olmsted, the Placemaker.” In Two Centuries of American Planning, edited by Daniel Schaffer, 87-112. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1988. Who’s Who in China: Biographies of Chinese Leaders. 5th edition. Shanghai: The China Weekly Review, 1936. 363 Wilbur, C. Martin. Sun Yat-sen: Frustrated Patriot. New York: Columbia University Press, 1976. Wills, John E. Mountain of Fame: Portraits in Chinese History. Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press, 1994. Winkelman, John H. “Mary Elizabeth Wood (1861–1931): American Missionary-Librarian to Modern China.” Journal of Library and Information Science 8, no.1 (Apr. 1982): 62-76. Wong, George H. C. “China’s Opposition to Western Science during Late Ming and Early Ch’ing.” ISIS 54, no.175: 29-49. Wu, Guobing 吴国柄. “Yinglun liuxue yiwang (7)” 英伦留学忆往（七） [Memoir on studying in England, seventh]. Zhongwai zazhi 中外杂志 23, no.3 (1978): 17-23. ———. “Yinglun liuxue yiwang (8)” 英伦留学忆往（八）[Memoir on studying in England, eighth]. Zhongwai zazhi 23, no.4 (1978): 77-82. ———. “Xu Shuzheng he wo (1) – Pei Xu zhuanshi kaocha oumei riben geguo Ji” 徐树铮和 我——陪徐专使考察欧美日本各国记（一） [Xu Shuzheng and Me – Records on my visit to Europe, America and Japan accompanying Express Xu, first]. Zhongwai zazhi 23, no.6 (1978): 27-32. ———. “Xu Shuzheng he wo (6) – Pei Xu zhuanshi kaocha oumei riben geguo Ji” 徐树铮和 我——陪徐专使考察欧美日本各国记（六）[Xu Shuzheng and Me – Records on my visit to Europe, America and Japan accompanying Express Xu, sixth]. Zhongwai zazhi 24, no.5 (1979): 121-27. ———. “Jiangshan wanli xing (2) – youxue guiguo hou de gongzuo he shenghuo” 江山万里 行（六）——游学归国后的工作和生活（二）[Traveling around the country, part – my work and life after studying abroad]. Zhongwai zazhi 25, no.3 (1979): 106-11. ———. “Jiangshan wanli xing (6) – youxue guiguo hou de gongzuo he shenghuo” 江山万里 行（六）——游学归国后的工作和生活 [Traveling around the country, part – my work and life after studying abroad]. Zhongwai zazhi 26, no.1 (1979): 120-25. ———. “Jiangshan wanli xing (7) – youxue guiguo hou de gongzuo he shenghuo” 江山万里 行（七）——游学归国后的工作和生活[Traveling around the country, part – my work and life after studying abroad]. Zhongwai zazhi 26, no.2 (1979): 120-25. ———. “Jiangshan wanli xing (8) – youxue guiguo hou de gongzuo he shenghuo” 江山万里 行（八）——游学归国后的工作和生活[Traveling around the country, part – my work and life after studying abroad].” Zhongwai zazhi 26, no.3 (1979): 72-79. 364 ———. “Jiangshan wanli xing (9) – youxue guiguo hou de gongzuo he shenghuo” 江山万里 行（九）——游学归国后的工作和生活[Traveling around the country, part – my work and life after studying abroad].” Zhongwai zazhi 26, no.4 (1979): 120-27. ———. “Jiangshan wanli xing (11) – youxue guiguo hou de gongzuo he shenghuo” 江山万 里行（十一）——游学归国后的工作和生活[Traveling around the country, part 11 – my work and life after studying abroad].” Zhongwai zazhi 26, no.6 (1979): 130-135. ———. Tielu huoche gongchengxue 铁路火车工程学 [Engineering on Railways and Trains]. Taipei: Cheng Chung Book, 1983. ———. “Wo yu Hankou Zhongshan Gongyuan ji shizheng jianshe” 我与汉口中山公园及 市政建设 [Hankou Zhongshan Park, urban reconstruction and me]. In Wuhan wenshi zhiliao wenku 武汉文史资料文库, edited by Zhengxie wuhan shi wenyuanhui wenshi xuexi weiyuanhui 政协武汉市委员会文史学习委员会, vol.3, 450-84. Wuhan: Wuhan Chubanshe, 1999. Wu, Jiang 伍江. Shanghai bainian jianzhushi: 1840-1949 上海百年建筑史: 1840-1949 [History of Shanghai architecture: 1840-1949]. Shanghai: Tongji daxue chubanshe, 1997. Wu, Shuiping 吴水平. “Wo suo zhidao de Wu Guozhen” 我所知道的吴国桢 [Wu Guozhen as I know]. In Wu Guozhen boshi ji qi fuxiong 国桢博士及其父兄, edited by Zou Haiqing 邹海清, 74-95. Wuhan: Xin shiji chubanshe, 1993. Wu, Tien-wei. “A Review of the Wuhan Debacle: The Kuomintang-Communist Split of 1927.” The Journal of Asian Studies 29, no.1 (1969): 125-43. Wu, Wenzhong 吴文忠, ed. Tiyu shi 体育史 [History of Physical Education and Sports]. Taibei: Zhengzhong shuju, 1957. Wuhan Archives 武汉市档案馆: 9-31-164. Wuhan Archives: 9-31-192. Wuhan Archives: 18-10-187. Wuhan Archives: 18-10-465. Wuhan Archives: 18-10-466. Wuhan Archives: 69-10-284. 365 Wuhan difangzhi bianzhuan weiyuanhui 武汉地方志编撰委员会 [Committee of Wuhan gazetteers], ed. Wuhan shi zhi: Dashi ji 武汉市志：大事记 [Wuhan gazetteers: memorabilia]. Wuchang: Wuhan daxue chubanshe, 1990. ———, ed. Wuhan shi zhi: Jiaoyu zhi 武汉市志：教育志 [Wuhan gazetteers: education]. Wuchang: Wuhan daxue chubanshe, 1991. ———, ed. Wuhan shi zhi: Kexue zhi 武汉市志：科学志 [Wuhan gazetteers: science] (Wuchang: Wuhan daxue chubanshe, 1993. ———, ed. Wuhan shi zhi: Caizheng zhi 武汉市志：财政志 [Wuhan gazetteers: finance] (Wuhan: Wuhan daxue chubanshe, 1994. ———, ed. Wuhan shi zhi: Chengshi jianshe zhi 武汉市志：城市建设志 [Wuhan gazetteer: urban construction]. Wuchang: Wuhan daxue chubanshe, 1996. ———, ed. Wuhan shi zhi: Renwu zhi 武汉市志：人物志 [Wuhan gazetteers: personages]. Wuchang: Wuhan daxue chubanshe, 1999. Wuhan jiayu zhi cong bianzhuan weiyuanhui 武汉教育志丛编纂委员会 [Compilation committee of Wuhan gazetteers], ed. Wuchang qu jianyu zhi 武昌区教育志 [Education Gazetteer of Wuchang District]. Wuhan: Wuhan gongye daxue chubanshe, 1995. Wuhan lishi tiduji bianzhuan weiyuanhui 武汉历史地图集编纂委员会 [Compilation committee of historic maps of Wuhan], ed. Wuhan lishi dituji 武汉历史地图集 [Historic maps of Wuhan]. Beijing: Zhongguo ditu chubanshe, 1998. Wuhan lüyou wenhua congshu bianweihui 武汉旅游文化丛书编委会 [Committee on travel and culture of Wuhan ], ed. Baotong chansi 宝通禅寺 [Baotong Buddhist Temple]. Wuhan: Wuhan chubanshe, 2001. Wuhan shi chengshi guihua guanliju 武汉市城市规划管理局 [Bureau for City Planning], ed. Wuhan chengshi guihua zhi 武汉市城市规划志 [Gazetteer of Wuhan urban planning]. Wuhan: Wuhan chubanshe, 1999. Wuhan shi dang’anguan 武汉市档案馆 [Wuhan Archive], ed. Da Wuhan jiuying 大武汉旧 影 [Old photos of Wuhan tri-cities]. Wuhan: Hubei renmin chubanshe, 1999. ———, and Wuhan shi bowuguan 武汉市博物馆 [Wuhan Museum], eds. Wuhan jiuying 武 汉旧影 [Old photos of Wuhan]. Beijing: Renmin chubanshe, 1999. 366 Wuhan shi zhengxie wenshi ziliao weiyuanhui 武汉市政协文史资料委员会, ed. Kangzhan zhong de Wuhan 抗战中的武汉 [Wuhan in the Anti-Japanese defense]. Wuhan: Wuhan chubanshe, 1985. Wuhan shi Zhongshan Gongyuan 武汉市中山公园 [Wuhan Zhongshan Park], ed. Zhongshan gongyuan cangsang – Jinian Wuhan shi Zhongshan Gongyuan qishi zhounian 中山公园沧桑：纪念武汉市中山公园七十周年 [Transformations of Zhongshan Park: Commemorating Wuhan Zhongshan Park for its 70th anniversary]. Wuhan: Wuhan Zhongshan Gongyuan, 1998. Wuhan wenhua chubanshe [Wuhan cultural publishing house], ed. Xin Wuhan zhinan 新武汉 指南 [New guide book of Wuhan]. Hankou: Dagong bao Hubei fenguan, 1946. Xie, Qinbao 谢茜茂, and Tang Xingtian 唐性天, ed. 1931nian Hankou dashui ji 一九三一年 汉口大水记 [Recording Hankou flood in 1931]. Hankou: Jianghan yinshuguan, 1931. Xing, Tian 性天. “Shehuiju choushe qixiang ceyansuo” 社会局筹设气象测验所 [Social Bureau prepares to establish a weather station]. Xin Hankou 1, no.4 (1929): 239-240. Xiong, Yuezhi 熊月之. “Zhang Yuan – Wanqing Shanghai yige gonggong kongjian yanjiu” 张园——晚清上海一个公共空间研究 [Zhang Yuan: A case study of public space in late imperial Shanghai]. Dang’an yu shixue 档案与史学, no.6 (1996): 31-42. ———. “Wanqing Shanghai siyuan kaifang yu gonggong kongjian de tuozhan” 晚清上海私 园开放与公共空间的拓展 [The opening of Shanghai private gardens and expansion of public space during the late Qing period]. Xueshu yuekan 史学月刊, no.8 (1998): 73-81. Xu, Fuzhong 徐福中. “Yi Wu Guozhen weizheng ershan shi” 忆吴国桢为政二三事 [Some facts I knew of K.C. Wu as a statesman]. In Wu Guozhen boshi ji qi fuxiong 国桢博 士及其父兄 [K. C. Wu, his Father and brother], edited by Zou Haiqing 邹海清, 119-25. Wuhan: Xin shiji chubanshe, 1993. Xu, Wancheng 许晚成, ed. Shanghai zhinan 上海指南 [Shanghai directory]. Shanghai: Guoguang shudian, 1936. Xu, Youcheng 许有成. and Xu Xiaobin 徐晓彬. Huanhai chenfu – Wu Guozhen 宦海沉浮: 吴国桢 [Alternations in the official career of Wu Guozhen]. Lanzhou: Lanzhou daxue chubanshe, 1997. Xu Youchun 徐友春, ed. Minguo renwu dacidian 民国人物大辞典 [Dictionary of biography of the Republican China]. Shijiazhuang: Hebei renmin chubanshe, 1991. 367 Yan, Fu. “Yuan qiang” 原强 [On source of strength]. In Yan Fu xuanji 严复全集 [Selected works of Yan Fu], annotated by Zou Zhenfu 周振甫, 14-36. Beijing: Renmin wenxue chubanshe, 2004. Yang, Bingde 杨秉德, ed. Zhongguo jindai chengshi yu jianzhu 中国近代城市与建筑 [Modern Chinese Cities and Architecture]. Beijing: China Architecture and Building Press, 1993. Yang, Huqiao 杨湖樵. “Jingxin shuyuan shulüe” 精心书院述略 [Review on Jingxin Academy]. In Wuhan wenshi ziliao wenku 武汉文史资料文库 [Cultural and historical materials of Wuhan], edited by Zhengxie Wuhan shi Weiyuanhui Wenshi Xuexi Weiyuanhui 政协武汉市委员会文史学习委员会, vol.4, 38-45. Wuhan: Wuhan chubanshe, 1999. Yang, Jifu 杨吉甫, and Liu Yanmou 刘燕谋, ed. Chengdu shizheng nianjian 成都市政年鉴 [Chengdu municipal yearbook]. Chengdu: Chengdu shizheng gongsuo, 1928. Yang, Zheming 杨哲明. Gongyuan zenyang jianshe 公园怎样建设 [How to build parks]. Nanjing: Zhengzhong shuju, 1936. Yeh Wen-Hsin. The Alienated Academy: Culture and Politics in Republican China, 1919-1937. Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1990. ———. “Introduction: Interpreting Chinese Modernity, 1900-1950.” In Becoming Chinese: Passages to Modernity and Beyond, edited by Yeh Wen-hsin, 1-28. Berkeley: University of California Press, 2000. Young, Terence. Building San Francisco's Parks, 1850-1930. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 2004. Yu, Jixing 于吉星, ed. Lao mingxinpian: Jianzhu pian 老明信片: 建筑篇 [Old postcard: Building]. Shanghai: Shanghai huabao chubanshe, 1997. Yu, Yingshi, Democracy, Human Rights and Confucian Culture. Oxford, U.K.: Asian Studies Centre St Antony’s College University of Oxford, 2000. Yuan, Jicheng 袁继成, ed. Hankou zujie zhi 汉口租界志 [Gazetteer of Hankou concessions]. Wuhan: Wuhan chubanshe, 2003. Yue, Xiaoling 乐晓玲. “Wuchang shouyi shengji” 武昌首义胜迹 [Historical sites of the Wuchang Uprising]. Wuhan wenshi ziliao 武汉文史资料, no.4 (1994): 84-90. 368 Yun, Daiying 恽代英. “Xuexiao tiyu zhi yanjiu” 学校体育之研究 [Research on school physical education]. Qingnian jinbu 青年进步 [Association Progress] (June 1917): 1-6. Yung, Wing. My life in China and America. New York: Holt, 1909. Zaitzevsky, Cynthia. Frederick Law Olmsted and the Boston Park System. Cambridge, Mass.: Belknap Press, 1982. Zhang Jian 张謇, “Nantong gongyuan ji” 南通公园记 [A narration about public parks in Nantong]. In Zhang Jian quanji 张謇全集 [The completed works of Zhang Jian], edited by Zhang Jian yanjiu zhongxin [The Research Center of Zhang Jian] 张謇研 究中心 and Nantong shi tushuguan 南通市图书馆 [Nantong Municipal Library], vol.4, 411-13. Nanjing: Jiangsu guji chubanshe, 1994. Zhang, Kaiyuan 章开沅, ed. Xinhai gemin cidian 辛亥革命辞典 [Dictionary of the 1911 Revolution]. Wuhan: Wuhan chubanshe, 1991. Zhang, Tianjie 张天洁, and Li Ze 李泽. “Xifang jindai gongyuan shi yanjiu chuyi” 西方近 代公园史研究刍议 [Introduction to Modern Park History in the West]. Jianzhu xuebao 建筑学报, no.6 (2006): 35-37. ———.“Xin nüxing yishi de kongjian biaoda: qianxi ershi shiji chu de Zhongguo chengshi gongyuan” 新女性意识的空间表达：浅析二十世纪初的中国城市公园 [Public parks and new womanhood in early twentieth-century Chinese cities]. Jianzhu xuebao, no.8 (2007): 86-89. Zhang, Yingjin. The City in Modern Chinese Literature and Film: Configurations of Space, Time, and Gender. Stanford, Calif.: Stanford University Press, 1996. ———, ed. Cinema and Urban Culture in Shanghai, 1922-1943. Stanford, Calif.: Stanford University Press, 1999. Zhao, Ke 赵可. “Shaocheng gongyuan de pishe yu jindai Chengdu” 少城公园的辟设与近代 成都 [Construction of Shaocheng Park and modern Chengdu]. Chengdu daxue xuebao (shehui kexue ban) 成都大学学报 (社会科学版), no.2(1999): 37-40. ———.Shizheng gaige yu chengshi fazhan 市政改革与城市发展 [Municipal reform and city development]. Beijing: Zhongguo dabaike quanshu chubanshe, 2004. Zhao, Longwen 赵龙文. “Xin Hankou yu Hankou shimin” 《新汉口》与汉口市民 [Xin Hankou and Hankou citizens]. Xin Hankou 1, no.5 (1929): 1-2. 369 Zhao, Meiqing 赵梅卿. “Jinghan jiangxun riji” 京汉江巡日记 [Dairies of the Nanjing-Wuhan trip via the Yangtze River]. Lüxing zazhi 旅行杂志 5, no.8 (1930): 40-52. Zhongguo dabaike quanshu: jianzhu, yuanlin, chengshiguihua 中国大百科全书：建筑、园林、 城市规划 [Chinese encyclopedia: Architecture, landscape and urban planning]. Beijing: Zhongguo dabaike quanshu chubanshe, 1988. Zhongguo gongyuan xiehui 中国公园协会 [The Society of Chinese Parks], and Shanghai shi yuanlin guanliju 上海市园林管理局 [Shanghai Park Bureau], eds. Zhongguo mingyuan 中国名园 [The reputed parks in China]. Shanghai: Shanghai sanlian shudian, 1999. Zhongguo meishi cidian 中国美术词典 [Dictionary of Chinese fine arts]. Shanghai: Shanghai cishu chubanshe, 1987. Zhongyang Gongyuan weiyuanhui 中央公园委员会 [The committee of Central Park], ed. Zhongyang gongyuan ershiwu zhounian jiniance 中央公园二十五周年纪念册 [Commemorative manual of Central Park for its 25th anniversary]. Peking: Peking Zhongshan gongyuan shiwusuo, 1939. Zhou, Hanzhang 周汉章. and Fu, Huanguang 傅焕光, ed. Zuixin shoudu zhinan 最新首都指 南 [Latest directory of the capital]. Shanghai: Minzhi shuju, 1931. Zhou, Jianqiu 周剑秋, ed. Hankou minzhong leyuan zhengxinlu 汉口民众乐园征信录 [Letters on Hankou people’s paradise]. Wuhan: Hubei guanzhi yishuaju, 1928. Zhou, Rongya 周荣亚, ed. Wuhan zhinan 武汉指南 [Wuhan guide book]. Hankou: Xin zhonghua ribaoshe, 1933. Zhou, Yirang 周以让. “Wuhan sanzhen zhi xianzai ji qi jianglai,” 武汉三镇之现在及其将来 [The Wuhan tri-cities and their future]. Dongfang zazhi 21, no.5 (1924): 66-69. Zhou, Zhiying 周芷颖, ed. Xin Chengdu 新成都 [New Chengdu]. Chengdu: Fuxin shuju, 1943. Zhu, Jianfei. “Politics into Culture: Historical Formation of the National Style in the Nanjing Decade (1927-1937).” In Research on China’s Modern Architectural Academia, edited by Zhao Chen and Wu Jiang, 107-116. Beijing: Zhongguo jianzhu gongye chubanshe, 2003. Zhu, Xuxian 朱旭先. “Nianliu zuo Sun Zhongshan suxiang de gushi” 廿六座孙中山塑像的 故事 [The story of twenty-six statues for Sun Yat-sen]. Huaren shikan 华人时刊, no.1 (1998): 17. 370 Zilsel, Edgar. “The Genesis of the Concept of Scientific Progress.” Journal of the History of Ideas 6, no.3 (1945): 325-349. Zou, Denong 邹德侬. Zhongguo xiandai jianzhu shi 中国现代建筑史 [A history of modern Chinese architecture], Tianjin: Tianjin kexue jishu chubanshe, 2001. Zou, Haiqing 邹海清, ed. Wu Guozhen boshi ji qi fuxiong 吴国桢博士及其父兄 [K. C. Wu, his father and brother]. Wuhan: Xin shiji chubanshe, 1993. ———.ed. Wu Guozhen: Wu Guozhen boshi ji qi fuxiong xuji 吴国桢：吴国桢博士及其父 兄续集 [K. C. Wu: Continuation to K. C. Wu, his father and brother]. Wuhan: Xin shiji chubanshe, 1999. ———.“Wu Guozhen xiansheng de daolu – Wu Guozhen shengping jianji” 吴国桢先生的 道路：吴国桢生平简记 [Mr. K.C. Wu’s road: a brief biography of K.C. Wu]. In Wu Guozhen: Wu Guozhen boshi ji qi fuxiong xuji 吴国桢：吴国桢博士及其父兄续集 [K. C. Wu: Continuation to K. C. Wu, his father and brother], edited by Zou Haiqing, 1-283. Wuhan: Xin shiji chubanshe, 1999. 371 [...]... reputation as inland China s most modern city, and three times the city became the center stage of national politics – 1911 Republican Revolution, 1927 Guomindang’s Northern Expedition, and 1938 Anti-Japanese War In many ways, Wuhan became the place for a new and modern Chinese national identity embodied in early twentieth-century China. 45 1.3 Municipal Parks in Wuhan: 1927- 1937 Precursors of Wuhan s parks. .. differences and similarities? What roles did Wuhan s municipal parks actually play in the contexts of Chinese material and intellectual modernization? 1.4 Relative Research, Knowledge Gap and Research Approach Past Research Studies on Public Parks in China Today, public parks in contemporary China, are mostly taken as a kind of designed landscape, and the corresponding studies remain mainly within the realm... the interpretation of cultural form in 71 For instance, Shi Mingzheng deals with the public space to investigate the roles of both the state and society in Beijing’s transformations He argues that the late Qing and early republican reforms transformed urban space, and the interplay of official and private forces – the municipal government and local gentry and merchants – shaped the outcome See Shi Mingzheng,... appended.25 Fig 1.2 The map of China during the republican era (Source: Joseph W Esherick, “Modernity and Nation in the Chinese City,” in Remaking the Chinese City: Modernity and National Identity, 19001950, ed Joseph W Esherick, 3) 25 William G Skinner, “Regional Urbanization in Nineteenth-Century China, ” in City in Late Imperial China, ed William G Skinner (Stanford, Calif.: Stanford University Press, 1977),... for the fallen officers and soldiers in the Nationalist revolutions Tortoise Hill in Hanyang was also surveyed and proposed to open as Hanyang Fuxing Park Some riverfront areas in Hankou and Hanyang were planted, and some originally bare and windswept tracts in suburb were reclaimed as nurseries Regarding small-scaled parks, Fuqian Park was completed in front of Hankou s municipal government building, ... Central Park in Chongqing, Zhongshan Park in Xiamen, and so on.22 These municipal parks emerged mostly in treaty ports or cities with foreign enclaves, where the alien autonomy, together with the order and progress presented in the concessions, provided a challenge and a model for Chinese reformers’ modernizing agenda.23 The newly built municipal parks in China began to depart from traditional Chinese gardens,... Restoration, Japan gradually incorporated the Western concept of the public park in Meiji town and city planning, and promoted public parks as a kind of places for displaying modern civilization and civility In Tokyo, for instance, Ueno Park was established in 1873, and four more public parks were opened in the coming years, offering both recreational and educational facilities for people’s enjoyment.14... Zhang pushed the extensive reforms covering communications, finance, heavy industry and education in Wuhan in the wake of Western political and economic encroachment in China, justified by his “ti-yong” thinking.31 He established arsenals, iron mills, coal mines, and other government-sponsored 26 Pi Mingxiu, ed., Jindai Wuhan chengshishi [Urban history of modern Wuhan] (Beijing: Zhongguo shehui kexue... Taiyuan in 1998, seventh in Guangzhou and Macau in 2000, eighth in Ningbo in 2002, ninth in Kaiping in 2004, and tenth at Beihai in 2006 According to the ten volumes of proceedings, there are only two articles taking public parks as a research focus See Li Shiqiao and Zhang Tianjie, “Gonghe de lixiang yu gonggong kongjian: Hankou Zhongshan gongyuan 1928-1938” [Republican Ideals and Public Space: Hankou s... (Stanford, Calif.: Stanford University Press, 1974) 67 Elvin and Skinner, Chinese City, 2 68 Michael Tsin, Nation, Governance, and Modernity in China: Canton, 1900 -1927 (Stanford, Calif.: Stanford University Press, 1999); Stapleton, Civilizing Chengdu; Jr Frederic Wakeman, Policing Shanghai, 1927- 1937 (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1995); Ruth Rogaski, “From Protecting the Body to Defending . NATIONAL UNIVERSITY OF SINGAPORE 2008 BUILDING CITIZENS FOR NATIONALIST CHINA: MUNICIPAL PARKS AND PARKWAYS IN WUHAN (WUCHANG, HANKOU AND HANYANG), 1927-1937 . BUILDING CITIZENS FOR NATIONALIST CHINA: MUNICIPAL PARKS AND PARKWAYS IN WUHAN (WUCHANG, HANKOU AND HANYANG), 1927-1937 ZHANG TIANJIE. 3 public parks were breathing spaces for public health and recreation in the metropolis, and called for building public parks from the threats of enclosure and development. 8 The need for parks in