The Implementation of Task-based Language Teaching A case study of the upper-secondary school = Việc thực hiện phương pháp giảng dạy ngoại ngữ dựa vào các nhiệm

VIETNAM NATIONAL UNIVERSITY, HANOI UNIVERSITY OF LANGUAGES AND INTERNATIONAL STUDIES FACULTY OF POST- GRADUATE STUDIES NGUYỄN THỊ KĂN The Implementation of Task-based Language Teaching: A Case Study of the Upper- Secondary School (Việc thực phương pháp giảng dạy ngoại ngữ dựa vào nhiệm vụ giao: Một điển cứu trường Trung học phổ thông) M.A Minor Thesis Field: English Teaching Methodology Code: 601410 M.A course: 18 HANOI, 2011 VIETNAM NATIONAL UNIVERSITY, HANOI UNIVERSITY OF LANGUAGES AND INTERNATIONAL STUDIES FACULTY OF POST- GRADUATE STUDIES NGUYỄN THỊ KĂN The Implementation of Task-based Language Teaching: A Case Study of the Upper- Secondary School (Việc thực phương pháp giảng dạy ngoại ngữ dựa vào nhiệm vụ giao: Một điển cứu trường Trung học phổ thông) M.A Minor Thesis Field: English Teaching Methodology Code: 601410 Supervisor: Le Van Canh, Ph D HANOI, 2011 Lists of abbreviations ELT English Language Teaching CLT Communicative Language Teaching TBLT Task-Based Language Teaching TBI Task - Based Instruction PPP Presentation- Practice- Production EFL English as a Foreign Language MOET Ministry of Education and Training T Teacher Ss Students Vs versus iv Table of contents Declaration………………………………………………………………………………………i Acknowledgements…………………………………………………………………………… ii Abstract……………………………………………………………………………………… iii Abbreviations………………………………………………………………………………… iv Table of Contents…………………………………………………………………………… v PART A: INTRODUCTION Rationale for the Study ……… ……………………………………………… Aims of the Study……………… …………………………………………… Research Questions ……………………………………………………………… Scope of the Study …………………………………………………………… .2 Methodology of the Study………… ………………………………………… Significance of the Study ………………………………………………………….3 Organization of the Study………………………………………………………….4 PART B: DEVELOPMENT Chapter Literature Review 1.1 What is Task-Based Language Teaching? 1.1.1 Background to Task-Based Language Teaching…………………… …… 1.1.2 Defining TBLT……………………………………………………………….6 1.1.3 Definitions of Task………………………………………………………… 1.1.4 Tasks vs Exercises………………………………………………………… 1.1.5 Characteristics of TBLT…………………………………………………… 1.1.6 Theoretical Framework of TBLT Implementation………………………….10 Review of Issues in the Implementation of TBLT………………………………11 1.2.1 Factors Related to Grammar-based Examination………………………… 12 1.2.2 Large Classes……………………………………………………………… 13 1.2.3 Socio-cultural Constraints………………………………………………… 13 v 1.2.4 Inadequately Trained Teachers……………………… ………………… 14 1.2.5 Difficulties Caused by TBLT…………………………………………………15 1.3 Summary………………………………………………………………………….15 Chapter 2: Methodology 2.1 The Fitness of Case Study to the Research Purpose………………………… 16 2.2 Research Questions……………………………………… ………………… 16 2.3 Context of the Study………………………………… ……………………… 16 2.3.1 New English Curriculum………………………………………………… 16 2.3.2 The Case…………………………………………………………………… 18 2.4 Participants………………………………… ……………………………… 18 2.5 Instruments……………………………… ………………………………… 19 2.6 Data Collection Procedures……………… ……………………………… 20 2.7 Data Analysis Procedure………………… ……………………………………21 2.8 Summary……………………………………………………………………… 21 Chapter 3: Findings……………………………………………… 22 Chapter 4: Discussion …………………………………………….…………………36 Part C: Conclusion Summary of the Major Findings……………………………………………… 38 Pedagogical Implications…………………………………………… 38 Limitations of the Study……………………………………………………… 39 Suggestions for Further Studies……………………………………… ……….40 References……………………………………………………………………….41 Appendix vi Part A: Introduction Rationale for the Study With the advent of the Communicative Language Teaching (CLT) approach in the early 1980s and much emphasis on learners‟ communicative abilities over the last two decades, the term Task-Based Language Teaching came into prevalent use in the field of second language acquisition in terms of developing process-oriented syllabi and designing communicative tasks to promote learners‟ actual language use In many Asian countries, educational policies and national curricula devised for English Language Teaching (ELT) in the past ten years have adopted communicative and task-based language teaching National curricula and ministry of education policies in countries including China (Hu, 2005; Zhang, 2007), Taiwan (Sung, 2005), and Hong Kong (Carless, 2007) specify that task-based approaches to teaching English should be used at all levels of the curricula In Vietnam, the newly documented English language curriculum was promulgated by Ministry of Education and Training (MOET) and institutionalized in 2006 According to MOET, the curriculum adopts two currently popular teaching approaches, i.e the learner - centred approach and the communicative approach with a focus on TBLT as the leading methodology While educational policy in Asia heavily favours TBLT and other communicative, holistic approaches to language teaching, a large body of classroom-based research on current teaching in Asia indicates that these policies have not always been implemented thoroughly or consistently Research conducted across East Asian contexts has suggested that curricular policies have had limited overall impact on English language teaching, which remains traditional with an explicit grammar-teaching focus ( Hu, 2005; Carless, 2007; Zhang, 2007) Why is there a gap between government curricular innovations and the practice in actual classrooms? I believe teachers play a key role in the success or failure of a planned innovation, which is shared with Nunan (1989) and Carless (2001), because they are the executive decision makers in the actual setting in which the intended innovation is to be realized- the classroom It is important that the knowledge and attitudes of teachers regarding the innovation (here TBLT) should be taken into account before, during and after the implementation phase This means that their opinions need to be reported and their voices heard While there are some studies on teacher attitudes towards, and beliefs about TBLT (Carless, 2003; Jeon & Hahn, 2006), there has been little research into how teachers implement it in their actual classrooms Little research has come to light with regard to English language teachers in Vietnam, apart from a small-scale study carried out by Canh & Barnard (2009) For these reasons, I undertook a case study of an upper-secondary school English teachers‟ understandings of, attitudes towards and implementation of TBLT in Vietnam Aims of the Study Teachers are frequently required to implement pedagogic innovations developed by external agents who may or may not be familiar with the teachers‟ viewpoints or the specific classroom context in which the innovation is to be implemented If teachers‟ views are not sufficiently taken account of, the already challenging nature of implementing something new may be exacerbated (Carless, 2003) Thus, the aim of the paper is to provide an investigation of the beliefs and the understandings of a small number of language teachers and a picture of how the three teachers tried to come to terms with the implementation of a task-based pedagogic innovation and what factors had an impact on the process Research Questions The paper seeks to answer the following research questions: What are teachers‟ understandings of, and attitudes towards TBLT? To what extent the teachers implement TBLT in their actual classrooms? What factors impact on the implementation of TBLT? Scope of the Study The study was conducted in a micro setting in Vietnam, focusing on only three teachers at Yen Phong Upper-Secondary School No It is within this minor thesis space that the study is located with exploration of the attitudes, the understandings and the practices of TBLT of a small number of language teachers Although the data focuses on a small sample of teachers, it seems likely that the findings can still illuminate some issues of the implementation of TBLT that other teachers working in similar contexts may encounter Methodology of the Study Given the complexity of understanding the ongoing process of realized innovation, the adoption of a qualitative case study approach seemed particularly suitable Since this approach „enable the development of an understanding of the phenomenon from the teacher‟s view‟ (Carless, 2001, p 266) This study employed qualitative data collection instruments which included semi-structured interview, class observation (field notes) and post-observation interviews The semi-structured interview was conducted with some guided questions The interviewees were given the guided questions beforehand in the form of a handout for better preparation of ideas and thoughts The class observation enabled me to investigate what the teachers actually did in the classroom Field notes were made use of to observe all skills and language focus lessons Post-observation interviews were employed to provide triangulated data They focused on critical issues arising from the observed lessons Significance of the Study The results of this study are important in the following aspects: First, they partly indicate that curricular policies promoting the use of TBLT at the national level not automatically translate into the use of TBLT in actual English language classrooms Second, they highlight the need to bridge the gap between what is intended by teaching innovation designers and what is actually implemented by classroom teachers Third, they suggest that teachers in Vietnam need to make further efforts to develop and generate, within task-based approach, classroom techniques appropriate to their conditions Organization of the Study The study is organized in three parts Part A Part A is the introduction which provides a brief overview of the study with more details of the rationale, the aims, the scope, the research methodology, the research questions, the significance of the study as well as the organization of the study Part B Part B, the Development, consists of four chapters Chapter reviews the literature in TBLT This chapter presents the theoretical background of the thesis which contains four main points: background to TBLT, definitions of Tasks and TBLT, characteristics of TBLT and theoretical frameworks of TBLT implementation Chapter namely methodology, focuses on the fitness of case study to the research purpose, research questions, context of the study (New English curriculum, the case, participants) instruments, data collection procedures, data analysis procedure Chapter Findings, presents and illustrates my findings from interview and observation data Chapter Part C Discussion, provides an interpretation of the results Part C, the Conclusion, is devoted to summarize major findings and discussion, present pedagogical implications and limitations of the study and provide suggestions for further studies Chapter 1: Literature Review There is a wide literature on Task-Based Language Teaching, but as Candlin (2001) observes, there is a lack of empirical research on TBLT in school foreign language contexts Particularly, how teachers implement the innovation in pedagogy is an important area which does not receive sufficient attention In this part, I will review the literature on TBLT implementation Specifically, definitions of tasks and TBLT, characteristics of TBLT and theoretical frameworks of TBLT implementation will be reviewed Additionally, the studies carried out to date will be revised to identify issues emerging in the implementation of TBLT which might occur in our own teaching and learning contexts Due to the limit of a minor thesis paper, only some studies associated with implementing TBLT in Asian contexts are analysed 1.1 What is Task-Based Language Teaching? In this section, the background to TBLT, definitions of task and TBLT, the distinction between tasks and exercises and the characteristics of TBLT are presented 1.1.1 Background to Task-Based Language Teaching Task-Based Language Teaching , also called Task-Based Instruction (TBI) which has attracted the attention of second language acquisition researchers, curriculum developers, educationalists, teachers trainers, and language teachers worldwide can be seen as both a refinement of Communicative Language Teaching (CLT) as well as a reaction to the use of form-focused models such as Presentation- Practice- Production (PPP) Critics of PPP claim that it fails to meet an essential requirement of CLT, which is to treat language „primarily as a tool for communicating rather than as an object for study or manipulation‟ (Ellis, 2003, p 9) Thus, TBLT has the substantial implication that language learning is a developmental process promoting communication and social interaction rather than a product acquired by practicing language items, and that learners learn the target language more effectively when they are naturally exposed to meaningful task-based activities Such a view of language learning led to the development of various task-based approaches in the 1980s (Breen, 1987; Candlin & Murphy, 1987; Nunan, 1989; Prabhu, 1987), and during the 1990s, has developed into a detailed practical framework for the communicative classroom in which 37 the innovation (in this case TBLT) to “creative co-construction” in which the stakeholders adopt and localize the principal elements of the innovation Between these two ends of the spectrum are differing degrees of compliance with the innovation While schools and teachers may not explicitly reject government level policies, they may nevertheless choose to minimally adopt selective elements of the innovation, with relatively little change to their current pedagogical practices (Jeon & Hahn, 2006; Canh & Barnard, 2009) Expecting teachers to comply with a top-down introduction of new materials or strategies without taking steps to provide for an appropriate change in beliefs, results in mere lip service (Hu, 2002) and surface change (Fullan, 1993) behind the closed doors of classrooms Carless (2007) suggested TBLT may need to be culturally situated to accommodate local cultures in order to be accepted and enacted From the interview data, and from what can be reasonably inferred from the observed lessons, the learners struggled to understand and use English, and seemed to lack any motivation for communicative competence (Canh & Barnard, 2009) Instead, they were likely to be motivated mainly by the requirements of tests and examinations (Carless, 2007; Littlewood, 2007) In a teaching and learning culture, where learners not have any incentive for developing communicative competence, teacher performance is measured by learner tests, and examinations test knowledge rather than skills, teachers will understandably feel the need to tailor their teaching to such examinations (Ellis, 2009) When non-communicative testing remains the norm of assessment, appeals for communicative teaching remain rhetorical (Gorsuch, 2000; Nunan, 2003; Littlewood, 2007) 38 PART C: Conclusion Summary of the Major Findings This study offers an investigation of the attitudes towards, the understandings of and a picture of TBLT implementation of three Vietnamese high school teachers The findings in this study indicated that the teachers under investigation exhibited a vague understanding of the TBLT All the three teachers were generally inclined towards TBLT, but there were sometimes contradictions between these positive assertions and other interview extracts and the classroom data The vast number of their claims and their practices confirms their adoption of traditional methods in their actual classrooms When it comes to the level of practice, teachers often encountered many difficulties The desire to implement TBLT conflicted with many contextual factors These factors range from systemic constraints such as grammar-based examinations, large class sizes, time pressure to personal constraints such as students‟ low motivation and unequal ability to take part in independent active learning practices, and even to teachers‟ limited expertise in creating communicative activities Pedagogical Implications The present study has provided some useful insights into the understandings of, the attitudes towards, and the implementation of TBLT of a small number of teachers It has been useful to note that the findings in the current study are not substantially dissimilar from those reported in the studies that have been carried out with other Asian teachers of English This has implications for teachers of English, teacher trainers and education administrators With regard to the teachers, the study implies that for TBLT to work, teachers need to have a clear understanding of what a task is and to be made aware of the purpose and rationale for performing tasks Given the research finding that teachers lack practical application knowledge of task-based methods or techniques, teachers should be given the opportunity to acquire knowledge about TBLT related to planning, implementing, and assessing The study also provides an opportunity for them to consider the extent to which the same constrains to the implementation of TBLT might occur in their own teaching and learning contexts 39 Concerning teacher-trainers, the study has significance for the call for change in preservice teacher education TBLT should not be lectured about but demonstrated Novice teachers should have opportunities to get hands-on experience and gain confidence in using TBLT More importantly, preservice teacher education should focus on developing student teacher‟s autonomy, their decision-making, problem-solving abilities as well as their ability to be reflective practioners This in turn suggests to education administrators that professional development programmes for language teachers should be an appropriate balance between what is argued from theoretical positions and indicated from empirical studies in other contexts with the accrued wisdom of teachers who actually make executive decisions in their classroom In short, teacher development should be a locally co-constructed collegial endeavour and not a process of top-down imposition of „expert‟ ideas drawn from elsewhere Moreover, to facilitate TBLT, in the design and implementation of curricular and textbooks, greater attention needs to be paid to the contextual knowledge and understanding that teachers bring to the task and to the beliefs they hold as a result of their experience Last but not least, there is a need to reform the testing system The traditional test can be changed to be more criterion-referenced to test grammar, vocabulary and reading skills more communicatively Unless students are tested in terms of skills to use the language communicatively, rather than a good memory of language rules, testing cannot provide any positive impact on teaching Limitations of the Study The present study reached just one case That is a small number of high school teachers at Yen Phong high school Thus, no firm generalisations can be inferred from the study However, similar case may show similar results The lessons were intended to be video-recorded but constraints of time and access did not permit Such video-recorded lessons would have been extremely valuable for careful analysis with full accounts of intonation, other paralinguistic cues and non-verbal activities Classroom observation were conducted in a short period of time (three weeks), which may exhibit the dangers of one-off display lessons not typical of regular teaching Thus, it was suggested that observing successive lessons at different stages of the academic year minimise this danger 40 Suggestions for Further Studies The findings of the study are more suggestive of possible future directions for research on this topic For instance, future studies might focus on how to support and assist teachers in the implementation of TBLT Evidently, further empirical research needs to be carried out to explore the attitudes of students as well as their teachers in order to see the extent to which their respective views coincide Therefore, to develop a more comprehensive picture of the implementation of TBLT in Vietnamese settings, large-scale studies, using multiple methods of data collection, or doing cross-case study, are needed 41 References Bassy, M (1999) Case Study Research in Educational Settings Buckingham: Open University Press Bogdan, R., & Biklen, S K (1992) Qualitative research for education: An introduction to theory and methods London: Allyn & Bacon Burrows, C (2008) An evaluation of task-based learning (TBL) in the Japanese classroom English Today, 24(4), 11-16 Burrows, C (2008) Socio-cultural barriers facing TBL in Japan The Language Teacher, 32(8), 15-19 Butler, Y G (2005) Comparative perspectives toward communicative activities among elementary school teachers in South Korea, Japan and Taiwan Language Teaching Research, 9, 423-446 Candlin, C (2001) Afterword: Taking the Curriculum to Task: In: Bygate, M., Skehand, P., Swain, M (Eds.), Researching pedagogic Tasks: Second Language Learning, Teaching and Testing Longman, Harlow Canh, L V., & Barnard, R (2009) Curricular innovation behind closed classroom doors: A Vietnamese case study An Australian Journal of TESOL, 24(2), 20-33 Carless, D (2001) A case study of curriculum implementation in Hong Kong In D R Hall & A Hewings (Eds.), Innovation in English language teaching: A reader (pp 263-274) London: Routledge in association with Macquarie University and The Open University Carless, D (2002) Implementing task-based learning with young learners English Language Teaching Journal, 56(4), 389-396 Carless, D (2003) Factors in the implementation of task-based teaching in primary schools System, 31, 485-500 Carless, D (2004) Issues in teachers' reinterpretation of a task-based innovation in Primary Schools TESOL Quarterly, 38(4), 693-662 Carless, D (2007) The suitability of task-based approaches for secondary schools: Perspectives from Hongkong System, 35, 595-608 Chao, J C., & Wu, A M (2008) A study of task-based learning and teaching in a large EFL class Saarbruken: Verlag Dr Muller Chow, A K W., & Mok-Cheung, A H M (2004) English language teaching in Hong Kong 42 SAR: Tradition, transition, and transformation In H W Kam & R Y L Wong (Eds), Language policies and language education: The impact in East Asian countries in the next decade Time Academic Press, 150-177 Clark, J., Lo, Y C., Hui, M F., Kam, M., Carless, D., & Wong, P (1999) An investigation into the development and implementation of the TOC initiative with special reference to professional competencies, professional development and resources: Final report Hong Kong: The Hong Kong Institute of Education Cortazzi M., & Jin, L (2001) Large classes in China: "Good" teachers and interaction In Watkins & J B Biggs (Eds.), Teaching the Chinese learner: Psychological and pedagogical perspectives (pp 115-116) Melbourne: Australian Council for Educational Research Cortazzi, M., & Jin, L (1996) English teaching and learning in China Language Teaching, 29(2), 61-80 Ellis, R (2003) Task-Based Language Learning and Teaching Oxford: Oxford University Press Ellis, R (2009) Task-based language teaching: sorting out the misunderstandings International Journal of Applied Linguistics, 19(3), 221-246 Fullan, M (1993) Change forces: Probing the depths of educational reform London: Falmer Press Goetz, J P., & Lecompte, M D (1984) Ethnography and qualitative design in education research New York: Academic Press Gosush, G J (2000) EFL educational policies and educational cultures: Influences on teachers' approval of communicative activities TESOL Quarterly, 37, 675-710 Harmer, J (2009) Doing Task-based Teaching: Tasks in Second Language Learning ELT Journal, 63(2), 173-176 Hu, G (2005) English language education in China: Policies, progress, and problems Language Policy, 4, 5-24 Jeon, I., & Hahn, J (2006) EFL teachers' perception of task-based language teaching: A case study of Korean secondary school classroom practice Asian EFL Journal, 8, 192-206 Karavas-Doukas, E (1996) Using attitude scales to investigate teachers' attitudes to the communicative approach ELT Journal, 50(3), 187-198 Li, D F (1998) " It's always more difficult than you plan and imagine": Teachers' perceived 43 difficulties in introducing the communicative approach in South Korea TESOL Quarterly, 32, 677-703 Littlewood, W (2004) The task-based approaches English Language Teaching Journal, 58(4), 319-326 Littlewood, W (2007) Communicative and task-based language teaching in East Asian classrooms Language Teaching, 40, 243-249 Long, M H., & Crookes, G (1992) Three approaches to task-based syllabus design TESOL Quarterly, 26, 27-56 Mc Donough, J., & Mc Donough, S (2005) Research Method for ELT London: Arnold MOET (2006) Chuong trinh giao duc thong: Mon tieng Anh [ English curriculum for the secondary school] Hanoi, Vietnam: Education Publishing House Nunan, D (1989) Designing Tasks for the Commuincative Classroom Cambridge: Cambridge University Press Nunan, D (1999) Second language teaching and learning Boston, MA: Heinle & Heinle Powney, J., & Watts, M (1987) Interviewing in educational research London: Routledge Prabhu, N S (1987) Second Language Pedagogy Oxford: Oxford University Press Richards, J & T Rogers (2001) Approaches and Methods in Language Teaching Cambridge: Cambridge University Press Rushch, E., & Perry, E (1999) Resistance to change: an alternative story International Journal of Educational Reform, 8(3), 285-300 Samuda, V., & Bygate, M (2008) Tasks in Second Language Learning Houndsmills, Hampshire: Palgrave Macmillan Seedhouse, P (1999) Task-based interaction ELT Journal, 53, 149-156 Seedhouse, P (2005) 'Task" as research construct Language Learning, 55(3), 533-570 Shreen, R (1994) A critical analysis of the advocacy of the task-based syllabus TESOL Quartely, 28, 127-151 Shreen, R (2003) Focus -on-form: A myth in the making ELT Journal, 57, 225-233 Shrim, R (2001) Teaching English through movies: How to it the communicative way STEM journal, 2(2), 129-154 Skehan, P (1996) A framework for the implementaion of task-based instruction Applied Linguistics, 17(1), 38-62 Skehan, P (1998a) Cognitive Approach to Language Learning Oxford: Oxford University 44 Press Sung, C M (2005) An action research for communicative English teaching implemented in an elementary school: An example of fourth graders Journal of National Taipei University of Education, 18, 267-296 Swan, M (2005) Legislating by hypothesis: The case of task-based instruction Applied Linguistics, 26, 376-401 Tinker Sachs, G (2007) The challenges of adopting and adapting task-based cooperative teaching and learning in an EFL context In K Van den Branden, K van Gorp & M Verhelst (Eds.) In Tasks in action: Task-based language education from a classroombased perspective (pp 253-264) Newcastle: Cambridge Scholars Press Van, H V., Hoa, H.T.X., Loc, D N., Loi, V.T., Minh, D T., & Tuan, N Q (2006) Tieng Anh 10, Teacher's book Hanoi, Vietnam: Education Publishing House Widdowson, H (2003) Pedagogic Design In defining issues in English language teaching Oxford: Oxford Universtity Press Willis, D., & Willis, J (2001) Task-based language learning In R Carter and D Nunan (Eds.), The Cambridge Guide to Teaching English to Speakers of Other Languages Cambridge: Cambridge University Press Willis, D., & Willis, J (2007) Doing task-based teaching Oxford: Oxford University Press Willis, D., & Willis, J (2009) Task-based language teaching: some questions and answers The Language Teacher, 33(3), 3-8 Willis, J (1996) A Framework for Task-based Learning Harlow: Longman Young, R., & Lee, S (1987) EFL curriculum innovation and teachers' attitudes In : Lord, R & Cheng, N H L (Eds.), Language and Education in Hong Kong: Chinese University Press, Hong Kong Zhang, E Y (2007) TBLT innovation in primary school English language teaching in mainland China In K Van den Branden, K Van Gorp & M Verhelst (Eds.), Tasks in action: Task-based language education from a classroom-based perspective (pp 6891) Newcastle: Cambridge Scholars Press 45 References Bassy, M (1999) Case Study Research in Educational Settings: Open University Press, Buckingham Burrows, C (2008) An evaluation of task-based learning (TBL) in the Japanese classroom English Today, 24(4), 11-16 Burrows, C (2008) Socio-cultural barriers facing TBL in Japan The Language Teacher, 32(8), 15-19 Butler, Y G (2005) Comparative perspectives toward communicative activities among elementary school teachers in South Korea, Japan and Taiwan Language Teaching Research, 9, 423-446 Candlin, C (2001) Afterword: Taking the Curriculum to Task: In: Bygate, M., Skehand, P., Swain, M (Eds.) Researching pedagogic Tasks: Second Language Learning, Teaching and Testing: Longman, Harlow Canh, L V., & Barnard, R (2009) Curricular innovation behind closed classroom doors: A Vietnamese case study An Australian Journal of TESOL, 24(2), 20-33 Carless, D (2001) A case study of curriculum implementation in Hong Kong In D R Hall & A Hewings (Eds.).Innovation in English language teaching: A reader (pp 263-274) London: Routledge in association with Macquarie University and The Open University Carless, D (2002) Implementing task-based learning with young learners English Language Teaching Journal, 56(4), 389-396 Carless, D (2003) Factors in the implementation of task-based teaching in primary schools System, 31, 485-500 Carless, D (2004) Issues in teachers' reinterpretation of a task-based innovation in Primary Schools TESOL Quarterly, 38(4), 693-662 Carless, D (2007) The suitability of task-based approaches for secondary schools: Perspectives from Hongkong System, 35, 595-608 Chao, J C., & Wu, A M (2008) A study of task-based learning and teaching in a large EFL class Saarbruken: Verlag Dr Muller vi Chow, A K W., & Mok-Cheung, A H M (2004) English language teaching in Hong Kong SAR: Tradition, transition, and transformation In H W Kam & R Y L Wong (Eds), Language policies and language education: The impact in East Asian countries in the next decade Time Academic Press, 150-177 Clark, J., Lo, Y C., Hui, M F., Kam, M., Carless, D., & Wong, P (1999) An investigation into the development and implementation of the TOC initiative with special reference to professional competencies, professional development and resources: Final report Hong Kong: The Hong Kong Institute of Education Cortazzi M., & Jin, L (2001) Large classes in China: "Good" teachers and interaction In Watkins & J B Biggs (Eds.), teaching the Chinese learner: Psychological and pedagogical perspectives (pp 115-116) Melbourne: Australian Council for Educational Research Cortazzi, M., & Jin, L (1996) English teaching and learning in China Language Teaching, 29(2), 61-80 Ellis, R (2003) Task-Based Language Learning and Teaching Oxford: Oxford University Press Ellis, R (2009) Task-based language teaching: sorting out the misunderstandings International Journal of Applied Linguistics, 19(3), 221-246 Fullan, M (1993) Change forces: Probing the depths of educational reform London: Falmer Press Gosush, G J (2000) EFL educational policies and educational cultures: Influences on teachers' approval of communicative activities TESOL Quarterly, 37, 675-710 Harmer, J (2009) Doing Task-based Teaching: Tasks in Second Language Learning ELT Journal, 63(2), 173-176 Hu, G (2005) English language education in China: Policies, progress, and problems Language Policy, 4, 5-24 Jeon, I., & Hahn, J (2006) EFL teachers' perception of task-based language teaching: A case study of Korean secondary school classroom practice Asian EFL Journal, 8, 192-206 vii Karavas-Doukas, E (1996) Using attitude scales to investigate teachers' attitudes to the communicative approach ELT Journal, 50(3), 187-198 Li, D F (1998) " It's always more difficult than you plan and imagine": Teachers' perceived difficulties in introducing the communicative approach in South Korea TESOL Quarterly, 32, 677-703 Littlewood, W (2004) The task-based approaches English Language Teaching Journal, 58(4), 319-326 Littlewood, W (2007) Communicative and task-based language teaching in East Asian classrooms Language Teaching, 40, 243-249 Long, M H C., G (1992) Three approaches to task-based syllabus design TESOL Quarterly, 26, 27-56 Mc Donough, J., & Mc Donough, S (2005) Research Method for ELT London: Arnold MOET (2006) Chuong trinh giao duc thong: Mon tieng Anh [ English curriculum for the secondary school] Hanoi, Vietnam: Education Publishing House Nunan, D (1989) Designing Tasks for the Commuincative Classroom Cambridge: Cambridge University Press Nunan, D (1999) Second language teaching and learning Boston, MA: Heinle & Heinle Prabhu, N S (1987) Second Language Pedagogy Oxford: Oxford University Press Richards, J & T Rogers (2001) Approaches and Methods in Language Teaching Cambridge: Cambridge University Press Rushch, E., & Perry, E (1999) Resistance to change: an alternative story International Journal of Educational Reform, 8(3), 285-300 Samuda, V., & Bygate, M (2008) Tasks in Second Language Learning Houndsmills, Hampshire: Palgrave Macmillan Seedhouse, P (1999) Task-based interaction ELT Journal, 53, 149-156 Seedhouse, P (2005) 'Task" as research construct Language Learning, 55(3), 533-570 Shreen, R (1994) A critical analysis of the advocacy of the task-based syllabus TESOL Quartely, 28, 127-151 viii Shreen, R (2003) Focus -on-form: A myth in the making ELT Journal, 57, 225-233 Shrim, R (2001) Teaching English through movies: How to it the communicative way STEM journal, 2(2), 129-154 Skehan, P (1996) A framework for the implementaion of task-based instruction Applied Linguistics, 17(1), 38-62 Skehan, P (1998a) Cognitive Approach to Language Learning Oxford: Oxford University Press Sung, C M (2005) An action research for communicative English teaching implemented in an elementary school: An example of fourth graders Journal of National Taipei University of Education, 18, 267-296 Swan, M (2005) Legislating by hypothesis: The case of task-based instruction Applied Linguistics, 26, 376-401 Tinker Sachs, G (2007) The challenges of adopting and adapting task-based cooperative teaching and learning in an EFL context In K Van den Branden, K van Gorp & M Verhelst (Eds.) In Tasks in action: Task-based language education from a classroom-based perspective (pp 253-264) Newcastle: Cambridge Scholars Press Van, H V., Hoa, H.T.X., Loc, D N., Loi, V.T., Minh, D T., & Tuan, N Q (2006) Tieng Anh 10, Teacher's book Hanoi, Vietnam: Education Publishing House Widdowson, H (2003) Pedagogic Design In defining issues in English language teaching Oxford: Oxford Universtity Press Willis, D., & Willis, J (2001) Task-based language learning In R Carter and D Nunan (Eds.) The Cambridge Guide to Teaching English to Speakers of Other Languages Cambridge: Cambridge University Press Willis, D., & Willis, J (2007) Doing task-based teaching Oxford: Oxford University Press Willis, D., & Willis, J (2009) Task-based language teaching: some questions and answers The Language Teacher, 33(3), 3-8 Willis, J (1996) A Framework for Task-based Learning Harlow: Longman Young, R., & Lee, S (1987) EFL curriculum innovation and teachers' attitudes In : Lord, ix R & Cheng, N H L (Eds.) 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I ...VIETNAM NATIONAL UNIVERSITY, HANOI UNIVERSITY OF LANGUAGES AND INTERNATIONAL STUDIES FACULTY OF POST- GRADUATE STUDIES NGUYỄN THỊ KĂN The Implementation of Task-based Language Teaching: A Case Study. .. need in the target language All they need is a sufficiently good knowledge of grammar and vocabulary of the target language to pass the national grammar-based examinations 2.4 Participants To... (2004) The task-based approaches English Language Teaching Journal, 58(4), 319-326 Littlewood, W (2007) Communicative and task-based language teaching in East Asian classrooms Language Teaching,