Branches of linguistics
Ng phỏp 2 - What is grammar? Grammar drived from Greek grammatike meaning to write - Kinds of grammar: Prescriptive grammar: to be phrased as prohibition - standard grammar Descriptive grammar: to describe the grammatical system of a language (e.g to describe how to play football: using a ball, hand and a basket .) - Grammar development: Traditional grammar: grammar teaching at school, parts of speech, The traditional categories Immediate constituents: using techniques for displaying sentence structure is the use of immediate constituent (IC) analysis Phrase structures and transformational grammar: - Phrasal structure: the division of a sentence into parts, or constituents, and the division of those constituent into subparts. - the transformational rules can be informally thought of as an instruction to change one structure to another Functional grammar: showing grammar communicating meaning in social interaction. 1 Branches of linguistics Phonology (âm vị học) Segmental-đoạn (vowels, consonants) supra segmental (stress rhythm, intonation Grammar Morphology-hình thái học (morphemes) - Syntax (phrases clauses- sentences) Semantics Words Phrases Clauses Sentences - Utterances Discourse analysis Sentences Paragraphs - Texts Pragmatics (ngữ dụng học) Implicit (hàm ẩn ý) explicit (hiển môn) Grammar Open class items • It conveys content words (lexical words). • Too many of them, can not count them - the number of this class is unlimited. • Two members can go together - the members of this class do not exclude each other. • Can always create new members. Closed system items • It conveys function words. • Can count them - the number of them is limited. • Two members cannot go together - the members of this class exclude each other. • Can never create new members. Example: a car N act (v) actor (n) actress (n) action (n) activity (n) active (a) actively (adv) a school-girl (n) new-born (adj) good-looking (a) Ex.: 12 a car - one/ indefinite - in general - In particular a/ my/ this/ the car 2 Morphology Classes of word (different parts of speech); - Different grammatical categories of different parts of speech. Syntax Deals with the combination of words to make larger units of language Parts of speech Open class items Nouns Adjectives Adverbs Verbs Closed system items Articles Demonstratives Pronouns Prepositions Conjunctions Interjections Phrases NP, AdjP, AdvP, PreP, VP Clauses Main clause - subclause Finite - nonfinite - verbless Sentences Elements: S, V, C, O, A Kinds: 2 kinds - Simple - Complex: + by using Coordinators + by using Subordinators 1, Is it right to say that right wrongs no man? 2, One can not right all the wrongs in the world. 3, Cure that cold with a drink of hot lemon before you go to bed. 4, Drink this quick! Don’t let it get cold. 5, Before the fire, there had been a plague, the like of which had not been known before and has not been seen since. 6, It is a common failing to suppose we are not like other men, that we are not as other people are. 7, As your doctor, I must warn you that the results of taking this drug may be very serious. 8, Growth in weight results in the development of muscles and fat. 9, Warm pan, sift dry ingredients and stir well. 10, Dry hair thoroughly with warm towel and comb. Unit 1 - Phrases – clauses - sentences 1 PHRASES 1.1. Definition A group of one or more than one words, equivalent to a part of speech. A phrase consists of (Pre-modification) + Head + (Post-modification) 1.2. Kinds of phrase: 5 a, Noun phrase (NP): a phrase in which there is a noun as a head girls N head a beautiful girl premod. N head a beautiful girl in the class premod. N head postmod. b, Adjective phrase (Adj.P): a phrase in which there is an adjective as a head beautiful Adj. head more beautiful than I am premod. Adj. head postmod. c, Adverb phrase (Adv.P): a phrase in which there is an adverb as a head slowly Adv head more slowly than I did premod. Adv head postmod. d, Prepositional phrase (Pre.P): in the class pre. NP a noun phrase dominated by a preposition 3 e, Verb phrase (VP): a group of one or more than one verbs in which there is a verb as a head. - Structurally, there are 2 kinds of VP: VP Finite VP ‘To’ Inf.NFVP Nonfinite VP: - Infinitive NFVP Bare Inf.NFVP - -Ing participle NFVP - -Ed participle NFVP • Finite verb phrase: a verb phrase whose verb element agrees with the subject in person and number. He is a student. 3rd person, sing. 3rd person, sing. FVP – simple I have learnt English. FVP - complex • Non – finite verb phrase: a verb phrase whose verb element does not agree with the subject in person and number. - Infinitive non-finite verb phrase: + “To” infinitive non-finite verb phrase: To learn English is difficult. + Bare infinitive non-finite verb phrase: Run away is what I could do then. - -Ing participle non-finite verb phrase: My duty is learning English. - -Ed participle non-finite verb phrase: Asked a lot of questions, she was tired. Finite VPs • Finite VPs (V, V-s & V-ed1, etc.) have tense and mood of a certain type. They go there very often. He goes there twice a week. (Tense: past; mood : indicative) We went there yesterday. (Tense: past; mood : indicative) • Finite VPs often have their own subject. If she liked, she could go. S + V-ed1 • Finite VPs often appear in the simple, compound or complex sentence (making up finite clauses) Non-finite VPs • Non-finite VPs (to V, V-ing & V- ed2) do not have tense and mood. They want to go there then. She enjoyed watching TV. Can be used either with Present or Past tense) • Non-finite VPs may have but more often do not have their S. For him to go there is difficult. S + to infinitive • Non-finite VPs often perform the function of S, O, C or A of the main finite clause and make up the complete complex sentence. 4 2. CLAUSES 2.1 Definition a part of a sentence, conveying an independent supposition 2.2. Clause elements : S,V,O,C,A a. Object: - Direct object (Od.): I like him. S V Od - Indirect object (Oi) + Od: I gave him a book. S V Oi Od b. Complements: - Subject complement (Cs): to describe or indicate the characteristics or feature of the subject - after copular verbs (link verbs) + BE group: be, appear, seem, feel, look, see, sound, smell, taste…, expressing the current attribute: He appears tired. S V Cs + BECOME group: become, come, get, go, grow, turn,…, expressing the resulting attribute: He becomes famous. S V Cs - Object complement (Co): to describe or indicate the characteristics or features of the object: She painted the door red. S V Od Co He drove me mad. They elected him chairman. I have my car repaired. I saw her sleeping in the garden. He made me cry. They found her a good wife. S V Oi Co They found him a good wife. S V Oi Od They found a good wife for him. He gave a book to me. - Adjective complements (Cadj.) I’ m happy to meet you. S V Cs Cadj. - Prepositional complement (Cpre.) She is interested in making up all day. S V Cs Cadj. - Adverbials: + Semantically: adverb of time, place and process (manner) He worked hard at school then. S V Amanner Aplace Atime 5 + Functionally: 3 kinds Adjuncts: integrated in the structure of the clause He worked carefully. S V A adjunct (How) Disjuncts: peripheral to the structure of the clause Carefully, he worked . A disjunct S V (generally speaking, in fact, to be honest, to tell the truth…) Conjuncts: peripheral to the structure of the clause and connective function Secondly, you have to learn French. A conjunct S V Od (finally, on the other hand, in brief, that’s why, in other words, in addition, moreover, in conclusion, what’s more, further more .) Ex. 5, 7 2.3 Classification a, According to usage: 2 - Independent clause: + Simple sentence : Tom saw Mary. + Compound sentence: Tom saw Mary and he ran away. + Complex sentence: When Tom saw Mary, he ran away. + Dependent clause: When he saw Mary, he ran away. b, According to clause elements and verb complementation: 7 kinds S, V, O, C, A SV SVA SVC SVO SVOA SVOC SVOO - S + V(intransitive) : He has arrived. - S + V(intensive) + Adverb : He is in the garden. - S + V(intensive) + Cs : He looks tired. - S + V(mono transitive) + Od : I love you. - S + V(complex transitive) + O + A : They put him in a good position. - S + V(complex transitive) + Od + Co : He made me happy. - S + V(di transitive)+ Oi + Od : He gave me his book. INTENSIVE V intransitive EXTENSIVE mono-transitive transitive di-transitive complex transitive 6 Ex. 98 c, According to Verb phrase structures (Structural classification): 3 Finite clause Infinitive “to” inf. NFC Cl Non-finite clause bare inf. NFC -Ing participle NFC - Ed participle NFC Verbless C1, Finite clauses: a clause whose verb element is a finite verb phrase. He is a student. FCl. C2, Non – finite clauses: a clause whose verb element is a non -finite verb phrase. - Infinitive NFC: + “To” infinitive non – finite clause: To learn English is difficult. + Bare infinitive non – finite clause: All I did was hit him on his head. -Ing participle non – finite clause: The teacher being ill, we missed our lesson. - Ed participle non – finite clause: Given a beautiful present, she was happy. His job finished, he went home. C3, Verbless clause: a clause whose verb element is absent He went to bed angry. verbless ß> When he was angry, he went to bed. She stayed at home jobless. ß> Because she was jobless, she stayed at home. Ex: 11 d, According to syntactic function of the clauses: 2 - Independent clauses (main/super ordinate) : He ran away when I turned out. - Dependent clauses (sub-clause/subordinate) What he wants is what I want. Functionally : I think that you can do it if you try. c b a ‘a’ is the superordinate to ‘b’ or ‘c’ is the subordinate to ‘b’ ‘b’ is the superordnate to ‘c’ ‘b’ is the subordinate to ‘a’ 7 Structurally: FCl FCl FCl Cl.elements + V.complementation: s v S V O A e, According to the syntactic functions of sub-clauses: 4 kinds - Nominal clauses: (S, O, C) What I want is not what he wants. I wonder whether he’ll come or not. I know you are rich. I enjoy listening to music. I want to learn English. - Relative clauses: The man who was standing at the door is my brother. Defining relative clause - Comment clauses: Generally speaking, he is honest. - Adverbial clauses: After having breakfast, he went to school. Ex: 4, 6 Chart of clauses classification 8 I n d e p e n d e n t c l a u s e : W h e n T o m s a w M a r r y , h e r a n a w a y D e p e n t d e n t c l a u s e : W h e n T o m s a w M a r r y , h e r a n a w a y U s a g e S + V ( i n t r a n s i t i v e ) : H e h a s a r r i v e d S + V ( i n t e n s i v e ) + A : H e i s i n t h e g a d e r n S + V ( i n t e n s i v e ) + C s : H e l o o k s t i r e d S + V ( m o n o t r a n s i t i v e ) + O d : I l o v e y o u S + V ( c o m p l e x t r a n s i t i v e ) + O + A : T h e y p u t h i m i n a g o o d p o s i t i o n S + V ( C o m p l e x t r a n s i t i v e ) + O d + C o : T h e y m a d e m e h a p p y S + V ( d i t r a n s i t i v e ) + O i + O d : H e g a v e m e h i s b o o k C l a u s e e l e m e n t & v e r b c o m p l e m e n t a t i o n F i n i t e c l a u s e : H e i s a s t u d e n t " T o " i n f i n i t i v e n o n - f i n i t e c l a u s e : M y d u t y i s t o r e m i n d h i m o f h i s t a s k " B a r e " i n f i n i t i v e n o n - f i n i t e c l a u s e : A l l I d i d w a s h i t h i m o n h i s h e a d I n f i n i t i v e n o n - f i n i t e c l a u s e - I n g p a r t i c i p l e n o n - f i n i t e c l a u s e : G o i n g h o m e , I d i d s o m e s h o p p i n g - E d p a r t i c i p l e n o n - f i n i t e c l a s u e : H i s j o b f i n i s h e d , h e w e n t h o m e N o n - f i n i t e c l a u s e V e r b l e s s c l a u s e : W h e n a l i t t l e g i r l , I u s e d t o g o t o s c h o o l o n f o o t V e r b p h r a s e s t r u c t u r e I n d e p e n d e n t c l a u s e N o m i n a l : I b e l i v e y o u a r e r i g h t R e l a t i v e : T h e m a n w h o i s s t a n d i n g a t t h e d o o r i s m y b r o t h e r C o m m e n t : G e n e r a l s p e a k i n g h e i s h o n e s t A d v e r b : A f t e r h a v i n g b r e a k f a s t , h e w e n t t o s c h o o l D e p e n d e n t c l a u s e S y n t a x t i c f u n c t i o n C l a u s e c l a s s i f i c a t i o n 3. SENTENCES 3.1. Definition An English sentence must have the subject that governs the verb and a finite verb phrase. 3.2. Sentence elements 1. Traditional classification: Subject + Predicate 2. Modern classification: S-V-O-C-A Obligatory: 7 pattern clauses Optional: Adverb of place/time She went to London last Sunday. Aplace Atime The plane took off immediately. Ex: 99 3.3. Classification a. According to communicative functions (purposes of utterances): 4 a. Statements (Declarative): usually with the word order: S-V - Affirmative: I’ll speak to him tonight. (+) - Negative: I won’t speak to him. (-) b. Questions (Interrogative): Normally with the inversion of the first auxiliary verb or modal verb - called the operator - and the subject. Do you like cat? Op S Questions are sentences marked by one or more of these three criteria: - The placing of the operator in front of the subject (S-operator inversion): Do you like coffee? - The initial positioning of an interrogative or “Wh-” element: What do you like? - Rising intonation: You know him? Ex: 15 c. Commands (imperative): sentences which have no overt grammatical subject and whose verb element is in imperative V Don’t + V - Without subject: Be careful. Don’t be silly. - With subject: Someone open the door. Don’t someone open the door. - With ‘let’ Let’s go. Let him know. Don’t let him go. Let him not go. Ex: 118 9 d. Exclamations: sentences which have an initial phrase introduced by “what” or “how” without the inversion of subject and operator. How + adj/adv + S + V! How beautiful she is! What +NP + S +V! What a beautiful girl she is! Sometimes, we have verbless utterances in exclamation (in spoken language) b. According to their structures: I like you. FCl I told him this but he didn’t believe me. 1st indep. cl. 2nd indep. cl. I know that you’re honest. __ S V C = sub. clause S V O = main clause Cf: Phrases – Clauses - Sentences 10 S i m p l e C o m p o u n d C o m p l e x s e n t e n c e M i x e d T r a d d i o n a l S i m p l e C o m p l e x M o d e r n [...]... 6.4 Od = FCl A = Pre.P Don’t put off till tomorrow what you can do to day Ex: 21 9, 22 0, 22 1, 22 4, 22 5, 22 6, 22 7, 22 8, 22 9, 23 0, 23 1, 23 6, 23 9 Phrasal verbs 1, Phrasal verbs: - a verb that consists of 2 items: the verb + the particle give up take off get up bring up give in see off break down cut off turn on/off - There are 2 kinds of phrasal verbs: + Intransitive phrasal verb: doesn’t take any object... black girl his last interesting novel his interesting last novel - Cases of premodified premodifiers: the consumer goods prices increase control the extremely out dated point of view Ex: 25 7, 25 8, 25 9, 26 0, 26 1, 26 2 2. 3 .2 Multiple postmodification - The items can be postmodifiers: Nhead + Adv/ Pre.P + NFCl + Rel.Cl Predet + deter + postdet + adj + part + N + Nhead + Adv/Pre.P + NFCl+ Rel.Cl all the three... house Tom, come in please My friend, Tom, is a teacher 7 As modifier of other noun I went to grocer store 11 Ex: 54, 56, 57, 58 2 Noun phrases 2. 1 Definition: NP is a phrase, in which there is a noun as a head 2. 2 Kinds of NP: 2 kinds: Basic Noun phrases and complex noun phrases 2. 2.1 Basic NP (BNP): a Definition: Basic NP (BNP) is: - a NP - consists of (Pre-modification) + Head - functions in the sentence... first marriage to a British actress Ex: 25 2, 25 3, 25 4, 25 5 15 Unit 3 – adjectives and adverbs 1 Adjectives 1.1 Definition: a word belonging to an open class which generally denotes quality: good, hot, little, young, fat, etc.; colour: black, white, etc or shape: square, round 1 .2 Forms: no agreement with nouns 1 Simple adjs (root): good, big, long, rich, nice, … 2 Derived adjs: (prefix or suffix + root)... then, I’ve been very happy 2 Syntactic functions of prepositional phrases: 2. 1 Adjuncts: He talks to her in a friend way She comes here on foot 2. 2 Disjuncts: in fact, of course, to my surprise, to some extent, in some way, by all means 2. 3 Conjuncts: on the other hands, in other words, at last, in short, apart from, in addition, in a word, in brief, instead of 20 Other functions: 2. 4 Post modifier in a... phân biệt với BNP) e.g: beautiful girl CPN Grocer stores CPN N N-head 14 All my first student BCN Premodification and postmodification: (self-study) trang 18,19 ,20 ,21 SGK Ex: 24 8, 24 9, 25 0 2. 3 Multiple Premodification and Multiple postmodification 2. 3.1 Multiple Premodification - The items can be premodifiers: Predeter + deter + postdeter + adj + part + N + Nhead all the three beautiful black young little... device (tất cả trên gọi là công cụ ngữ pháp) Auxiliary verbs gồm 3 loại: - Primary auxiliary verbs: be, do, have - Modal auxiliary verbs: 10 modal verbs Semi-modal auxiliary verbs: dare, need 1 .2 Lexical/semantic verb: carries full dictionary meaning / that denotes action or state 2 Auxiliary verbs: 2. 1 Syntactic features of primary auxiliaries: self-study (trang 28 SGK) a, Their forms: Periphrastic:... Be 21 b, Forms of the verbs following them: do + V lexical have + V-ed2 of lexical/ auxiliary be +V-ing of lexical/auxiliary be +V-ed2 lexical c, Used as operator: They didn’t go there Why did she come late? She hasn’t done it? d, Used as proform ( pro-verb): She went there but I didn’t Have you finished ?Yes, I have e, Only ‘Do’ can be used as emphatic auxiliary: Do come in and sit down Ex: 26 , 14 2. 2... 1.6 Comparison of adjs: self-study Ex: 68, 69, 70, 74, 75 2 Adverbs 2. 1 Definition: belonging to an open class, often used as: - adverbials: They’re waiting outside He spoke to me about it briefly - modifiers: That was a very funny film She has a really beautiful face 2. 2 Kind of Advs: 9 1 Adv of time: yesterday, this morning, at 6 o’ clock 2 Adv of frequency: always, every month, once a week 3... wants d, NFCL: My duty is to learn English All I did was hit him on the head My hobby is collecting stamps 32 2 .2 A a, Adv: He’s here He’s upstairs b, Pre.P: He’s in the class He’s at the door c, CL: He’s nowhere to be seen They are exactly where they went the other day d, NP: My birthday is tomorrow 2. 3 Meanings of these adverbials: Place (most common): He was here / in the car He is at the door - Time: . increase control the extremely out dated point of view Ex: 25 7, 25 8, 25 9, 26 0, 26 1, 26 2 2. 3 .2. Multiple postmodification - The items can be postmodifiers:. postmodification: (self-study) trang 18,19 ,20 ,21 SGK Ex: 24 8, 24 9, 25 0 2. 3. Multiple Premodification and Multiple postmodification 2. 3.1 Multiple Premodification