metaphors used in inaugural addresses made by the us presidents = ẩn dụ trong các bài phát biểu nhậm chức của các tổng thống mỹ

The classical cognitive metaphor theory by Lakoff and Johnson ……… 1.3.1.. Components of conceptual metaphor According to Lakoff and Johnson, metaphor is seen as a cognitive mechanism w

ViETNAM NATIONAL UNIVERSITY , hANOI UNIVERSITY OF LANGUAGES ANDINTERNATIONAL STUDIES

FACULTY OF POSTGRADUATE STUDIES

MINOR M.A THESIS

Field : English Linguistics Code: 60 22 15

Supervisor: Dr Hà Cẩm Tâm

Hanoi - 2011

TABLE OF CONTENTS

Declaration ……… i

Acknowledgement ……… ii

Abstract ……… iii

Abbreviations used in the thesis ……… iv

Table of contents……… v

PART A: INTRODUCTION 1 Rationale ……… 1

2 Aims of the study……… ………

3 Scope of the study………

4 Methods of the study ………

5 Design of the study………

PART B: DEVELOPMENT Chapter 1: Theoretical background 1.1 The simile theory by Aristotle ………

1.2 The interaction theory by I.A Richard and Max Black ………

1.3 The classical cognitive metaphor theory by Lakoff and Johnson ………

1.3.1 What is metaphor? ………

1.3.2 The nature of conceptual metaphor………

1.3.3 Components of conceptual metaphor………

13.4 Classification of conceptual metaphor………

1.3.4.1 Ontological metaphor………

1.3.4.1.1 Container metaphor ………

1.3.4.1.2 Substance metaphor ………

1.3.4.1.3 Entity metaphor ………

1.3.4.2 Orientational metaphor………

1.3.4.3 Structural metaphor ………

Chapter 2: The study 2.1 Research Questions………

2.2 Data collection …… ………

2.3 Analytical framework………

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2.4 Data analysis and discussion ………….………

2.4.1 Ontological metaphors ………

2 4 2 Structural metaphors ………

2.4.3 Orientational metaphors ………

PART C: CONCLUSION 1 Major findings ………

2 Implications ………….………

3 Suggestion for further studies………

REFERENCES………

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APPENDIX I

APPENDIX II

APPENDIX III

APPENDIX IV

ABBREVIATIONS USED IN THE THESIS

Sub Met: Substance metaphor

Ent Met: Entity metaphor

Con Met: Container metaphor

per./ Per Met : personification metaphor

Obj Met : As object metaphor

of metaphor is one of the most prominent tools for persuasion and an effective instrument for propaganda in political language The president‘s inaugural addresses are delivered to show the president‘s responsibility for the people‘s desires and demands, to gain the people‘s support for the new government Therefore, presidents have to use rhetorical strategies to convince their citizens and metaphor is one of the rhetorical strategies which are found to be commonly used in inaugural addresses Thus, I would like to conduct a study on the use of metaphor in inaugural addresses made by the US presidents to find out what types of metaphor are commonly used and how effective they are

2 Aims of the study

This study was conducted to fulfill the following aims:

- to provide knowledge about conceptual metaphor from Lakoff and Johnson‘s perspective

- to investigate the use of conceptual metaphor in inaugural addresses made by the US presidents and the implicit emotional influence of these metaphors on the audience

These aims of the study were achieved via the following research question: What types of conceptual metaphors are used in inaugural addresses made by the US presidents?

3 Scope of the study

Within this paper, I would like to focus my attention on theories of metaphor Cognitive theory about metaphor developed by Lakoff and Johnson will be presented

in details in terms of definition, nature, components and classification Then four inaugural addresses made by George H W Bush (1989), William Bill Clinton

(1993), George W Bush (2001) and Barak Obama (2009) are analyzed using Lakoff and Johnson‘s theory to find out typical conceptual metaphors in these speeches

4 Methods of the study

A combination of both descriptive and explanatory methods was applied to carry out this study These two methods were used to collect data different books and other sources available, describe the collected information and analyze the inaugural addresses The study was conducted as follows:

Firstly, data was collected from different books, websites about metaphor in English

Secondly, the collected information was synthesized and categorized

Finally, the inaugural addresses were analyzed in terms of metaphor

5 Design of the study

This study consists of three parts Part A, entitled ―INTRODUCTION‖, presents the rationale, aims, scope, methods and design of the study Part B, entitled

―DEVELOPMENT‖ comprises two main chapters Chapter 1 deals with theoretical background of the study including different theories of metaphor Chapter 2 presents the study of conceptual metaphors used in four inaugural addresses, possible emotional effect the used metaphors may have on the audience Part C Conclusion focuses on major findings, implications and suggestions for further studies

PART B: DEVELOPMENT

CHAPTER 1: THEORITICAL BACKGROUND

1.1 The simile theory by Aristotle

Aristotle‘s theory about metaphor is said to be the oldest theory until recently The word metaphor in Greek meant "carry across" or "transfer", and is normally used to refer to the method of comparing two different items based on resemblance or similarity From Aristotle‘s point of view, metaphor is based on ―seeing resemblances‖ in things According to Aristotle, metaphor is defined as a ―transfer of a name belonging elsewhere‖ (cited in Michiel Leesenberg, 2001:33) Here Aristotle limits metaphorical expressions to words or even single noun ―a name‖ Metaphor is merely a substitute for some other expressions, which expresses the same ―cognitive content‖ if it is literally used ―Thing‖ here refers not only to physical objects but also to any topic or thought ―Name‖ here cannot be used in the sense of proper or common names but must be understood as any sign

Additionally, Aristotle privileges metaphor as the more generic figure of speech and states that simile is actually the longer form of metaphor In other words, metaphors are ―compressed‖ or ―abbreviated‖ similes Therefore, the meaning of a metaphor is identified with that of the corresponding simile As a result, metaphor ―A is B‖ is understood as ―A is like B‖

In general, the theory of metaphor by Aristotle has both intuitive and methodological motivations First, it seems that some sorts of comparisons are made in metaphor Furthermore, this theory seems to account for our conflicting intuit ions about metaphor‘s truth values For example, the sentence ― Mary is a rose‖ is false if it is literally interpreted because ―Mary‖ – a person- is clearly not a rose, but the simile that gives the sentence‘s metaphorical meaning is true : ―Mary is like a rose‖ To some extent, this theory explains the meaningfulness of metaphor

However, we cannot either describe with certainty Aristotle‘s theory as either semantic (i.e., involving words and their meaning) or pragmatic (i.e., involving the use of language) Significantly, his definition of metaphor does not involve ‗referents‖ (things) or

―meanings‖ (concepts) On his view, metaphors just involve a relocation of words, and his

definition does not yet yield any precise doctrine as to how the interpretation of metaphor works

1.2 The interaction theory by I.A Richard and Max Black

The interaction theory of metaphor is one of the earliest modern alternatives to the simile theory by Aristotle By this theory, two authors mean that metaphor does not only express similarities but also creates similarities The traditional rhetoric considers metaphor in word level On the contrary, metaphor is considered existing at sentence level

in this theory More importantly, metaphor is seen as a cognitive phenomenon rather than

a purely rhetorical device This cognitive phenomenon is made by the interaction between different cognitive systems This theory will be discussed in details as following

I.A Richards is the first person to develop the interaction model of metaphor In his book ―The philosophy of rhetoric‖ (1936), he indicates that metaphor is a cognitive phenomenon that works not on the level of word combination but it arises from the interactions between the conceptual structures underlying words Metaphor is considered a cognitive phenomenon involving concepts In this theory, metaphor is moved from word level to level of concepts Moreover, the meanings of concepts are traded to each other Specifically, two concepts can be combined to create a concept without changing the original concepts if they are literally used but if they are metaphorically used, they form a new concept For example, in the literal language ―good‖ and ‗marriage‖ are combined to form the new concept ‗good marriage‖ which conveys the meaning of both original concepts In contrast, in the metaphorical language ―nightmare‖ and ―marriage‘ are combined to form a new concept ―nightmare marriage‖ which means ―marriage as nightmare‖

These views of Richards are further developed by Max Black According to Max Black, metaphor is not an isolated item but it is considered a sentence A metaphorical sentence involves two subjects which are identified as the principal and the secondary The primary subject is the frame which is the literal surrounding The secondary (the metaphor) entails the focus-a system of associated commonplaces of the metaphorical word The secondary subject (the metaphor) connects a system of associated commonplaces (or a system of associated stereotyped information) to the frame which is the primary subject

The metaphoric interaction between the focus and frame will be more clarified in the following diagram

METAPHORICAL MEANING OF SENTENCE

To sum up, this theory offers three new points Firstly, metaphor creates similarities Secondly, metaphor is considered to possess ―cognitive content‖ existing at sentence level Finally, this cognitive content is produced by the ―interaction‖ between different cognitive systems By this theory, metaphors are proved to function as powerful cognitive tools However, there are still some problems with this theory This theory is criticized for its analysis in terms of ‗interaction‖ and ‗filter‖, which are also metaphors; therefore, it does not solve the problem

1.3 The classical cognitive metaphor theory by Lakoff and Johnson

1.3.1 What is metaphor?

George Lakoff and Mark Johnson claim that metaphor is primarily an issue of conceptualization Metaphors are defined as ―mappings across conceptual domains‖ in which ‗the image- schemata structure of the source domain is projected onto the target domain in a way that is consistent with inherent target domain structure‖ (Lakoff, 1993:245) In other words, metaphor allows one to understand a relatively abstract and unstructured subject matter in terms of a more concrete and structured subject matter through image- schemata In ―Metaphors We Live By‖ by Lakoff and Johnson (1980) metaphor is seen as a process by which we conceive ―one thing in terms of another and its primary function is understanding‖ In fact, metaphor is considered the interaction between

a source domain and a target domain in the conceptual process rather than the interaction

(secondary subject)

)

Interact

between two words only Thus, metaphor from the perspective of Lakoff and Johnson is also called conceptual metaphor

1.3.2 The nature of conceptual metaphor

From a number of their works about metaphor, two crucial points can be drawn First, they claim that metaphors are pervasive everywhere Secondly, they figure out that metaphors are based on our bodily experience

First of all, metaphors are proved to be pervasive everywhere At that time, metaphors were seen as a matter of language but not of thoughts Thus, metaphoric expressions are assumed to be outside the domain of ordinary everyday language However, Lakoff realizes that metaphor does not only exist in poetry but we use them all the time and use them in a far more encompassing manner Metaphors are a part of everyday language, integral and important to understanding because ―most of our ordinary conceptual system is metaphorical in nature‖ (Lakoff and Johnson, 1980:4) ―Metaphor is a tool so ordinary that we sue it unconsciously and automatically, with so little effort that we hardly notice it……….It is conventional Metaphor is an integral part of our everyday thought and language‖ (Lakoff and Turner, 1989: xi) Obviously, metaphor is pervasive and people use metaphors without noticing it

Secondly, metaphor is claimed to be based on embodied human experience We make sense of less directly apprehensible experiences on the basis of more directly apprehensible experiences From cognitive perspective, language is not structured arbitrarily It is motivated and grounded more or less directly in experience, in our bodily physical, social, and cultural experiences Mental and linguistic categories are abstract, disembodied People create them on the basis of their concrete experiences and under the constraints imposed by their bodies For example, the conceptual metaphor ―AFFECTION

IS WARMTH‖ is created on the basis of our childhood experiences between the loving embrace of our parents and the comforting bodily warmth that accompany it

1.3.3 Components of conceptual metaphor

According to Lakoff and Johnson, metaphor is seen as a cognitive mechanism whereby one conceptual domain is partially mapped onto a different conceptual domain

The second domain is partially understood in terms of the first one with the linguistic metaphor deriving from those domains

The domain that is mapped is called the source domain/ donor domain

The domain onto which it is mapped is target domain/ recipient domain

E.g Argument is war

Argument: target domain

War: source domain

1.3.4 Classification of conceptual metaphor

Lakoff and Johnson classify metaphor into three main types including ontological, orientational and structural metaphor

1.3.4.1 Ontological metaphor

Lakoff and Johnson reasoned that ontological metaphors occurred when our experience of physical objects and substances provided a further basis for understanding This means that we understand many abstract experiences (such as events, activities, emotions and ideas) in terms of concrete substances, objects and processes Therefore, ontological metaphors involve ways of viewing intangible concepts as entities Identifying these abstract and indefinable non-entities as substances or entities make it possible too

―refer them, categorize them, group them, and quantify then- and by this means reason about them‖ (Lakoff and Johnson, 1980: 25) One thing to notice is that because most ontological metaphors are so fundamental to out thought and language, they are not often identified as metaphors anymore Therefore, for example, expressions of ontological metaphor WEALTH IS A HIDDEN OBJECT in everyday language is not considered metaphor by most people

He‘s seeking his fortune

He‘s flaunting his new found wealth

He‘s a fortune hunter

She‘s a gold digger

He lost his fortune

He‘s searching for health

As ―seek‖, ―search for‖, ―found‖, ―lost‖ are quite familiar, people do not think them

as metaphors However, they are metaphors in fact and they help us understand ―wealth‖-

an abstract concept easier and more clearly

In short, ontological metaphors help us to represent an abstract thing in terms of something concrete such as an object, substance, container or person In more details, ontological metaphor is subdivided into container metaphor, substance metaphor and entity metaphor

1.3.4.1.1 Container metaphor

Container metaphor is an ontological metaphor in which some concept is represented as

- having something inside and outside

- being capable of hiding something else

This means that non-physical objects are transformed into physical objects with define boundaries Examples of this kind of metaphor are shown in expressions of metaphor LIFE IS A CONTAINER

I‘ve had a full life

Life is empty for him

There‘s not much left for him in life

His life is scrammed with activities

Get the most out of life

His life contained a great deal of sorrow

Live your life to the fullest

1.3.4.1.2 Substance metaphor

Substance metaphor is an ontological metaphor in which an abstraction such as an event, activity, emotion or idea is represented as material substance Examples of this kind

of metaphor can be shown in expressions of metaphor VITALITY IS A SUBSTANCE

She‘s brimming with vim and vigor

She‘s overflowing with vitality

He‘s devoid of energy

I don‘t have any energy left at the end of the day

I could feel the electricity between us

There were sparks

I was magnetically drawn to her

They are uncontrollably attracted to each other

They gravitated to each other immediately

The atmosphere around them is always charged

There is incredible energy in their relationship

They lost their momentum

A subtype of entity metaphor is personification in which a thing or abstraction is represented as a person Here, human characteristics are imposed on inhuman experiences

E.g His religion tells him he can‘t drink wine

Here, religion is personified as a person who tells other people to do something

In short, ontological metaphor is a metaphor in which an abstraction such as an activity, an emotion, state or idea is represented as something concrete such as an object, substance, container or a person

1.3.4.2 Orientational metaphor

Orientational metaphor is a metaphor in which concepts are spatially related to each other Orientational metaphor organizes a whole system of concepts with respect to another Orientational metaphor explains a concept in terms of space or ―give a concept a spatial orientation‖ ( Lakoff and Johnson, 1980: 15) Most of orientational metaphors relate

to spatial orientation such as up-down, in-out, deep-shallow, on-off, central-peripheral

Orientational metaphors are not arbitrary They have a basis in our physical and cultural experience Followings are some common orientational metaphors:

E.g.1 HAPPY IS UP, SAD IS DOWN

I‘m feeling up That boosted my spirit My spirits rose You are in high spirits Thinking about her always gives me a lift

I‘m feeling down I‘m depressed He‘s really low these days I fell into depression

My spirit sank

These metaphors are created on the basis that drooping posture typically goes along with sadness and depression while erect posture often goes with a positive emotional state

E.g 2 MORE IS UP, LESS IS DOWN

The number of books printed each year keeps going up His draft number is high

My income rose last year

The amount of artistic activity in this state has gone down since last year The number of errors made by him is incredibly low His income fell last year He‘s underage

If you are too hot, turn the heat down

These metaphors are based on physical experience, that is if we add more substance

of physical subject to a container or pile the level goes up

E.g.3 CONSCIOUS IS UP, UNCONSCIOUS IS DOWN

Wake up He rises early in the morning

He fell asleep He dropped off to sleep He‘s under hypnosis He sank into a coma

The physical basis of these metaphors is that human and other mammals in general lie down when they sleep and stand up when they awaken

E.g.4 GOOD IS UP, BAD IS DOWN

Things are looking up We hit a peak last year, but it‘s been downhill ever since Things are at an all-time low He does high-quality work

The physical basis of these metaphors is that positive things are often associated with high position while negative things are often associated with low position

Although the polar oppositions are physical in nature, the orientational metaphors based on them are not always the same from culture to culture For example, in some cultures future is seen as ahead of us but it is viewed as behind us in other cultures

Lakoff and Johnson emphasize the importance of orientational metaphor ― spatialization is so essential a part of a concept that is difficult for us to imagine any alterative metaphor that might structure the concept‖ ( Lakoff and Johnson, 1980: 19)

Moreover, orientational metaphors do not simple structure our thinking about one concept but they structure our thinking about systems of concepts For example, GOOD IS

UP gives an UP orientation to general well-being, and this orientation is coherent with special cases like HAPPY IS UP, ALIVE IS UP, HEALTH IS UP, and CONROL IS UP

1.3.4.3 Structural metaphor

Structural metaphors are said to be the biggest group of metaphorical concepts They concern characterizing the structure of a concept by comparing it to the structure of another concept In other words, a structural metaphor is created when one concept is understood in terms of another structured, sharply defined concept According to Lakoff and Johnson, structural metaphors are considered the most complex type of conceptual metaphor because they require readers and hearers to transfer one basic domain of experience to another basic domain This process is called ―a cross-domain mapping in the conceptual system‖ The mapping happens between the source domain and the target domain For example, the structural metaphor LIFE IS A JOURNEY will consist of a source domain (journey) and a target domain (life) and a mapping between these domains ( the person leading a life correspond to traveler ; the life goals correspond to destinations on the journey; difficulties in life correspond to impediments to travel) Thus, the following expressions are examples of this metaphor

He‘s got a head start in life He‘s without direction in his life

I‘m where I want to be in life

I‘m at a crossroads in my life

He‘ll go places in life

He‘s never let anyone get in his way

It is said that this kind of metaphor is ―embedded in the conceptual framework of our culture‖ This mean that structural metaphors are results of how we view the world around us

In summary, Lakoff and Johnson‘s contributions play an important role in the development of cognitive theory about metaphor Their theory about conceptual metaphor has been the basis for a number of studies on metaphor An analysis of conceptual metaphors used in inaugural addresses made by the US presidents will be clearly presented

in the next chapter in the light of this theory

CHAPTER 2: THE STUDY 2.1 Research questions

The study was conducted to answer the following question:

What types of conceptual metaphors are used in inaugural addresses made by the

The analytical framework used in this study is based on classical cognitive theory

of metaphor by Lakoff and Johnson as follows

1.Ontological

metaphor

Con Met Non-physical objects

are transformed into physical objects with define boundaries

1 I‘ve had a full life

2 Life is empty for him

Sub Met An abstraction such as

an event, activity, emotion or idea is represented as a material substance

VITALITY IS A SUBSTANCE

1 She‘s overflowing with vitality

2 I don‘t have any energy left at

the end of the day

Ent Met An abstraction is

represented as a concrete physical object

or a person

1 I was magnetically drawn to

her

(LOVE IS A PHYSICAL ELETROMAGNETIC FORCE)

2 His religion tells him he can‘t

drink wine

(RELIGION AS A PERSON) 2.Orientational metaphor Concepts are spatially

related to each other

HAPPY IS UP, SAD IS DOWN

1 I‘m feeling up

2 My spirit sank

3.Structural metaphor One concept is

understood in terms of another structured, sharply defined concept

LIFE IS A JOURNEY

I‘m at a crossroads in my life

2.4 Data analysis and discussion

In the following section, the four inaugural addresses are analyzed in terms of ontological metaphor, structural metaphor and orientational metaphor from Lakoff and Johnson‘s perspective In terms of meaning interpretation, only metaphors which are used twice or more and can create emotional effect on the audience are discussed The others metaphors are listed in the appendices

Table 1: Conceptual metaphors in four inaugural addresses

Types of metaphor

Addresses

Ontological metaphors

Structural metaphors

Orientational metaphors

interpreted Lastly, orientational metaphors with the smallest number will be briefly discussed

Total number of Ont Met : 276

Table 2 presents the number of ontological metaphors used in four inaugural addresses As can be seen, entity metaphors are used the most The number of entity metaphors in Barack Obma‘s address is the biggest and that of the three other addresses is relatively the same Container metaphors are rarely used with the smallest number Substance metaphors are not favourably used by four presidents All four presidents use entity metaphors the most to conceptualize abstract things as concrete physical objects or person This helps make it easier for audience to imagine and understand the speeches Thus, the implicit meaning of the addresses is clearly conveyed

Ontological metaphors will be analyzed in the order of entity metaphor, substance metaphor and then container metaphor Being used with the greatest number, entity

metaphor will be discussed in details in terms of as object and as person Of all entity

metaphors, metaphors which appears twice or more will be analyzed to reveal the implicit meaning

Table 3: Entity metaphors in four inaugural addresses

Table 3 presents the number of entity metaphors As can be seen, a great number of

abstract concepts are conceptualized as objects The concepts including time, will, engagement, politics, ideal, life, success, faith, interest, spirit, challenge, strength, ambition are frequently conceptualized as objects Furthermore, a great number of personification metaphors are also exploited in four addresses Nation as a person, world

as a person, time as a person, idea as a person metaphors are used with the highest

frequency The meaning of these typical metaphors will be discussed in each address as follows

Table 4: “As object” entity metaphors in four inaugural addresses

George Bush‘s address

Obama‘s address

George Bush‘s address

Obama‘s address

Table 4 mentions the number of as object metaphors which are used twice or more

in terms of each concept Next, these metaphors will be discussed in details,

Gorge H.W Bush uses time as object metaphor four times This metaphor is used

the first time in ―I come before you and assume the Presidency at a moment rich with

promise‖ By using this instance, he would like to emphasize that the time when he takes

office is a good time with a lot of advantages His new government and all Americans should make use of it

The second instance of this metaphor is ―The totalitarian era is passing, its old

ideas blown away like leaves from an ancient lifeless tree.‖ H.W Bush aims to claim that totalitarian time which is not good for the country‘s development is over A new better time is coming and people should welcome it

The third instance is found in the sentence ―there are times when the future seems

thick as a fog: you sit and wait, hoping the mists will lift and reveal the right path‖ Here

future is considered as thick as a fog He wants to reveal that a bright future for America is

a real thing that Americans can possess but it is not smooth way to the future They have to overcome obstacles on their way

In the fourth instance, ―but this is a time when the future seems a door you can

walk right through into a room called tomorrow‖, the future here is conceptualized as a

door that all the US people can see, touch and open Bright future is achievable for everyone who finds the right way to reach the ―door‖, open it and walk into the room

called ―tomorrow‖ Under the rule of his government, all the US people will be offered real good opportunities to be successful in life The metaphor brings people optimism about the future of the US country under Gorge H.W Bush‘s leadership

Bill Clinton uses time as object metaphor two times The first time is seen in

―Thomas Jefferson believed that to preserve the very foundations of our nation, we would

need dramatic change from time to time Well, my fellow citizens, this is our time Let us

embrace it‖ By using this metaphor, Bill Clinton emphasizes this time is American

people‘s opportunity and they should grasp it He implies that actions need to be taken whenever there is a good chance Time is considered as object in ―And so today, we pledge

an end to the era of deadlock and drift- a new season of American renewal has begun.‖

Bill Clinton implies that the good time for renovating the country is now People should grasp and take advantage of this time

By using time as object metaphor, both George H.W Bush and Bill Clinton aim to

reveal that the good time for changing America and developing America is coming The new government and all the citizens must catch it and make necessary changes to develop the country

Will as object metaphor appears two times in George H.W Bush‘s address They

are seen in ― We know how to secure a more just and prosperous life for man on Earth

through free markets, free speech, free elections and the exercise of free will unhampered

by the state‖ and in ―Our challenges are great, but our will is greater‖ He emphasizes the

strong will of American people They are strong-willed enough to overcome challenges This encourages people to make more effort to the development of the country

In George H.W Bush‘s address, three instances are found using engagement as object metaphor including ―I am speaking of a new engagement in the lives of others, a

new activism…‖, ―We need a new engagement, too between the Executive and the

Congress‖ and ―To the world, we offer new engagement and a renewed vow: we will stay

strong to protect the peace.‖ By using this metaphor, he calls for participation and mutual support between the Executive and the Congress, which lead to strong leadership of the new government He also claims that America will maintain the world peace and encourages other country to take part in the process of maintaining the world peace

Politics as object metaphor is also frequently used in three out of four addresses

George H.W Bush uses this metaphor in ―For democracy belongs to us all, and freedom is

like a beautiful kite that can go higher and higher with the breeze‖ Democracy and

freedom is the goals to be achieved by the government They are considered as real things

to imply that these things can be easily achieved under the leadership of the new government

Politics as object metaphor is also employed in Bill Clinton‘s in three instances

With two instances in ―Our democracy must be not only the envy of the world but the

engine of our renewal.‖ and ―To renew America, we must revitalize our democracy‖ Bill

Clinton plays a stress on the great importance of the US‘s democracy It is the ―engine‖- the most important part of the country‘s renovation This entails the importance of revitalizing the democracy It must be the first mission of the new government and he calls for the support from other politicians and American people for changing the democracy for the better

In the third instance ―Americans deserve better, and in this city today, there are

people who want to do better And so I say to all of us here, let us resolve to reform our

politics, so that power and privilege no longer shout down the voice of the people‖, Bill

Clinton consider politics as a real object that can be changed to make it better He and his new government will be responsible for reforming politics with the support from people

George W Bush uses one politics as object metaphor in his speech that is

―President Clinton, distinguished guests and my fellow citizens, the peaceful transfer of

authority is rare in history, yet common in our country‖ Bush emphasizes that political

transfer is common in the US because the country is having a peaceful politics This peaceful politics is the result of the effort of previous governments and his new government will maintain this

Ideal as object metaphor is used in three instances in George W Bush By using

this metaphor in ―it is the American story- a story of flawed and fallible people, united

across the generations by grand and enduring ideals‖, ― the grandest of these ideals is an

unfolding American promise that everyone belongs, that everyone deserves a chance, that

no significant person ever born.‖ and ―Every child must be taught these principles Every citizen must uphold them And every immigrant, by embracing these ideals, make our country more not less, American‖, George W Bush implies that American ideal is great and is a promise for a better future for American people This helps to unite different

generations in America This metaphor encourages American people to maintain the grand American ideal

In Obama‘s speech, ideal as object metaphor is used once in ―as for our common

defense, we reject as false the choice between our safety and our ideals… those ideals still

light the world, and we will not give them up for expedience‘s sake.‖ Ideal is

conceptualized as an object that can light the world Obama implies that the American ideals and decisions are proper They can help solve problems of both America itself and the whole world

Life as object metaphor is used in George W Bush and Obama‘s speeches Life is

conceptualized as an object in ―Encouraging responsibility is not a search for scapegoats, it

is a call to conscience….we find the fullness of life not only in options, but in

commitments.‖ in George W Bush‘s speech George W Bush wants to emphasize that people‘s commitments in actions are the key to a happy life Obama uses this metaphor two times in ―For us, they packed up their few worldly possessions and traveled across

oceans in search of a new life.” and ―Time and again these men and women struggled and sacrificed and worked till their hands were raw so that we live a better life.‖ He aims to say

that the life that American people are having is the result of sacrifice and hard work Thus, they must protect what they are enjoying and try their best to make their life better and better

Success as object is the other kind of entity metaphor that is used by George H.W

Bush and Obama In George H.W Bush‘s speech, it is found in ―if he can celebrate the

quieter, deeper successes that are made of not of gold and silk, [ ]‖.Success in this speech

is a concrete thing that can be measured Therefore, it is easy for the new president to achieve He is sure about that People can trust him and his new government

Obama employs this metaphor two times in ―The success of our economy has

always depended not just in the size of our gross domestic product, but on the reach of our

prosperity; on our ability to extend opportunity to every willing heart …but because it is

the surest route to our common good.‖ This metaphor is aimed to encourage people to

increase domestic productivity and make their best effort to develop the country‘s economy

George H.W Bush and George Bush exploit faith as object metaphor This

metaphor is found in George H.W Bush‘s address in the instance ―Heavenly Father we

bow our heads and thank You for Your love Accept out thanks for the peace that yields

this day and the shared faith that makes its continuance likely.‖ The Americans share the

same faith in Heavenly Father and in the leadership of the new government This faith plays an important role in the development of the country Hopefully, this faith is maintained forever

This metaphor is seen in ―Though much of the last century, America‘s faith in freedom and democracy was a rock in raging sea Now it is a seed upon the wind, taking

part in many nations.‖ in George W Bush‘s address He aims to indicate that American

people never lose their faith in freedom and democracy created by the government His new government continues to maintain this American faith

Interest as object metaphor is used two times in George Bush‘s address ―Our

public interest depends on private character, on civic duty and family bonds and basic

fairness, on uncounted, unhonored acts of decency.‖ and ―I will live and lead by these

principles: to advance my convictions with civility, to pursue the public interest with

courage, to speak for greater justice and compassion, to call for responsibility and try to

live it as well.‖ He would like to express that he will try his best to satisfy the people‘s interest However, this interest can also be achieved by people themselves, their duty and close-knit family relationship He calls for the cooperation between people and the government to satisfy people‘s needs in life

He also uses spirit as object two times in his speech This metaphor can be found

in ―Americans are generous and strong and decent, not because we believe in ourselves,

but because we hold beliefs beyond ourselves When this spirit of citizenship is missing, no government program can replace it When this spirit is present, no wrong can stand against

it.‖ Here, spirit is considered as a real thing that exists in real life and can miss He aims to enhance good qualities of American people such as generosity, strength and decency If these qualities are maintained, American people can overcome any obstacles

Challenge and strength as objects are used two times in Bill Clinton‘s address

They are seen in ―though our challenges are fearsome, so are our strengths.‖, ―To renew America, we must meet challenges abroad as well at home‖ and ―but our greatest strength

is the power of our ideas which are still new in many lands.‖ By using this metaphor, he emphasizes that the difficulties facing the US are real On the other hand, American people possess strength that can defeat any challenges abroad or at home This encourages people

to devote themselves to the country Obama uses challenge as object metaphor in ―Today I

say to you that the challenges we face are real They are serious and they are many.‖ with the same meaning

Ambition as object metaphor is used twice in Obama‘s speech in ―They saw

America as bigger than the sum of our individual ambitions; greater the than differences of birth or wealth or faction.‖ and ―Now, there are some who questions the scale of our

ambitions- who suggest that our system cannot tolerate to many big plans Their memories

are short For they have forgotten what this country has done‖ Obama reveals a fact that every American has his own ambition And all these ambitions are joined together to make America with great ambition America has already fulfilled its great ambition and it continues to do better in the future

Table 5: “As person” entity metaphors in four inaugural addresses

George Bush‘s address

Obama‘s address

George H.W Bush uses nation as a person metaphor seven times in his speech

These metaphors have great emotional influence on the audience

In the first instance ―American is never wholly herself unless she is engaged in high

moral principle.‖, H.W Bush conceptualizes the nation as a woman because women are

generally seen as superior and women are seen as being innately serene and good In matters of taking action and being strong, the nation is probably a man, but when it comes

to moral engagement America is a woman It is understood that American is in fact a nation-person with high moral principles and this is emphasized by the concept of a female

nation-person The metaphor is not only used to explain an American attribute but is also essential to emphasize the importance of engagement in the matter The metaphor implies that positive change will not just come upon the nation Gorge H.W Bush aimed to show that American is actually a morally strong nation-person, but has to make an effort toward becoming better and being her moral self The citizens need to support the actions and the policies of America

In the second instance ―When America says something, America means it whether

treaty or an agreement or a vow made on marble steps We will always try to speak clearly

for candor is a compliment, but subtlety, too is good and has its place While keeping our alliances and friendships around the world strong, ever strong we will continue the new

closeness to the Soviet Union., the nation-person America can say a lot- it can make honest promises and can be sincere.‖ Gorge H.W Bush implies here that it is of great importance that America knows what it wants and is clear and honest with the rest of the world of its ambition and wishes He emphasizes candor and subtlety as well as the importance of being on friendly basis with other nation-persons Of current importance is the newly found relationship with the Soviet Union Furthermore, the issue presented by the president

is that peace is not something to take for granted

The third instance ―We have more will than wallet; but will is what we need We will make our hard choices, looking at what we have and perhaps allocating it differently,

making our decisions based on honest need and prudent safety An then we will do the

wisest thing of all: we will turn to the only resource we have that in times of need always grows- the goodness and the courage of the American people.‖ indicates that America is presently considered an economically weak nation-person with visions and a strong will

As people with economic issues will recognize, it is a depressing situation to be in when the means do not match the will However, Gorge H.W Bush claims that if America made the hard choices, was honest and avoided risks, the nation-person would get back on track

He insinuates that only necessary expenses would be made to support the family, as would

a person do if the financial situation was bad The problem presented is the economic situation of America and the solution is to save and only spend money on necessary affairs The citizens may have to help the nation to afford it, but the problem can be solved and the people will get so much more in return The nation-person is a person who lacks the means

to support the family and will not, unless it is absolutely necessary asks for help The

metaphor implies to call for more involvement from American people and make them feel their responsibility for the nation‘s economic development

The fourth instance ―A new breeze is blowing, and a nation refreshed by freedom

stands ready to push on There is new ground to be broken and new action to be taken‖

shows that America is feeling like a person in need of change This metaphor also suggests that any action taken will be necessary for the country to improve and develop If other countries do not like America‘s actions, too bad for them, H W Bush implies that the ground to be broken is a necessary step for America His aim is to assure the people that change is good because it is essential step for the continuous prosperity of America

The fifth instance ―But this is a time when the future seems a door that you can

walk right through into a room called tomorrow Great nations of the world are moving toward democracy through the door to freedom‖ suggests that America is as previously

stated on the verge of change H W Bush conceptualized change with a room and the act towards changes as a door of a house The metaphor suggests changes and movement at home The nations are changing the structure of domestic area and people within the nation are moving around H W Bush aimed for the American people to accept and welcome change and not see it as a negative by necessary condition

The sixth instance ―It is to make kinder the face of the nation and gentler the face

of the world‖ reveals that the nation has a human body with a face which shows emotions and expressions of America H W Bush indicates that the nation-person has not shown the rest of the world its prettiest and kindest facial expression and this is not the way to make friends and allies around the world The problem and solution presented by H W Bush is that the facial expression of the nation has to change in order to be more inviting and humble towards other countries This change is much based on people‘s change and contribution to the country

In the seventh instance ―And when that first cocaine was smuggled in on a ship, it

may as well have been a deadly bacterium, so much has it hurt the body, the soul of our country‖, the bacterium which H W Bush speaks of does not only hurt the body of the

nation-person, but is also able to kill it People know or can vividly imagine how a deadly bacterium affects the body of a human in contrast to what happens to the country when illegal drugs are imported This metaphor implies that people must not smuggle and should

help the government to eliminate this problem to make the country a healthy body to develop more and more

Bill Clinton He uses nation as a person metaphor eight times with different

meanings

The first instance of nation as a person metaphor is found in ―Instead, we have

drifted and that drifting has eroded our resources, fractured our economy and shaken our

confidence.” This is aimed display America‘s weakness, point out that the nation has been

shaken, and is therefore not as stable and solid as it should and could be The economy of the nation is conceptualized as a bone in the nation‘s body that has been fractured Clinton emphasizes the share of adversities that has needlessly affected the nation-person both physically and emotionally He conveys this as a problem that has to be solved because in this condition America is not strong enough to be effective His aim is to make the people realize that the current situation is unacceptable and the actions necessary have to be taken

In the second instance ―There is nothing wrong with America that cannot be cured

by what is right with America.‖, Bill Clinton suggest a solution for America‘s weaknesses

that he has previously acknowledged The weakness is conceptualized as a disease that has

to be cured and he vaguely defines the cure of this disease as ―what is right with America‖

In this negative phrase he says that the body and mind of America are sick, but can be cured He implies that the condition can be cured and the citizens should have hope of improvement

In third instance found in ―We must provide for our nation the way a family

provides for its children.‖, he considers America as a child that needs to be cared The

American people have to support the nation-person so that America can grow and become

a strong and confident leader of the world Bill Clinton aims to appeal to the parental emotions of the listener What the people do to the country should be similar to what they often do to take care of their family

The fourth instance ―We know we have to face hard truth and take strong steps

But we have not done so.‖ is aimed to reveal that the nation has a human body which has

to take steps America is required to take strong steps and face hard truths, but we have not done so Bill Clinton sees this as a shortcoming, which people can identify with similar to when a personal weakness has to be overthrown and conquered The change is not easily made, however Clinton aims to acknowledge the requirement for action as important

Clinton implies that America has a weakness that has to be taken care of and presents the problem and solution in the same metaphor This imposes responsibility on the government itself and the American citizens to take steps to improve the present weakness

The fifth instance ―Today, as an old order passes, the new world is freer but less stable Communism‘s collapse has called forth old animosities and new dangers Clearly,

America must continue to lead the world we did so much to make While America rebuilds

at home, we will not shrink from the challenges, nor fail to seize the opportunities of this

new world.‖ claims that America is still a strong person He ensures that this strong person is strong enough to lead the world His new government continues to keep America‘s first position of the world The power and image of a strong nation-person are maintained and reinforced under the leadership of Bill Clinton‘s government America renovates at home and the metaphor could be seen as a person who has problems at home, who still has to go to work and make necessary decisions and tasks This suggests that the new American people on one hand try their best to improve domestic affair but on the other hand they must grab opportunities outside in order to be a powerful country

nation-The sixth instance ―Let us put aside the personal advantage so that we can feel the

pain and see the promise of America.‖ acknowledges the needs and the prospects of

America He seeks supports and appeals to the people to look beyond their own needs and

to see the bigger picture He appeals to the emotions of responsibility and support of listeners

The seventh instance of this metaphor found in ―But our greatest strength is the power of our ideas, which are still new in many lands, […] Our hopes, our hearts are with those on every continent who are building democracy and freedom Their cause is

America’s cause.‖ indicates that America is like a person striving to make things better

Clinton states that America is a well-developed nation with powerful and just ideas to be proud of and that the nation is to be seen as a fair and pioneering country compared to other countries America has visions, hopes and dreams and these are to be supported by the citizens of the nation The hopes and the hearts Clinton mentions is this metaphor refers

to the hopes and the hearts of the citizens and is therefore not a metaphorical personification of the nation

The eighth instance of nation as a person metaphor lies in ―We must do what

America does best: offer more opportunity to all and demand responsibility from all‖ This

instance is intended to say that the government will offer more opportunity for its citizens

On the other hand, all citizens must show responsibility for the development of the country

George W Bush uses nation as a person metaphor ten times Each instance reveals

its own meaning

The first instance ―The grandest of these proposals is an unfolding American

promise that everyone belongs, that everyone deserves a chance, that no significant was

ever born‖ is aimed to claim that America is able to make promises to the people He lets the people see the nation as a parent or guardian that promises to take care of the children (the citizens) The aim of the metaphor is for every person to feel important and unique

The second instance ―America, at its best, matches a commitment to principle with

a concern for civility A civil society demands from each of us good will and respect, fair

dealing and forgiveness‖ tells that America as a nation-person has principles and a concern for civility For the nation to continue to be at peace and a strong authority of the world, the nation has to keep all its parts together Bush aims for support and respect for America from the people

The third instance ―Today, we affirm a new commitment to live out our nation’s

promise through civility, courage, compassion and character.‖ expresses that The

nation-person has made promises for the citizens to live out through civility, courage, compassion and character A nation, literally, cannot make promises, people do the nation is metaphorically a caring and decision-making person who expects things in return W Bush wishes for citizens of America to take responsibility and to support the nation‘s actions American people and are therefore not included in the metaphorical personification of America

In the fourth instance ―If the country does not lead the cause of freedom, it will be

not be led If we do not turn the hearts of toward knowledge and character, we will lose their gifts and undermine their idealism‖, the nation-person here is supposed to conduct the cause of seeking and remaining freedom for all American people This metaphor is a hidden promise of the new government The new government will continue to bring freedom to people and try to preserve it

In the fifth instance ―And I can pledge our nation to a goal: when we see that a

wonderful traveler on the road to Jericho, we will not pass to the other side‖, the nation is