The Implementation of Task-based Language Teaching A case study of the upper-secondary school = Việc thực hiện phương pháp giảng dạy ngoại ngữ dựa vào các nhiệm

Rationale for the Study With the advent of the Communicative Language Teaching CLT approach in the early 1980s and much emphasis on learners‟ communicative abilities over the last two d

FACULTY OF POST- GRADUATE STUDIES

NGUYỄN THỊ KĂN

The Implementation of Task-based Language Teaching:

A Case Study of the Upper- Secondary School

(Việc thực hiện phương pháp giảng dạy ngoại ngữ dựa vào các nhiệm vụ được giao:

Một điển cứu ở trường Trung học phổ thông)

M.A Minor Thesis

FACULTY OF POST- GRADUATE STUDIES

NGUYỄN THỊ KĂN

The Implementation of Task-based Language Teaching:

A Case Study of the Upper- Secondary School

(Việc thực hiện phương pháp giảng dạy ngoại ngữ dựa vào các nhiệm vụ được giao:

Một điển cứu ở trường Trung học phổ thông)

M.A Minor Thesis

Presentation- Practice- Production English as a Foreign Language Ministry of Education and Training Teacher

Students versus

v

Declaration………i

Acknowledgements……… ii

Abstract……… iii

Abbreviations……… iv

Table of Contents……… v

PART A: INTRODUCTION 1 Rationale for the Study ……… ……… 1

2 Aims of the Study……… ……… 2

3 Research Questions ……… 2

4 Scope of the Study ……… 2

5 Methodology of the Study………… ……… 3

6 Significance of the Study ……….3

7 Organization of the Study……….4

PART B: DEVELOPMENT Chapter 1 Literature Review 1.1 What is Task-Based Language Teaching? 5

1.1.1 Background to Task-Based Language Teaching……… …… 5

1.1.2 Defining TBLT……….6

1.1.3 Definitions of Task……… 7

1.1.4 Tasks vs Exercises……… 9

1.1.5 Characteristics of TBLT……… 9

1.1.6 Theoretical Framework of TBLT Implementation……….10

1 2 Review of Issues in the Implementation of TBLT………11

1.2.1 Factors Related to Grammar-based Examination……… 12

1.2.2 Large Classes……… 13

1.2.3 Socio-cultural Constraints……… 13

vi

1.2.5 Difficulties Caused by TBLT………15

1.3 Summary……….15

Chapter 2: Methodology 2.1 The Fitness of Case Study to the Research Purpose……… 16

2.2 Research Questions……… ……… 16

2.3 Context of the Study……… ……… 16

2.3.1 New English Curriculum……… 16

2.3.2 The Case……… 18

2.4 Participants……… ……… 18

2.5 Instruments……… ……… 19

2.6 Data Collection Procedures……… ……… 20

2.7 Data Analysis Procedure……… ………21

2.8 Summary……… 21

Chapter 3: Findings……… 22

Chapter 4: Discussion ……….………36

Part C: Conclusion 1 Summary of the Major Findings……… 38

2 Pedagogical Implications……… 38

3 Limitations of the Study……… 39

4 Suggestions for Further Studies……… ……….40

References……….41

Appendix

Part A: Introduction

1 Rationale for the Study

With the advent of the Communicative Language Teaching (CLT) approach in the early 1980s and much emphasis on learners‟ communicative abilities over the last two decades, the term Task-Based Language Teaching came into prevalent use in the field of second language acquisition in terms of developing process-oriented syllabi and designing communicative tasks

to promote learners‟ actual language use In many Asian countries, educational policies and national curricula devised for English Language Teaching (ELT) in the past ten years have adopted communicative and task-based language teaching National curricula and ministry of education policies in countries including China (Hu, 2005; Zhang, 2007), Taiwan (Sung, 2005), and Hong Kong (Carless, 2007) specify that task-based approaches to teaching English should be used at all levels of the curricula

In Vietnam, the newly documented English language curriculum was promulgated by Ministry

of Education and Training (MOET) and institutionalized in 2006 According to MOET, the curriculum adopts two currently popular teaching approaches, i.e the learner - centred approach and the communicative approach with a focus on TBLT as the leading methodology While educational policy in Asia heavily favours TBLT and other communicative, holistic approaches to language teaching, a large body of classroom-based research on current teaching in Asia indicates that these policies have not always been implemented thoroughly or consistently Research conducted across East Asian contexts has suggested that curricular policies have had limited overall impact on English language teaching, which remains traditional with an explicit grammar-teaching focus ( Hu, 2005; Carless, 2007; Zhang, 2007) Why is there a gap between government curricular innovations and the practice in actual classrooms? I believe teachers play a key role in the success or failure of a planned innovation, which is shared with Nunan (1989) and Carless (2001), because they are the executive decision makers in the actual setting in which the intended innovation is to be realized- the classroom

It is important that the knowledge and attitudes of teachers regarding the innovation (here TBLT) should be taken into account before, during and after the implementation phase This

means that their opinions need to be reported and their voices heard While there are some

studies on teacher attitudes towards, and beliefs about TBLT (Carless, 2003; Jeon & Hahn,

2006), there has been little research into how teachers implement it in their actual classrooms Little research has come to light with regard to English language teachers in Vietnam, apart from a small-scale study carried out by Canh & Barnard (2009) For these reasons, I undertook

a case study of an upper-secondary school English teachers‟ understandings of, attitudes towards and implementation of TBLT in Vietnam

2 Aims of the Study

Teachers are frequently required to implement pedagogic innovations developed by external agents who may or may not be familiar with the teachers‟ viewpoints or the specific classroom context in which the innovation is to be implemented If teachers‟ views are not sufficiently taken account of, the already challenging nature of implementing something new may be exacerbated (Carless, 2003) Thus, the aim of the paper is to provide an investigation of the beliefs and the understandings of a small number of language teachers and a picture of how the three teachers tried to come to terms with the implementation of a task-based pedagogic innovation and what factors had an impact on the process

3 Research Questions

The paper seeks to answer the following research questions:

1 What are teachers‟ understandings of, and attitudes towards TBLT?

2 To what extent do the teachers implement TBLT in their actual classrooms?

3 What factors impact on the implementation of TBLT?

4 Scope of the Study

The study was conducted in a micro setting in Vietnam, focusing on only three teachers at Yen Phong Upper-Secondary School No 1 It is within this minor thesis space that the study is located with exploration of the attitudes, the understandings and the practices of TBLT of a small number of language teachers Although the data focuses on a small sample of teachers, it seems likely that the findings can still illuminate some issues of the implementation of TBLT that other teachers working in similar contexts may encounter

5 Methodology of the Study

Given the complexity of understanding the ongoing process of realized innovation, the adoption of a qualitative case study approach seemed particularly suitable Since this approach

„enable the development of an understanding of the phenomenon from the teacher‟s view‟ (Carless, 2001, p 266)

This study employed qualitative data collection instruments which included semi-structured interview, class observation (field notes) and post-observation interviews The semi-structured interview was conducted with some guided questions The interviewees were given the guided questions beforehand in the form of a handout for better preparation of ideas and thoughts The class observation enabled me to investigate what the teachers actually did in the classroom Field notes were made use of to observe all skills and language focus lessons Post-observation interviews were employed to provide triangulated data They focused on critical issues arising from the observed lessons

6 Significance of the Study

The results of this study are important in the following aspects:

First, they partly indicate that curricular policies promoting the use of TBLT at the national level do not automatically translate into the use of TBLT in actual English language classrooms

7 Organization of the Study

The study is organized in three parts

Part A Part A is the introduction which provides a brief overview of the study with more

details of the rationale, the aims, the scope, the research methodology, the research questions, the significance of the study as well as the organization of the study

Part B Part B, the Development, consists of four chapters

Chapter 1 reviews the literature in TBLT This chapter presents the theoretical

background of the thesis which contains four main points: background

to TBLT, definitions of Tasks and TBLT, characteristics of TBLT and theoretical frameworks of TBLT implementation

Chapter 2 namely methodology, focuses on the fitness of case study to the

research purpose, research questions, context of the study (New English curriculum, the case, participants) instruments, data collection procedures, data analysis procedure

Chapter 3 Findings, presents and illustrates my findings from interview and

observation data

Chapter 4 Discussion, provides an interpretation of the results

Part C Part C, the Conclusion, is devoted to summarize major findings and discussion,

present pedagogical implications and limitations of the study and provide suggestions for further studies

Chapter 1: Literature Review

There is a wide literature on Task-Based Language Teaching, but as Candlin (2001) observes, there is a lack of empirical research on TBLT in school foreign language contexts Particularly, how teachers implement the innovation in pedagogy is an important area which does not receive sufficient attention

In this part, I will review the literature on TBLT implementation Specifically, definitions of tasks and TBLT, characteristics of TBLT and theoretical frameworks of TBLT implementation will be reviewed Additionally, the studies carried out to date will be revised

to identify issues emerging in the implementation of TBLT which might occur in our own teaching and learning contexts Due to the limit of a minor thesis paper, only some studies associated with implementing TBLT in Asian contexts are analysed

1.1 What is Task-Based Language Teaching?

In this section, the background to TBLT, definitions of task and TBLT, the distinction between tasks and exercises and the characteristics of TBLT are presented

1.1.1 Background to Task-Based Language Teaching

Task-Based Language Teaching , also called Task-Based Instruction (TBI) which has attracted the attention of second language acquisition researchers, curriculum developers, educationalists, teachers trainers, and language teachers worldwide can be seen as both a refinement of Communicative Language Teaching (CLT) as well as a reaction to the use of form-focused models such as Presentation- Practice- Production (PPP) Critics of PPP claim that it fails to meet an essential requirement of CLT, which is to treat language „primarily as

a tool for communicating rather than as an object for study or manipulation‟ (Ellis,

2003, p 9) Thus, TBLT has the substantial implication that language learning is a developmental process promoting communication and social interaction rather than a product acquired by practicing language items, and that learners learn the target language more effectively when they are naturally exposed to meaningful task-based activities Such a view

of language learning led to the development of various task-based approaches in the 1980s (Breen, 1987; Candlin & Murphy, 1987; Nunan, 1989; Prabhu, 1987), and during the 1990s, has developed into a detailed practical framework for the communicative classroom in which

learners perform task-based activities through cycles of pre-task preparation, task performance, and post-task feedback through language focus (Skehan, 1996; Willis, 1996) Specifically, Ellis (2003) indicates that TBLT has been re-examined in recent years from different perspectives including oral performance, writing performance, and performance assessment

Despite the prevalent use of tasks in language pedagogy, some significant challenges behind designing proper task-based syllabi and constructing authentic task-based materials, both of which have been considered crucial factors in determining the effectiveness of TBLT in communicative classrooms, still remain unresolved In response to these challenges, many second language acquisition researchers are currently moving their attention from conceptualizing tasks to sequencing and implementing tasks based on observation of the practical utilities of TBLT methodology in classroom practice

1.1.2 Defining TBLT

TBLT is not a monolithic teaching method, but an adaptable approach to language teaching Thus, the term “TBLT” is not easy to define, and choice of a definition is made more difficult The term was coined, and the conception was developed, by second language acquisition researchers and language educators, largely in reaction to empirical accounts of teacher-dominated, form-oriented second language classroom practice (Long & Norris, 2000) Long (1985) and Prabhu (1987) take the view that TBLT is an approach to language education in which students are given functional tasks that encourage them to focus primarily on meaning exchange and to use language for real world, non-linguistic purposes As Ellis notes, „there is

no single way of doing TBLT‟ (2009, p 224), the conceptualisation of TBLT is also provided in Long & Crookes (1992), Skehan (1998) and Willis (1996) In this study, a useful definition of TBLT that will be used is provided by Samuda & Bygate, who write that task-based language teaching refers to „contexts where tasks are the central unit of instruction: they “drive” classroom activity, they define curriculum and syllabuses and they determine modes of assessment‟ (2008, p 58) This definition, first of all, directs our attention to the most common characteristic of TBLT, i.e the use of tasks as a central component in the language classroom because they provide better contexts for activating learner acquisition processes and promoting L2 learning They also provide the basis for an entire language curriculum, which according to Ellis (2003), shows that TBLT constitutes a strong version of

CLT In my view, this definition is relatively simple but comprehensive, as it covers sufficient features of TBLT in nature

1.1.3 Definitions of Task

As mentioned above, tasks form the focus of TBLT Richards and Rodgers (2001, p 228) suggest that this is because „tasks are believed to foster processes of negotiation, modification, rephrasing, and experimentation that are at the heart of second language learning.‟

In the literature, various definitions have been offered that differ quite widely in scope and formulation up to a point where almost anything related to educational activity can now be called a “task” Within much discussion and varying interpretations as to the definition of tasks in the field of second language teaching, I would like to look at the following definitions which are closely related to my scope of study

Nunan‟s (1989, p 10) definition is one of the most commonly cited pedagogical definitions of

a classroom task Nunan proposes that a communicative task

… is a piece of classroom work which involves learners in comprehending, manipulating, producing or interacting in the target language while their attention is principally focused on meaning rather than form The task should also have a sense of completeness, being able to stand alone as a communicative act in its own right

The definition refers to the deployment of grammatical knowledge to express meaning, highlighting the fact that meaning and form are highly interrelated, and that grammar exists to enable the language user to express different communicative meanings

Skehan (1998, p 95), on the other hand, defines a task in the following way:

A task is an activity in which:

 meaning is primary;

 there is some communication problem to solve;

 there is some sort of relationship to comparable real-world activities;

 task completion has some priority;

 the assessment of the task is in terms of outcome

This definition addresses five characteristics of a task That is, the cope of a task, the authenticity of a task, the linguistic skills required to perform a task, the cognitive processes involved in task performance and the outcome of a task

Ellis (2003, p 16) lists six „criterial features of a task‟ He mentions all aspects listed by Skehan above, and also includes the concept of task as a „workplan for learner activity‟, which

„requires learners to employ cognitive processes‟, and „can involve any of the four language skills‟ This definition implies that tasks provide a purpose for the use and learning of language other than simply learning language items for their own sake and that to perform the task learners are required to process the thought

Adopting this approach, Willis & Willis (2007, 2009) develop a set of criteria for determining how „task-like‟ a given activity is:

A task has a number of defining characteristics, among them: does it engage the learners‟ interest; is there a primary focus on meaning; is success measured in terms of non-linguistic outcome rather than accurate use of language forms; and does it relate to real world activities? The more confidently we can answer yes to each of these questions the more task-like the activity

(Willis & Willis, 2009, p 4) Willis & Willis‟s (2009) criteria are not widely accepted For example, Harmer (2009, p 173) considers these criteria „less than helpful‟ and finds in this approach to defining tasks „a lack

of willingness to pin down exactly what is on offer‟ that is „less than totally persuasive‟ (2009, p 174) Many teachers can probably relate to Harmer‟s point At least, one study (Littlewood, 2007) has found that conceptual uncertainty about tasks and TBLT has affected its implementation in many East Asian EFL contexts

The following provides teachers with a more precise definition of a language learning task Samuda & Bygate (2008, p 69) carefully consider the task definition literature before defining a second language pedagogic task as:

a holistic activity which engages language use in order to achieve some non-linguistic outcome while meeting a linguistic challenge, with the overall aim of promoting language learning, through process or product or both

In my opinion, this definition is neither too restrictive nor too broad in terms of its processes and overall aim Therefore, it provides the solid foundation needed to begin developing

an understanding of TBLT

1.1 4 Tasks vs Exercises

In teaching and method discussions, there exists various and overlapping understanding of tasks and exercises There is a clear need to clarify the differences between the two terms to serve to the understanding of TBLT

There are some differences pointed out by different experts in different times Nunan (1999) states that the essential difference between a task and an exercise is that a task has a nonlinguistic outcome, while an exercise has a linguistic outcome

However, Willis and Willis (2001) takes the view that tasks differ from grammatical exercises

in that learners are free to use a range of language structures to achieve task outcomes – the forms are not specified in advance

According to Ellis (2003), „Task‟ are activities that call for primarily meaning-focused language use In contrast, „exercises‟ are activities that call for primarily form-focused language use He also argues that in „task‟ language is learned incidentally but in „exercise‟ language is learned intentionally This view seems much more plausible and is widely shared

I am of the opinion that tasks can be defined in different ways but essentially they are meaning-based activities closely related to learners‟ actual communicative needs and with some real-world relationship, in which learners have to achieve a genuine outcome and in which effective completion of the task is accorded priority

1.1.5 Characteristics of TBLT

Translated into classroom practice, TBLT appears in both weak and strong versions Weak versions, or what Ellis (2003) refers to as “task-supported language teaching,” use tasks for communicative practice but in other respects follow a conventional grammar or function-based syllabus Strong versions, referred to by Ellis as “task-based language teaching,” treat the task as the central unit of curriculum and lesson planning The tendency for teachers to translate officially mandated TBLT into what at best could be called task-supported language teaching is a theme addressed in a number of places in this study

Within the varying interpretations of TBLT related to classroom practice, recent studies exhibit three major features: TBLT is compatible with a learner-centered educational philosophy (Ellis, 2003; Nunan, 2005; Richards & Rodgers, 2001); it consists of particular components such as goal, procedure, specific outcome (Murphy, 2003; Nunan, 2004; Skehan, 1998); it advocates content-oriented meaningful activities rather than linguistic forms (Carless, 2002; Littlewood, 2004)

The learning principle underlying this approach is that learners will learn language best if they engage in activities that have interactional authenticity (Bachman, 1990), i.e require them to use language in ways that closely resemble how language is used naturally outside the classroom Whereas more traditional approaches to language teaching assume that learners need to be taught some language before they can communicate, TBLT is premised on the assumption that learners best learn a language through communicating, as in first language acquisition and naturalistic L2 acquisition Various learning principles underpin this view Krashen (1981) proposes that learners will acquire language when they are exposed to

„comprehensible input‟ and are motivated to attend to the input Long (1996) has argued that acquisition is best served when learners participate in the negotiation of meaning (i.e interactional sequences that arise as a result of some communication problem) Long & Robinson (1998) have suggested that task-based teaching affords opportunities for learners to

„focus-on-form‟ in the context of attempts to communicate and that this constitutes the ideal condition for acquisition to occur Other researchers (e.g Ellis, 2003) have suggested that TBLT is needed to ensure the development of implicit knowledge Thus, this approach to teaching has drawn on a variety of theoretical perspectives

There are not any reports in the literature on which version – the strong or weak version- is more effective In my opinion, this can because TBLT can be adapted flexibly in different teaching contexts by different teachers

1.1.6 Theoretical Frameworks of TBLT Implementation

In this section, the frameworks of implementing TBLT which are common to almost all authors will be introduced

Willis (1996) has proposed a three-stage model for the implementation of task in language classroom as follows:

 Pre-stage: The pre-task phase provides the necessary background, knowledge and

procedure, introduces students to-and familiarizes them with-the topic and the task to

be performed

 Task Cycle: During the task cycle, the students perform the task in pairs or small

group while the teacher monitors from the distance The students then plan how they will tell the rest of the class what they did and how it went, and they then report on the task either orally or in writing, and/or compare notes on what has happened

 Language Focus: In this stage, the students examine and discuss specific features of

any listening or reading text which they have looked at for the task and/or the teacher may conduct some form of practice of specific language features which the task has provoked

Although the framework provides a staged-model for classroom implementation, Skehan (1998b, p 129) criticizes that there is insufficient detail as to how plans can be made and systematic teaching is arranged

Ellis (2003), however, outlines the framework of task-based instruction into three different stages: pre-, during- and post-task stages more specifically The pre - task stage is related to introducing the task, presenting the model task and planning the time for completion of the task In during – task stage, learners perform the task by using different performance options and information processing options The last stage is the post - task stage which incorporates the activities like reporting, conscious-raising and repeating the task The post - task is form-focused as in the Willis model

1 2 Review of Issues in the Implementation of TBLT

TBLT has been subjected to criticism by some teachers and educators Among these critics are Seedhouse (1999, 2005), who has challenged TBLT on the grounds that „task‟ does not constitute a valid construct around which to build a language teaching programme, that TBLT results in impoverished language use that is of little inquisitional value, and Widdowson (2003), who has argued that the criteria for defining tasks are overly loose and that TBLT over emphasizes „authentic‟ language use In addition, Burrows (2008), Sheen (2003) and Swan

(2005) have insisted that it lacks sufficient focus on form Furthermore, Bruton (2002) and Swan (2005) have claimed that it is unsuitable for low-level learners

TBLT has been adopted by several Asian governments as the national approach to English language pedagogy However, studies show that TBLT may not directly impact actual language teaching practice, (Li, 1998) in South Korea; (Carless, 1999) in Hong Kong; (Gorsuch, 2000) in Japan; and (Canh and Barnard, 2009) in Vietnam

A large body of research has investigated the difficulties associated with implementing TBLT

in East Asian contexts Because full accounting of these issues is beyond the scope of this study, I will only group the issues under the five main categories that are directly relevant to the present study

1.2.1 Factors Related to Grammar-based Examination

As Zhang (2007) pointed out, in order for tasks to be enacted by teachers in the classroom, the government institutions that plan educational policies and the schools that adopt them need to create a supportive environment for teachers to experiment with new teaching approaches in their classrooms At the governmental level, the measurement of success in language teaching and learning through norm-referenced, knowledge-based, vocabulary and grammar-focused exams might hinder efforts to use TBLT in the classroom Hu (2002) indicated that grammar and vocabulary knowledge-focused national examinations were the most influential factors preventing teaching innovation in China

Chow and Mok-Cheung (2004) considered the summative, knowledge-based high stakes exams used in Hong Kong to be the main barrier to implementing TBLT Curricular communicative objectives were not reflected in the Korean national exams, so washback from tests pressured teachers to revert to traditional, rote-learning approaches to teach to the test (Li, 1998), and similar concerns were noted by Japanese teachers and students (Gorush, 2000) External examinations could limit the implementation of TBLT because the largely multiple choice testing formats lead administrators and teachers to prefer explicit teaching approaches (Carless, 2007; Littlewood, 2007) These concerns with the effect of high-stakes national examinations on learning were also echoed by Canh & Banard (2009), who found that their case study teachers, Cam, Quyt and Mo, were reluctant to integrate communicative activities

into their classroom, concerned that their students needed more mechanical practice to prepare them for the national exams through which the students, the teacher, and the school are all judged It is important to remember, however, that while the nature of EFL examinations in many countries may not foster support for curricular changes, simply integrating communicative and skills-based testing into exams will not guarantee enactment of tasks in language classrooms As Carless (2007) pointed out, teachers might still consider traditional methods of teaching as more appropriate, regardless of the manner of testing

1.2.2 Large Classes

The set-up of many English language classes in Asia, particularly at public secondary schools,

is not conducive to the use of tasks in class A frequently mentioned concern is large class sizes, which was noted as a barrier to change in Korean (Jeon, 2006; Li, 1998), Hong Kong (Carless, 2002), mainland Chinese (Zhang, 2007), schools Li (1998) pointed out that large classes were inherently difficult to manage, and thus challenged teacher ability to make changes to their teaching Littlewood (2007) noted that it was particularly difficult to implement TBLT in large classes because of logistical issues associated with students communicating in groups It should be noted, however, that many of the issues associated with large classes are relevant only to the use of interactive pair work or small group tasks

A related issue to class size is the presence of students with multiple ability levels in each class Because primary and secondary students might be streamed by age rather than proficiency, mixed proficiency classes were common in Asian contexts (Butler, 2005) Chao and Wu (2008) pointed out that the inclusion of students at a range of proficiency levels in Taiwanese schools made it difficult for teachers to select appropriate tasks for their classes To address this issue, Tinker Sachs (2007) proposed promoting cooperative learning, whereby students of different proficiency levels could help one another

1.2.3 Socio-cultural Constraints

Asian teachers traditionally relied on a strong teacher-fronted information transfer model of teaching to maintain classroom order (Cortazzi & Jin, 2001), and good classroom management was often defined in terms of volume, with students individually working quietly and not causing disruption (Cortazzi & Jin, 1996) Yet, task-based approaches call for a range of participatory structures (e.g., whole class, small group, pair, individual, Ellis, 2003) Thus,

TBLT challenged traditional views of classroom management Jeon & Hahn (2006) noted that very few of the Korean EFL teachers in her sample considered TBLT as an appropriate way to manage the classroom Carless (2004) suggested that teachers may struggle with the noise generated by pair- and group-work, and that they may need to learn to separate the noise of students engaged in using language to complete a task from the noise of classroom disorder This clearly calls for a shift in perspective

On the other hand, it is not only teachers who may need to adjust to the inclusion of group- and pair-work in task-based courses Students accustomed to traditional methods, and particularly to methods that promote accuracy over fluency, may find it difficult to use English in the classroom Li (1998) found that Korean students resisted oral class participation, while Burrows (2008) carried out a study to look at how TBLT was difficult to implement in socio-cultural context of Japan He also examined TBLT grounding on the role

of students He claimed that the learning style of Japanese students, their learning expectations, socio-cultural context of Japan and the structure of TBL itself were major challenges for the implementation of TBLT in Japan Chang‟s (2004) survey of native speaker English teachers in Korea indicated that they considered their students overly reliant on authority figures and reluctant to take risks through speaking When students can be motivated

to speak in English, they may produce the simplest language possible; instead of stretching their linguistic resources and developing compensatory strategies, students‟ efforts focus on avoiding mistakes to save face (Lee, 2005) Learner reluctance to speak in class may then undercut the value of interactive and production tasks for language development

1.2.4 Inadequately Trained Teachers

Addressing concerns with integrating tasks into classrooms may help promote the enactment

of TBLT curricula in Asian schools, but is unlikely to be successful unless it is accompanied

by sustained teacher development initiatives As Zhang (2007) noted, pseudo-compliance by schools in adopting task-based innovations has led to minimal teacher development efforts in mainland China, while sustained, grounded, and culturally sensitive teacher development may

be required for real change in the enacted curriculum (Carless, 2007) Because TBLT requires teachers to adapt materials and juggle classroom roles to serve the communication needs of their learners, using tasks effectively in the classroom requires understanding of the nature of tasks and the ways they can promote learning (Ellis, 2003) In many contexts, teachers have

not had opportunities to gain sufficient understanding of tasks and task-based teaching to be

able to implement TBLT in their own classrooms Clark et al., (1999) identified vague

understanding of TBLT as a main factor that limited the ability of Hong Kong teachers to implement the new curriculum, a finding echoed by Zhang (2007) for teachers in mainland China and Butler (2005) for teachers in Korea Carless (2002) pointed out that even some of the teacher educators involved in promoting the Hong Kong task-based curriculum expressed uncertainty about the nature of tasks and about the effectiveness of holistic learning

1.2.5 Difficulties Caused by TBLT

Carless (2004) pointed out that the strong version of TBLT (language is learned by taking part

in communication and without explicit instruction on grammar) was not suitable in Hong Kong He suggested that TBLT needed flexibility in its implementation so that it became more

suitable in local context He proposed a new approach situated task-based approach which is

claimed to involve grammar in pre-task stage, relationship between the task and the examinations, and reading and writing skills, too The study also indicates that grammar should be taught directly in pre-task stage

1.3 Summary

The literature review presented in this chapter shows that task-based approaches emphasize communication of meaning rather than study of grammatical form as the starting point for learning activities The content is specified holistically in terms of „tasks‟ An essential feature

of TBLT is learner-centredness Review of the research on the implementation of TBLT in Asian context indicates that the feasibility of TBLT for schooling in Asian settings has not yet been convincingly demonstrated due to institutional factors, classroom factors and teacher development The review also reveals that whilst there is a body of research evidence on task-based language teaching with various levels and in various contexts, so far, little research has been identified that have specifically investigated the implementation of TBLT in upper-secondary schools, particularly in Vietnam setting Thus, it was decided that a case study of teachers‟ implementation of TBLT would complement previous studies, and add to professional understanding about how teachers implement TBLT in their actual classrooms

Chapter 2: Methodology

This chapter presents the research methodology adopted to achieve the aims of the study First, the reason for the research method is well- explained; next is a brief description of the research questions, the context of the study, the participants and the research instruments Then data collection procedures and data analysis procedures are clarified

2.1 The Fitness of Case Study to the Research Purpose

In order to find out the answer to the research questions, I decided to conduct a case study According to The U.S General Accounting Office (1990, p 14), “ A case study is a method for learning about a complex instance, based on a comprehensive understanding of that instance obtained by extensive descriptions and analysis of that instance taken as a whole and

in its context” This definition seems to focus on a particular instance and reaching an understanding within a complex context

The case study approach was chosen as an investigative technique so as to permit me to study the teachers in depth in the classroom setting and facilitate the development of an understanding of the innovation from the teachers‟ viewpoints Notwithstanding limitations of generalisability from small samples, detailed case study data can provide what Bassy (1999) refers to as „fuzzy propositions‟ or „fuzzy generalisations‟ i.e tentative general statements which lack scientific generalisability but are likely to be a useful reference point for teachers and/or researchers to compare with their own contexts

2.2 Research Questions

The central focus of the study was to explore teachers‟ implementation of TBLT in their actual classroom The key research questions that guided the study as follows:

1 What are teachers‟ understandings of, and attitudes towards TBLT?

2 To what extent do the teachers implement TBLT in their actual classrooms?

3 What factors impact on the implementation of TBLT?

2.3 Context of the Study

2.3.1 New English Curriculum

In Vietnam a newly documented English language curriculum was officially approved and

institutionalized for all grades and school types nation-wide from Grade 6 through to Grade 12

in 2006 It aims to enable school pupils to:

a communicate in English at the basic at the basic level in all modes of communication, i.e., listening,

speaking, reading and writing

b master the basic formal knowledge of the English language

c have general understanding of, and a positive attitude towards, the cultures of English-speaking

countries

(Ministry of Education and Training, 2006, p 5)

In addition, this document states that „communicative skills are the goal of the teaching of

English at the secondary school while formal knowledge of the language serves as the means

to the end‟ (MOET 2006, p 6)

The national English curriculum is effectively operationalised in a locally-written set of

textbooks According to its authors, the textbook is theme-based and skill-based, with the

adoption of the „two currently popular teaching approaches, i.e the learner - centred approach

and the communicative approach A focus is on task-based teaching as the leading

methodology‟ (Van et al., 2006, p 12) The themes or topics covered in the textbooks series

consist of education, community, nature, environment and recreation

Within the task-based framework of the new textbook series, teachers‟ and learners‟ roles are

clarified Students are expected to engage with each other in meaningful interaction and

negotiation of meaning within a special context Teachers are expected to organise classroom

activities so that students can engage with each other “actively, creatively and cooperatively”

(Van et al., 2006, p 10) through individual, pair, and group work in meaningful interaction

With regard to skills development, each of the didactic units follows a standard pattern

comprising five sections: reading, speaking, listening, writing and language focus The last

unit explicitly focuses on key grammatical structures and phonetic features, some of which

have been previously introduced in the reading and listening texts and practised in the

speaking and writing sections Each of these sections is to be dealt with in one 45-minute lesson

With respect to assessment, the curriculum does not define the testing methods to be applied, except that „learners‟ learning outcome should be measured in terms of four linguistic skills (listening, speaking, reading, writing) and linguistic knowledge (including phonetics, lexis, grammar)‟ (MOET 2006, p 18) However, the Ministry has institutionalised multiple-choice tests as the only testing method for standardised high-stake tests In these tests, pupils are tested in terms of phonetics, grammar, vocabulary and reading comprehension

2.3.2 The Case

Yen Phong Upper-Secondary School No1, a state-run school, is located in a town in Bac Ninh, which has a key industrial zone of the north It is a large school with 2,100 students in the three grades (Grades 10 to 12) The average class size in this school is around 50 and the classrooms are well-equipped with furniture, light, drinking water, computers, LCD projectors, cassette players, screens and blackboards Inside the classroom, students sit in long rows with 5 students being in one row

2.4 Participants

To complete the aims of this study, typical–case sampling strategy were used Prospective case teachers were identified by review of extant demographic data Three teachers were

selected to participate in the study All of them are from Yen Phong Upper-Secondary School

No 1 in Bac Ninh province They were selected for the study based on the following relevant attributes: young and competent teachers, open-minded in responding to questions of my interview, confident enough in their teaching to be observed in the classroom, professionally motivated to take part in the study, aware of the study‟s demands and willing to participate on that basis To ensure confidentiality, the pseudonyms (An, Anh, Oanh) were used throughout the study

The following Table 3.1 provides the profile of the teachers involved in this study

Teacher Gender Age Teaching

years

Qualifications/training

An male 32 8 years He got his bachelor degree of English for education

from College of Foreign Languages, Thai Nguyen University 8 years ago and then started his teaching career immediately at Yen Phong Upper-Secondary School No1

Anh female 35 12 years She finished her bachelor course of English for

education from College of Foreign Languages, Vietnam National University, Hanoi in 1999 and taught at Yen Phong Upper-Secondary School No1 just after that She is now taking the role of leader of EFL teachers group

Oanh female 28 5 years She both finished the bachelor course and master

course majoring in English in College of Foreign Languages, Vietnam National University, Hanoi Her master professionalism is in ELT methodology

Table 3.1: Teacher participants

2.5 Instruments

Since this is a multimethod case study, three instruments of data collection were used to achieve the triangulation, i.e classroom observations, semi-structured interviews, and post-

observation interviews This part is intended to introduce the reasons why the research tools fit the purposes of the study

As Hopkins (1993) (cited in Mc Donough & Mc Donough, 2005) describes, observation as a

„pivotal activity‟ with a crucial role to play in classroom research, teachers‟ professional growth, and school development as a whole In fact, class observation is one of the most common and important data-collection techniques in case studies because it enables the researcher to investigate in one specific aspect or the whole load of teaching and learning

personal-in class, i.e teacher‟s management, facilitation and monitor of class for learnpersonal-ing tasks made use of; to investigate their knowledge of teaching methodology through what teachers do in class, and the involvement of students on tasks; to know the way of co-operations and interactions between students and students and between teacher and students through the task process

Interviewing is an effective research instrument to get real statistics of any aspects in life It may be used as the primary research tool or as a checking mechanism to triangulate data gathered from other sources (Mc Donough & Mc Donough, 2005) A semi-structured interview first gives the interviewee a degree of power and control over the course of the interview Secondly, it gives the interviewer a greater deal of flexibility Finally, and most profoundly, this form of interviewing gives one privileged access to other people‟s lives

2.6 Data Collection Procedures

Data collection methods used for the study comprised semi-structured interviews, classroom observation and post-observation interviews A baseline interview, prior to the commencement

of classroom observation, collected relevant background information about the teachers and the school The semi-structured interviews, lasting 35 minutes to 1 hour, were conducted with each of the teachers and were recorded TBLT was a major focus of the interviews

The classroom observations were conducted for five consecutive English lessons for each teacher over three weeks The rationale for observing successive lessons was to minimize the dangers of one-off display lessons not typical of regular teaching Because teachers were not comfortable with their lessons being video- recorded, so extensive field notes were made use

of to record all the observed events in the classroom In addition, the researcher also employed audio-recording to record the observed lessons for later lesson transcriptions in case there was insufficient time to note down everything necessary

Each teacher was interviewed after his/her last classroom observation The interviews focused

on critical issues arising from the observed lessons, as well as issues related to the teachers‟ understanding of, and attitudes towards, TBLT All the interviews were conducted in Vietnamese so that the participants could fully articulate their views without being constrained

by the use of a second language The interviews were then transcribed, translated and analysed

by the author to identify emerging themes

2.7 Data Analysis Procedures

Data analysis is not a simple description of the data collection but a process by which the researcher can bring interpretation to the data (Powney & Watts, 1987) The themes and coding categories in this study emerged from an examination of the data rather than being determined beforehand and imposed on the data (Bogdan & Biklen, 1992) Following the strategy of analytic induction (Bogdan & Biklen, 1992; Goetz & Lecompte, 1984), I repeatedly read through the interview transcripts and the observation during and after the study In this process, I identified and noted recurrent themes, for example, teachers‟ understanding, teachers‟ attitudes, teachers‟ implementation of TBLT and factors in implementing TBLT

Once a theme was identified, all data touching on it from the different research tools was pooled and analysed in further depth Reasoned judgements were then developed as a result of

an iterative process of moving repeatedly from data to emergent findings and then returning again to the data and comparing informants‟ understandings and interpretations with their classroom actions

2.8 Summary

In short, this chapter has presented the rationale for choosing the research approach The context of the study, the case, the research instruments and participants have been clarified and well-explained In addition, data collection procedures and data analysis procedures has been given in details

Chapter 3: Findings

This chapter presents and illustrates my findings in terms of four themes which emerged from interview and observation data Findings revolve around the three major research questions of the study First is teachers‟ understanding of tasks and TBLT, next is teachers‟ attitudes towards TBLT, then is factors in implementation of TBLT, and the last is teachers‟ implementation of TBLT For each theme, I briefly make some introductory comments before outlining the teacher perspectives on the issues

In the attempt to present to the readers what I have found significant to the inquiry, I have chosen to include in the teachers‟ quotations, excerpts, and classroom incidents that I believe best represent their thoughts and behaviors In doing so, I was aware of reporting the data from

my own perspective

3.1 Teachers’ Understandings of Task and TBLT

Understandings are defined as the ability to articulate the principles of task-based teaching and

an awareness of the implications for classroom practice In Korean context, Li (1998) reported that misconceptions about the communicative approaches to language teaching were

a barrier to their implementation Clark et al (1999) found similar evidence that Hong Kong

teachers had unclear conceptions about TBLT, which hindered its implementation

In the semi-structured interviews for teachers, they were asked about the definitions of TBLT and tasks, the procedures of a task-based lesson and the differences between TBLT and other approaches The interviews showed that teachers had little or no understanding of TBLT

An expressed definition of TBLT is that “ TBLT is a process of teaching with a view to enabling students to perform the tasks well” He went on to describe the focus of a task-based lesson as follows:

“ In my opinion, the focus of a task-based lesson depends on the objectives of that period If that period aims to teach language skills, it will center on skills Otherwise, it will concentrate on grammatical items.” According to Anh, she stated “ TBLT is an approach of teaching language basing on exercises and tasks assigned to students”

In Oanh‟s view,

“TBLT is an approach in which teachers make use of the knowledge and the topic given in the textbook

to teach students skills The focus of TBLT is communicative skills, and the role of the teacher is a guide while students are active in acquiring the skills.”

Given the definition of tasks, An described „task‟ as follows: “Task is an exercise designed to test students‟ knowledge and the knowledge is in a certain range”, whereas Anh believed

“The focus of a task is on the language items which are grammatical structures and vocabularies Tasks in TBLT were the same as those in real life.” Tasks, according to Oanh, “ involve language use to acquire communicative skills and have a specific goal that is the development of communicative skills.”

When asked about the differences between tasks and exercises, the teachers expressed their viewpoints as follows:

“Tasks might be assignments or exercises given to Ss to perform in skills lessons whereas exercises were

made use of in grammatical lessons or Language Focus part” (Anh)

“ Tasks are types of exercises, but they do not focus on a particular grammatical item They aim at developing communicative skills Exercises are aimed at a specific grammatical item, and teachers have to

correct students immediately after doing the exercises.” (Oanh)

As regards framework of a task-based lesson, all the three teachers differed in their views: “ A task-based lesson follows at least two stages: first, teachers present language materials and then students make use of them to do the tasks There is no difference between new textbooks and the old ones

in terms of methodology Previously, we followed presentation-practice-production Now we follow pre-,

while-, post- They only differ in wording.” (An)

“First, the teacher has to provide students with language materials i.e grammatical structures, vocabularies, models and check students‟ understanding, and then students practise under the teacher‟s guide Finally, the teacher has to evaluate the outcome in terms of completing the requirements of the tasks In this type of lesson, the teacher worked as a guide or a facilitator while students were the centre of

all activities and were active in learning.” (Anh)