Advanced luminescence based characterisation of silicon wafer solar cells

ADVANCED LUMINESCENCE-BASED CHARACTERIZATION OF SILICON WAFER SOLAR CELLS Matthew P. Peloso (B.Sc.(hon), Physics, University of Waterloo) (GCMOT, Engineering, National University of Singapore) (M.Sc., Physics, National University of Singapore) A THESIS SUBMITTED FOR THE DEGREE OF DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRICAL AND COMPUTER ENGINEERING NATIONAL UNIVERSITY OF SINGAPORE 2012 0.1 Acknowledgments I began my PhD program in the quantum optics group at the Physics Department, National University of Singapore (NUS). During this period of time I was able to achieve a long term goal: to work with entangled systems of light, and observe first-hand the Bell violation. Thanks to Christian Kurtsiefer and Antia Lamas-Linares for making this possible, and their help in advancing the research. Thanks particularly to Ilja Gerhardt for his dedicated work, and to Alexander Ling. Having completed my doctoral coursework and projects in quantum cryptography, I became interested in working on a project in the applied sciences. Armin Aberle offered a project at the Solar Energy Research Institute of Singapore in NUS. This project involved optical characterization of semiconductors using luminescence. This portion of my doctoral research is presented in this Thesis, whereas the work completed at the beginning of my doctoral program in the Department of Physics and the Center for Quantum Technologies is summarized in Section 0.2. Funding for this project was received from the Singapore International Graduate Award through the Agency for Science, Technology & Research and NUS, as well as the Economic Development Board of Singapore. Kind thanks to the funding agencies. The Renewable Energy Corporation (REC) at Tuas, Singapore supplied the author with multiple sample devices and material for investigation. Thanks to REC, to their scientists and engineers, including Roland Utama for sample preparation and operating the Semilab tool. ¨ rfel who provided derivations of photoluminescence A special thanks to Peter Wu spectra, and for valuable discussions on the generalized Planck law. Thanks to Pooja Chaturvedi for her effort in the characterization lab. A very special thanks to Jen Sern Lew for developing algorithms and processing data sets for interpretation of luminescence hyperspectral images, and polarization images. Other thanks go to Marius Peters for algebraic manipulations, to Thorsten Trupke and others at BT Imaging Pty Ltd for their discussions. Thanks to Jonathan Hobley for collaboration on lock-in thermography. Thanks to Mark Breese and Reni qin Min from the Physics Department at NUS for collaboration on x-ray fluorescence measurements. Thanks to Noritaka Usami for supplying silicon samples for studies on dislocations in multicrystals. Thanks to Otwin Breitenstein for discussions and measurements on defects in silicon wafer solar cells. Thanks also to Sven Riβland for lock-in thermography measurements on samples studied using inline photoluminescence characterization and defect luminescence imaging. Thanks to P&P Optica for completing the initial demonstration of hyperspectral imaging. Thanks to Photon Etc. for accepting samples for advanced studies using high resolution hyperspectral imaging, and accepting modifications to study the polarization interaction of the excitation in their system. Thanks as well to Masayuki Fukuzawa for accepting silicon wafers for comparative studies of luminescence images using transmission polarimetery. Thanks go to everyone who worked in the SERIS characterization lab. Specific thanks to Keith Punzalan who provided solar energy market data presented in this Thesis. Thomas Reindl discussed solar systems projects. Jiaji Lin compiled measurements using the photospectrometer for the home-built EL/PL tool. Thanks to Natalie Palina who performed detailed analyses of samples using the synchrotron light source. Thanks to Joachim Luther for discussions on the polarization of light emission. Thanks to Tim Walsh, Hidayat, and Martin Heinrich for collaborating on ideas, experiments, and discussing PV technology. Thanks to Wilfred Walsh for discussions on PV markets and equities. Thanks to my supervisor Armin Aberle and my co-supervisor Bram Hoex for guidance on the presentation of the scientific results. Best of luck to you all in your future endeavors. ii 0.2 Publication list The following journal articles were published by the author while at the Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering, National University of Singapore. • Matthew P. Peloso, Jen Sern Lew, Thorsten Trupke, Marius Peters, and Armin G. Aberle, Evaluating the electrical properties of multisilicon wafer solar cells using hyperspectral imaging of luminescence, Applied Physics Letters 99, 221915 (2011) • Matthew P. Peloso, Jen Sern Lew, Pooja Chaturvedi, Bram Hoex, and Armin G. Aberle, Polarization analysis for the characterization of defects in silicon wafer solar cells, Progress in Photovoltaics: Research and Applications, Paper presented at 26th EU PVSEC, Hamburg, Germany 2011, (in press, DOI: 10.1002/pip.1201) (2011) • Matthew P. Peloso, Bram Hoex, and Armin G. Aberle, Polarization analysis for the characterization of silicon wafer solar cells, Applied Physics Letters 98, 171914 (2011) The following conferences articles and conference presentations were completed/accepted while at the Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering, National University of Singapore. • Matthew P. Peloso, Jen Sern Lew, Bram Hoex, and Armin G. Aberle, Line-imaging spectroscopy for characterization of silicon wafer solar cells, Energy Procedia 15, pp. 171-178 (2012) • Matthew P. Peloso, Bram Hoex, and Armin G. Aberle, Polarization analysis for the characterization of defects in silicon wafer solar cells, Proceeding of the 26th European Photovoltaic Solar Energy Conference and Exhibition (PVSEC), Hamburg, Germany (2011) - plenary talk • Matthew P. Peloso, Detection of defect densities in raw silicon wafers using a transmission polarimeter, 38th IEEE Photovoltaic Specialists Conference (PVSC), Austin, Texas (2012) - conference proceedings and poster presentation (N.B. conference funding withdrawn by SERIS) • Natalie Palina, Matthew P Peloso, Krzysztof Banas, Bram Hoex, Study on defects in multicrystalline silicon wafer solar cells by electroluminescence imaging and synchrotron radiation induced x-ray emission, 1BO.9.5, Oral Presentation, 27th EU PVSEC (Sept. 2012) - oral presentation accepted • Matthew P. Peloso, Pooja Chaturvedi, Bram Hoex, and Armin G. Aberle, Effects of optical instrumentation on the electroluminescence based ratio method for diffusion length imaging of silicon wafer solar cells, Symposium O of ICMAT 2011, Singapore (2011) - conference poster presentation iii • Matthew P. Peloso, Jen Sern Lew, Bram Hoex, and Armin G. Aberle, Hyperspectral imaging for the spatially resolved characterization of the effective pathlength enhancement factor of a silicon wafer solar cell, Symposium O of ICMAT 2011, Singapore (2011) - conference talk • Matthew P Peloso, Dora Chen, Olga Pawluczyk, Bram Hoex, and Armin G. Aberle, Spatially resolved optical determination of the path-length enhancement factor of texturized silicon wafer solar cells, MRS-S Trilateral Conference on Advances in Nanoscience - Energy, Water & Healthcare, Singapore, (2010) - conference poster presentation • Matthew P. Peloso, Pooja Chaturvedi, Peter W¨ urfel, Bram Hoex, and Armin G. Aberle, Observations on the spectral characteristics of defect luminescence of silicon wafer solar cells, 35th IEEE Photovoltaic Specialists Conference (PVSC), Hawaii (2010) - conference proceedings and poster presentation The following work was published and/or completed by the author while at the Department of Physics and the Center for Quantum Technologies, National University of Singapore. • Matthew P Peloso, Ilja Gerhardt, Caleb Ho, Ant´ıa Lamas-Linares, and Christian Kurtsiefer, Daylight operation of a free space, entanglement-based quantum key distribution system, New Journal of Physics 11, 045007 (2009) - invited journal article • Alexander Ling, Matthew P. Peloso, Ivan Marcikic, Valerio Scarani, Ant´ıa LamasLinares, and Christian Kurtsiefer, Experimental Quantum Key Distribution Based on a Bell Test, Physical Review A - (Rapid Comm.) 78, 020301 (2008) - journal article • Ilja Gerhardt, Matthew P. Peloso, Caleb Ho, Ant´ıa Lamas-Linares, and Christian Kurtsiefer, Entanglement-based free space quantum cryptography in full daylight, Conference on Lasers and Electro-Optics (CLEO) / Conference on Quantum Electronics & Laser Science (QELS) no.4p.1 Jun (2009) - conference proceeding • Matthew P. Peloso, Ilja Gerhardt, Caleb Ho, Ant´ıa Lamas-Linares, and Christian Kurtsiefer, Daylight quantum key distribution, 4th Mathematical and Physical Sciences Graduate Congress, Singapore, 17-19 December, 2008 (conference talk and paper) - conference talk and proceeding • Alexander Ling, Matthew P. Peloso, Ivan Marcikic, Ant´ıa Lamas-Linares, and Christian Kurtsiefer, Experimental E91 quantum key distribution, Advanced Optical Concepts in Quantum Computing, Memory, and Communication, Proceedings of the Society of Photo-Optical Instrumentation Engineers (SPIE) 6903 art. no. 69030U p.U9030-U9030 January (2008) - conference proceeding • Ant´ıa Lamas-Linares, Ivan Marcikic, Caleb Ho, Matthew P. Peloso, and Christian Kurtsiefer, Free space distribution of entangled photons pairs in daylight conditions, 1-4 CT Pacific Rim Conference on Lasers and Electro-Optics (CLEO), Aug. 26-31, 2007 CL Seoul, South Korea (2007) - conference talk and proceeding iv 0.3 Overview Chapter includes an introduction to solar energy, the photovoltaic effect, and solar cells in Section 1.1, luminescence-based characterization in Section 1.2, and applications of luminescence characterization to silicon wafer solar cells in Section 1.3. Chapter gives an overview of optics required to model the silicon material in Section 2.2, develops the generalized Planck law of luminescence in Section 2.3, and the transition moment model of luminescence in Section 2.4. These models are used to interpret luminescence characterization methods for silicon wafer solar cells. Chapter gives an overview of the instrumentation built to enable electroluminescence and photoluminescence experiments of silicon wafer solar cells. The instrumentation for applications of spatially-resolved luminescence spectroscopy is discussed in Section 3.5.2, and the instrumentation for applications of spatially-resolved luminescence polarimetry is discussed in Section 3.5.1. Chapter presents experiments performed for characterization of silicon wafer solar cells. Diffusion length imaging experiments are presented in Section 4.1. Defect topology experiments are presented in Section 4.2, and x-ray fluorescence experiments are presented in Section 4.3. The later results may be found in articles written by the author of this Thesis [1, 2]. Chapter presents the results of the spatially-resolved luminescence spectroscopy experiments, with discussion and outlook. This includes applications for studying textured silicon in Section 5.1, and carrier transport properties in Section 5.2. The results may be found in articles written by the author of this Thesis [3, 4]. Chapter presents the results of the spatially-resolved luminescence polarization experiments, with discussion and outlook. This includes application to study the partial polarization of luminescence emission from silicon in Section 6.2, and the orientation of the polarization of luminescence to silicon defects in Section 6.3. The results may be found in articles written by the author of this Thesis [5, 6]. Chapter gives a theoretical calculation of the transmission of polarized light at an edge dislocation in silicon through a crossed polarizer instrument to present an alternative methodology for characterization motivated from chapter 6. This provides an alternative form of optical characterization to photoluminescence, and presents an instrument with potential application for raw silicon wafer sorting. Chapter gives a discussion and outlook based on the experiments and results presented in the Thesis. v Contents 0.1 Acknowledgments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . i 0.2 Publication list . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . iii 0.3 Overview . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . v 0.4 Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . xi Introduction 1.1 1.2 Solar power . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.1.1 Sunlight as a source of renewable energy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.1.2 The solar spectrum . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.1.3 The photovoltaic effect for direct conversion of sunlight into electricity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.1.4 Generation of electrons and holes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.1.5 Silicon-wafer photovoltaic devices . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10 1.1.6 Defects in silicon wafer solar cells . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13 1.1.7 Characterization of photovoltaic materials and devices . . . . . . . 15 Luminescence . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17 1.2.1 Introduction to luminescence . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17 1.2.2 Generation and detection of luminescence . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18 1.2.3 A method for developing luminescence-based characterization . . . 20 1.2.4 History of luminescence imaging for gallium arsenide characterization . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21 1.3 History of luminescence imaging for silicon wafer material and photovoltaic device characterization . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22 1.4 1.3.1 The spatial homogeneity of a silicon wafer solar cell . . . . . . . . 23 1.3.2 Measuring the electrical properties of a silicon wafer solar cell . . . 25 1.3.3 Identification of defects in solar cells . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27 Advancing luminescence-based characterization of silicon wafer materials and devices . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29 Modeling light emission from silicon 31 2.1 Light and optics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31 2.2 Optical properties of silicon . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32 2.3 2.2.1 Refractive index of silicon . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33 2.2.2 Reflectivity of silicon . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34 2.2.3 Absorptivity of silicon . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36 The generalized Planck law of luminescence . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37 2.3.1 The classical spectrum of luminescence emission . . . . . . . . . . 38 vi 2.4 2.3.2 Effect of instrumentation on the measured luminescence . . . . . . 39 2.3.3 Excess carrier concentration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39 2.3.4 Solving electroluminescence boundary conditions . . . . . . . . . . 41 2.3.5 Solving photoluminescence boundary conditions . . . . . . . . . . . 45 2.3.6 Solving reabsorption of luminescence of a planar cell . . . . . . . . 48 2.3.7 Reabsorption of luminescence in textured wafers . . . . . . . . . . 51 The transition moment model of light emission . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53 2.4.1 The transition moment of light emission . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 54 2.4.2 Emission processes in the quantum theory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55 2.4.3 Luminescence emission from silicon as an oscillation . . . . . . . . 57 2.4.4 Light-matter interactions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 58 2.4.5 Electrodynamics for light-matter interactions . . . . . . . . . . . . 58 2.4.6 The Hamiltonian of a charge in an electromagnetic field . . . . . . 59 2.4.7 The electric dipole approximation and the transition moment . . . 61 2.4.8 Dependence of the spatial orientation of the charges on the emission 62 2.4.9 The orientation of fields in the light-matter interaction . . . . . . . 62 Instrumentation for photoluminescence and electroluminescence applied to silicon wafer solar materials and devices 3.1 3.2 Luminescence imaging instrumentation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 64 3.1.1 Electroluminescence instruments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 64 3.1.2 Photoluminescence instruments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 67 Electrical components . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 67 3.2.1 3.3 64 Temperature controller, electrical contacts, and power supply . . . 67 Optical components . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 68 3.3.1 Sources of optical excitation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 69 3.3.2 Homogenization of laser light . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 70 3.3.3 Camera selection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 71 3.3.4 Optical filtering . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 72 3.3.5 Imaging optics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 74 3.4 Mechanical components . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 75 3.5 Modifications to the luminescence-imaging instruments for advanced characterization of silicon wafer solar cells . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 76 3.5.1 Luminescence polarimetry instrument . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 77 3.5.2 Luminescence spectroscopy instrument . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 78 Applications of luminescence imaging of silicon wafer solar cells 4.1 82 Measuring the diffusion length of solar cells using electroluminescence imaging . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 82 vii 4.1.1 The ratio method for imaging diffusion lengths of silicon wafer solar cell . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 82 4.1.2 Application of diffusion length imaging using different cameras and interference filters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 84 4.1.3 Ratio images of multicrystalline silicon wafer solar cells . . . . . . 87 4.1.4 On the practical application of diffusion length imaging based on the ratio method . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 89 4.2 Luminescence emission related to defects in silicon wafer solar cells . . . . 90 4.2.1 Reverse-bias luminescence and sub-bandgap luminescence . . . . . 90 4.2.2 Using voltage control and spectral analysis to enhance electroluminescence imaging . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 93 4.2.3 Results from the luminescence investigations and their association with defects in silicon wafer solar cells . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 95 4.2.4 Summary of the investigations of defect luminescence from silicon wafer solar cells . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 96 4.3 Elemental analysis of defects in silicon wafer solar cells correlated to their luminescence characteristics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 96 4.3.1 4.4 Luminescence from defects in silicon wafer solar cells . . . . . . . . 97 Analysis using synchrotron light source for x-ray fluorescence measurements 99 4.4.1 Experimental results from SRIXE analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 99 4.4.2 Summary and discussion on defect luminescence and x-ray fluorescence studies on multicrystalline silicon wafer solar cells . . . . 101 Luminescence spectroscopy for characterization of silicon wafer solar cells 5.1 103 Evaluation of the textured silicon wafer solar cell using luminescence spectroscopy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 103 5.1.1 Dependence of the luminescence spectrum on the pathlength enhancement factor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 104 5.1.2 Measuring pathlength enhancement of textured solar cells with a hyperspectral imaging instrument . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 105 5.1.3 Fitting procedures on the measured spectra . . . . . . . . . . . . . 108 5.1.4 Resulting measured spectra of the textured samples . . . . . . . . 109 5.1.5 Discussion on the evaluation of the pathlength enhancement factor using luminescence spectroscopy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 112 5.2 Determining the electrical properties of a multicrystalline silicon wafer solar cell with a hyperspectral imaging instrument . . . . . . . . . . . . . 112 5.2.1 Quantifying the luminescence spectrum . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 114 viii 5.2.2 Developing characterization of diffusion length of minority charge carriers from the luminescence spectrum . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 117 5.2.3 Sample preparation and experimental procedures for luminescence spectroscopy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 118 5.2.4 Data processing procedures for the spatially-resolved luminescence spectra . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 120 5.2.5 Resulting diffusion length images based on the spatially resolved luminescence spectra . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 122 5.3 Summary and conclusion on spatially-resolved luminescence spectroscopy of silicon wafer solar cells . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 123 Polarization analysis of luminescence for characterization of silicon wafer solar cells 6.1 6.2 125 The nature of polarization anisotropy of emission . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 125 6.1.1 Spatial anisotropy of defects in silicon . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 127 6.1.2 Extended defects in multicrystalline silicon . . . . . . . . . . . . . 128 6.1.3 Polarized emission from a dipole oscillator . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 129 6.1.4 Dislocation emission from multicrystalline silicon . . . . . . . . . . 131 Partial polarization images of silicon wafer solar cells . . . . . . . . . . . . 134 6.2.1 Experimental procedure used to perform polarization analysis on defect luminescence . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 135 6.2.2 Resulting analysis of polarization analysis and electroluminescence images . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 136 6.3 Orientation of the polarization of luminescence from dislocations in multicrystalline silicon solar cells . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 139 6.3.1 On the anisotropy of the Bloch bands at extended defects in silicon wafers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 145 6.4 Conclusion and outlook of luminescence polarimetry of silicon wafer solar cells . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 146 Theory of defect detection in raw silicon wafers using transmission polarimetry 7.1 148 Introduction and motivation for the use of transmission polarimetry for wafer sorting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 148 7.1.1 Comparing transmission polarimetery with photoluminescence imaging . 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Sch¨ onfelder, “Stresses and their relation to defects in multicrystalline solar silicon,” in 35th IEEE Photovoltaic Specialists Conference, Honolulu, Hawaii, June 20-25, 2010, 2010. 198 [...]... economical manner is the key aspect of silicon wafer -based photovoltaic research and engineering [75, 76] For example, selective emitters, back surface fields, and specific chemical processing procedures for passivation and texturing of silicon wafer solar cells have been developed [58] More details on the fabrication of silicon wafer solar cells may be found in the Handbook of Photovoltaic Science and Engineering... characterization of silicon wafer -based photovoltaic devices A silicon wafer solar cell is fabricated in a series of processing sequences whereby the raw silicon is grown, sliced into wafers, doped to create a junction, and finally optically coated and metalized [28, 80] A procedure for fabricating a silicon wafer solar cell is shown in Figure 1.1.6 The 10 first stage shows the growth of a silicon crystal... used to analyze luminescence 84 4.1.3 Quantum efficiencies of three cameras and the electroluminescence spectrum 86 4.1.4 LBIC measurements on two multicrystalline silicon wafer solar cells 86 4.1.5 Ratio of spectral electroluminescence images of multicrystalline silicon solar cells 88 4.2.1 Quantum efficiencies and filter transmissions for the defect luminescence. .. has been used to characterize silicon wafer -based photovoltaic materials and devices In this Thesis, the practical instrumentation of a luminescence imaging system was investigated to advance luminescence- based characterization of silicon wafer materials, and silicon wafer photovoltaic devices A photo/electroluminescence instrument was built to allow flexible modification of instrumentation parameters... multicrystalline silicon wafer and solar cell 12 1.1.8 Defects in solar cells 14 1.1.9 Two diode circuit model of a solar cell 16 1.2.1 Control-response layout for luminescence characterization 21 1.3.1 Electroluminescence image of a multicrystalline silicon wafer solar cell 24 1.3.2 Quantitative series resistance image of a multicrystalline... state In silicon, and thus silicon wafers and silicon wafer solar cells, luminescence is light emission due to radiative recombination of electrical charge in the semiconductor material [192–195] 1.2.2 Generation and detection of luminescence Luminescence may be categorized according to the mode of excitation, as summarized in Table 2 These excitation mechanisms summarize the control parameters for luminescence. .. non-destructive luminescence characterization of silicon wafers and silicon wafer solar cells, electroluminescence and photoluminescence are frequently used For characterization, features of the luminescence must be measured Luminescence is light emission, or an electromagnetic oscillating field [196], and such a field may be characterized by the properties [192, 194] summarized in Table 3 18 Table 3: A summary of. .. and test modifications and applications of the instrument for silicon wafer solar cell characterization Two major modifications to luminescence imaging instrumentation for characterization of silicon photovoltaic materials and devices includes the advancement of polarimetry for luminescence, as well as the application of hyperspectral imaging of luminescence to allow luminescence spectroscopy measurements... to quenching of luminescence proportional to the concentration of metals within the silicon [218–220] Generally for luminescence characterization of silicon wafer solar cells, the intensity or spectrum has been used for characterization [5, 162, 197] with the common control method being the application of a forward-bias voltage, the use of an infrared laser providing tens of Watts of optical power,... recombination velocity 166 8.2.7 Luminescence emission from thin film devices 166 References 168 x 0.4 Summary Luminescence- based characterization of silicon wafers and silicon solar cells used to create photovoltaic modules for solar energy conversion may reduce their production cost and performance variance, and allow improved understanding of their physical properties Luminescence measurements . 77 3.5.2 Luminescence spectroscopy instrument . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 78 4 Applications of luminescence imaging of silicon wafer solar cells 82 4.1 Measuring the diffusion length of solar cells. on defect luminescence and x-ray fluo- rescence studies on multicrystalline silicon wafer solar cells . . . . 101 5 Luminescence spectroscopy for characterization of silicon wafer solar cells 103 5.1. spatially-resolved luminescence spectroscopy of silicon wafer solar cells . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 123 6 Polarization analysis of luminescence for characterization of silicon wafer