nghiên cứu danh hóa như một hình thức ẩn dụ ngữ pháp trong các diễn văn chính trị tiếng anh và tiếng việt theo quan điểm ngữ pháp chức năng của hệ thống

UNIVERSITY OF LANGUAGES & INTERNATIONAL STUDIES FACULTY OF POST – GRADUATE STUDIES ***************** NGUYỄN THU HIỀN NOMINALIZATION AS GRAMMATICAL METAPHOR IN POLITICAL DISCOURSE I

UNIVERSITY OF LANGUAGES & INTERNATIONAL STUDIES

FACULTY OF POST – GRADUATE STUDIES

*****************

NGUYỄN THU HIỀN

NOMINALIZATION AS GRAMMATICAL METAPHOR IN POLITICAL

DISCOURSE IN ENGLISH AND VIETNAMESE FROM THE

PERSPECTIVE OF SYSTEMIC FUNCTIONAL GRAMMAR

tiếng Anh và tiếng Việt theo quan điểm ngữ pháp chức năng hệ thống)

M.A Minor Programme Thesis

Field: English Linguistics Code: 60 22 15

Hanoi – 2011

UNIVERSITY OF LANGUAGES & INTERNATIONAL STUDIES

FACULTY OF POST – GRADUATE STUDIES

*****************

NGUYỄN THU HIỀN

NOMINALIZATION AS GRAMMATICAL METAPHOR IN POLITICAL

DISCOURSE IN ENGLISH AND VIETNAMESE FROM THE

PERSPECTIVE OF SYSTEMIC FUNCTIONAL GRAMMAR

tiếng Anh và tiếng Việt theo quan điểm ngữ pháp chức năng hệ thống)

M.A Minor Programme Thesis

Field: English Linguistics

Code: 60 22 15

Supervisor: Assoc Prof Nguyễn Xuân Thơm

Hanoi – 2011

TABLE OF CONTENTS

Certificate of originality i

Acknowledgement ii

ABSTRACT iii

TABLE OF CONTENTS iv

LIST OF TABLES vi

PART A: INTRODUCTION 1

1 Justification of the study 1

2 Aims and Objectives of the study 1

3 Scope of the study 2

4 Method of the study 2

5 Format of the study 3

PART B : DEVELOPMENT 4

CHAPTER 1: THEORETICAL BACKGROUND……… ……4

1.1 Systemic Functional Grammar 4

1.2 Grammatical Metaphor 5

1.2.1 What is Grammatical metaphor? 5

1.2.2 Classification of Grammatical Metaphor 6

1.2.2.1 Ideational Metaphors 6

1.2.2.2 Interpersonal Metaphors 7

1.3 The Language of Political Discourse 8

1.3.1 Political Discourse 8

1.3.2 The Language of Politics 8

1.3.3 Language, power and ideology 10

1.4 Some Basic Characteristics of American and Vietnamese Culture 10

1.4.1 American Culture 10

1.4.2 Vietnamese Culture 11

CHAPTER 2: NOMINALIZATION IN ENGLISH AND VIETNAMESE: A GENERAL DESCRIPTION……….………13

2.1 Introduction 13

2.2 Nominalization in English 13

2.2.1 What is Nominalization in English? 13

2.2.2 Categories of Nominalization in English 14

2.2.2.1 Lexical nominalization 14

2.2.2.2 Clausal nominalization 16

2.3 Nominalization in Vietnamese 18

2.3.1 What is Nominalization in Vietnamese? 18

2.3.2 Categories of Nominalization in Vietnamese 18

2.4 Concluding remarks 21

CHAPTER 3: NOMINALIZATION IN POLITICAL DISCOURSES IN ENGLISH AND VIETNAMESE…….……… 21

3.1 Introduction 22

3.2 Nominalization in President Bush’s Speech: Address to Congress (September 20 th ,

2001) 22

3.2.1 The Realization of Nominalization 23

3.2.2 Ideational Function 24

3.2.3 Interpersonal Function 27

3.2.4 Textual Function 28

3.3 Nominalization in President Nguyen Minh Triet’s Speech: Diễn Văn Khai Mạc Đại Lễ 1000 năm Thăng Long (October, 10 th , 2010) 30

3.3.1 The Realization of Nominalization 31

3.3.2 Ideational Function 31

3.3.3 Interpersonal Function 33

3.3.4 Textual Function 34

3.4 Concluding Remarks 35

CHAPTER 4: FINDINGS AND DISCUSSION: A CONTRASTIVE COMPARISON……… ……… 36

4.1 Introduction 36

4.2 The Similarities and the Differences on Linguistic Properties 36

4.3 The Similarities and the Differences on Cultural Properties 37

PART C : CONCLUSION 40

1 Recapitulation 40

2 Implications 41

3 Limitation and Suggestions for Further Studies 41

REFERENCES 43

LIST OF TABLES

Table 1: Types of Nominalization in President Bush‟s Speech

Table 2: Semantic Roles of Nominalization in President Bush‟s Speech

Table 3: Interpersonal Analysis of Nominalization in President Bush‟s Speech

Table 4: Theme- Rheme Analysis of Nominalization in President Bush‟s Speech Table 5: Types of Nominalization in President N.M Triet‟s Speech

Table 6: Semantic Roles of Nominalization in President N.M Triet‟s Speech

Table 7: Interpersonal Analysis of Nominalization in President N.M Triet‟s Speech Table 8:Theme- Rheme Analysis of Nominalization in President N.M Triet‟s Speech

PART A: INTRODUCTION

1 Justification of the study

Grammatical metaphor in general and nominalization in particular is a familiar concept in Systemic Functional Grammar and recent research of Halliday (1985, 1988, 1994), have proved that grammatical metaphor involving nominalization play a key role in creating scientific discourse Halliday considers nominalization from a systemic functional perspective This theory is functional because it aims to account for three basic kind of meaning, namely, the ideational, the interpersonal and the textual Nominalization, a type

of grammatical metaphor, is one of the most prominent syntactic features of political discourse However, the use of this kind of metaphor in political discourse with the role in the enactment, reproduction, and legitimization of power and domination, may cause difficulties for the readers or the listeners in understanding what is meant or referred to by the writer or the speaker Our thesis is entitled “Nominalization as grammatical metaphor

in Political Discourse in English and Vietnamese from the perspective of Systemic Functional Grammar” The choice of our thesis is based on three reasons Firstly, the nominalization, as explained in later sections, is the nominalizing process, which is “the single most powerful resource for creating grammatical metaphor” (Halliday: 1994: 352) The absence of sufficient research on nominalization as grammatical metaphor in political discourse poses an interesting challenge for us Secondly, an insight into the nature and the functions of nominalization in political discourse can help the researcher to make comprehensive and comprehensible presentations of nominalization and help readers to realize its importance for the comprehension of English and Vietnamese political speeches Finally, we set out a view of the interrelationship of language and society, with the emphasis on power and ideology Ideology is pervasively present in language, that fact ought to mean that the ideological nature of language should be one of the major themes of modern social science Particularly, there is a close connection between a linguistic choice and a certain ideology maintained by relations of power, and the power phenomenon is manifested in a variety of linguistic structures

2 Aims and Objectives of the study

The aim of this study is to make an inquiry into the nature of nominalization in English and Vietnamese in general

This study also points out the functions of nominalization in political discourse and therefore explains why nominalization should be given special treatment in working with this specialized genre Its impacts on the message content are also explored

In carrying out the study this way, the following questions are raised for exploration

1 What is the Nature of Nominalization in English and in Vietnamese?

2 What are the Linguistic Structure and the Functions of Nominalization in English

and Vietnamese Political Discourses?

3 What are the Linguistic and Cultural Similarities and Differences between

Nominalization in English political discourse and that in Vietnamese one?

Hopefully, this research will provide some insight and practical help in decoding political speeches, in evaluating linguistic aspects of the ideas conveyed, the way the more powerful employ language in order to impose their ideas on the less powerful members of society, and finally the readers can figure out the similarities and differences in the use of nominalization in political discourse between English and Vietnamese

3 Scope of the study

This study attempts to explore the concept of nominalization in English and in Vietnamese

in terms of linguistic structure to find out the similarities and differences of the concept between the two languages It is also the intent of this study to analyze the use of nominalization in political speeches in English and Vietnamese to figure out how it contributes to the metafunctions of the discourse, the overall meanings of the discourse and how it serves the speakers‟ ideologies

4 Methods of the study

We begin this study with a descriptive method to identify the phenomenon, then compare and contrast the phenomenon between English and Vietnamese The researcher adopts the statistical method and analyzes the data in terms of quality and quantity The study conducted is an inductive approach where data is collected from English and Vietnamese political discourses to describe nominalization as a natural linguistics process

In the exploration of nominalization in political discourse, the systemic functional theory

as developed by Halliday (1994), Dik (1997), Matthiessen (1995), and other systemicists is adopted as the theoretical framework

5 Format of the study

The paper includes three parts namely Part A- Introduction, Part B- Development and Part C-Conclusion Part B is divided into four chapters:

Chapter 1 explores theoretical background of Systemic Functional Grammar, the concept

of Grammatical Metaphor and the Language of Political Discourse

In chapter 2, the emphasis is on Nominalization in English and Vietnamese as a general description

In chapter 3, the focus shifts to Nominalization in political discourse in English and Vietnamese with a case study on two speeches: one of the President Bush and the other of the President Nguyen Minh Triet

Chapter 4 brings focus on a comparative and contrastive analysis between nominalization

in English and Vietnamese to find out both the similarities and the differences Therefore, the researcher can suggest some implications for teaching and translating

PART B : DEVELOPMENT CHAPTER 1: THEORETICAL BACKGROUND

1.1 Systemic Functional Grammar

Systemic functional linguistics (hereafter abbreviated “SFL”) conceives of text as social interaction Systemic functional linguists view language as systems of meaning potential in human interaction that are realized by various structures The organizing concept is not a structure described by rules, but as communicative behavior, as meaning making in a context of a culture, the behavior matrix within which all social interaction take place and the general context that gives meaning to culturally recognized activities In addition, systemic functional grammar develops a profound analysis of language on the base of regarding reality- representational and communicative functions of language These

functions, termed by Halliday as metafunctions including ideational, interpersonal and

textual metafunctions of language, are related to the issue how it is shaped to meet human

needs

Ideational metafunction is the one that helps to understand, organize and express

perceptions of the world and our consciousness The ideational component on the semantic plane consists of experiential meanings and logical meanings Experiential meanings at the grammatical rank of the clause are those functions that reflect or represent processes, participants, and circumstances In Halliday‟s analysis of English (Halliday, 1994: 106-161), experiential meanings are accounted for in clauses by the transitivity system The transitivity system includes choices of process type and the configurations of possible participants, process and circumstances which are associated with a particular process type Logical meanings are realized by relationships of coordination (or parataxis) and subordination (or hypotaxis) between clauses and other structure units The way of analyzing the clause in terms of process, participants and circumstances produces constituency structures whereas logical meanings are associated with interdependency structures The following example represents an experiential analysis of clause:

Interpersonal metafunction is concerned with the interaction between the speaker and the

addressee(s)- the grammatical resources for enacting social roles in general, speech roles in particular, in dialogic interaction; i.e for establishing, changing and maintaining

interpersonal relations The functions within the interpersonal component include giving or demanding information, expressing intention, assessing degree of probability, expressing attitude, and so on These functions have to do with social interaction than with “content” The grammar of interpersonal meanings put the focus of clause as a unit of exchange structured as Subject, Predicator, Complements and Adjuncts An analysis of a clause from this perspective can be shown in the following example:

Subject Finite Predicator Complement

Textual metafunction is described through the system of theme Thematic structure “gives

the clause its character as a message (Halliday 1994: 37) and thus, creates relevant to the

context The descriptive elements used to show this are called Theme and Rheme The

theme serves as the departure of the message, which in English coincides with the initial element(s) of the clause; and the Rheme is the remainder of the message These elements may also be classified as Given, or information which identifies that which the clause is about, and New, information which relates to the Given The following example shows the analysis of the textual perspective:

Who has cleaned the floor?

Theme Rheme

There is a close relationship between these two structures Within any set of contextual conditions, the speaker can exploit the potential that the situation defines, using thematic and information structure to produce an astonishing variety of rhetorical effect

The relationship of these three functions, which are in the discourse- semantic stratum, is

called “metafunctional resonance” by Halliday (1994)

1.2 Grammatical Metaphor

1.2.1 What is Grammatical metaphor?

Functional Grammar defines metaphors as variations in the expression of meaning rather than just variations in the use of words Functional Grammar looks at metaphors from a different perspective, not asking “how is this word used?” but “how is this meaning expressed?” or “how is grammar structured to make the text effective in the achievement

of purpose?” There is a kind of transference going on, the transfer of representation between different grammatical categories The difference in the message is the kind of

meaning variation which Halliday (1994) calls Grammatical Metaphor Therefore,

grammatical metaphor means a substitution of one grammatical class, or one grammatical structure by another Similarly, Matthiessen (1995) discusses grammatical metaphor as a way of expanding the semantic potential of the system; or Thompson (1996) as the expression of a meaning through a lexical- grammatical form which originally evolved to express a different kind of meaning For example:

In short, for Halliday and systemic Functionalists, metaphor constitutes a lexicogrammatical phenomenon; they are the result of realignments in the realizational relationship between semantic units and grammatical ones that create a complex relationship between semantics and lexicogrammar There is, thus, a congruent and an incongruent or metaphorical realization It is important to say that there will always be some semantic features or features distinguishing grammatically metaphorical forms and their non-metaphorical counterparts (Halliday, 1985)

1.2.2 Classification of Grammatical Metaphor

Halliday (1994) divides grammatical metaphor into metaphors of mood (including modality) and metaphors of transitivity In terms of semantic functions, these are, respectively, interpersonal metaphors and ideational metaphors

Thompson (1996) classifies grammatical metaphor into logical and experiential metaphors, interpersonal metaphors and textual metaphors

In the following sections we will adopt Halliday‟s view in classifying grammatical metaphors into interpersonal and ideational metaphors

1.2.2.1 Ideational Metaphors

Ideational grammatical metaphors are called metaphors of transitivity The grammatical

variation between congruent and incongruent forms here applied to transitivity configurations, and can be analyzed in terms of the functional structure of these configurations Expression of ideational meanings is extended in important ways beyond their default encoding The default expression of ideational meanings is as follows: Process

is represented by clauses; Qualities by adjectives and Entities by nouns or noun phrases In principle, metaphorical expressions can be represented in either of two ways, either (1) taking them at their face value, or (2) interpreting them in their congruent form (Halliday,

1994: 346) In order to bring out the metaphorical nature of an incongruent expression, it is compared to an equivalent congruent realization For example:

As we cannot always decide how best to unpack metaphorical meanings, we can identify the main ways in which grammatical metaphor arises One of the most important is

nominalization, i.e the turning of clausal patterns into nominal ones This type of

grammatical metaphor plays a key role because it involves a realignment of all other elements of the message Halliday discusses nominalization- the drift towards

“thinginess”- as a category of ideational metaphor Halliday (1994: 352) points out the role

of nominalization as follows:

Nominalizing is the single most powerful resource for creating grammatical metaphor By this device, processes (congruently worded as verbs) and properties (congruently worded as adjectives) are reworded metaphorically as nouns; instead of functioning in the clause, as a Process or Attribute, they function as Thing in the nominal group

Ideational metaphors are found in all types of adult discourse Complete congruency and complete incongruency are rare (Halliday, 1994: 342) In general, Halliday argues, written language has more ideational metaphors than spoken discourse In written language, various lexical meanings are packed into one single nominal group and metaphor of transivity makes writing more vivid and expressive

1.2.2.2 Interpersonal Metaphors

Interpersonal grammatical metaphor focuses on the area of Modality and Mood

In Metaphors of Modality, the grammatical variation which occurs is based on the

logical-semantic relationship of projection Whereas modal meanings are congruently realized in modal elements in the clause (i.e modal operators, modal adjuncts or mood adjuncts), interpersonal metaphors are defined by Halliday (1994) as expressing modal

meaning outside the clause, for instance, by means of an additional projecting clause That

is metaphors of modality are explicit realizations of modal meanings For example:

I think it’s going to rain (vs Congruent: It is probably going to rain.)

In Metaphors of Mood, a mood meaning is not expressed in the clause, but rather as an

explicit element outside the clause The incongruent transference in the process of the realization of the speech functions is metaphor of mood One speech function can be realized by various moods and one mood can realized different speech functions For examples:

(1) Command functioning as warning:

I wouldn’t…if I was you (Congruent: don’t…)

(1) Modulated command, typically functioning as advice:

She’d better… (Congruent: she should…)

In conclusion, the purpose of using metaphor is to get the lexis and the grammar the way the speaker wants it in order to produce a certain effect In addition, the use of metaphor presents an alternative way of constructing a picture of reality; we may even find an ideologically charged representation in the choice of metaphor

1.3 The Language of Political Discourse

1.3.1 Political Discourse

Politics is concerned with the power: the power to make decisions, to control resources, to control other‟s people behavior, and to control their values (Jones, J & Peccei, J S., 2004: 36) According to Van Dijk the notion of „Political Discourse‟ does not remain limited to the „institutional‟ field of politics (e.g parliamentary discourse, election campaigns, party programs, speeches, etc.) but opens to all linguistic manifestations that may be considered

to be political, provided that it is convincingly argued what makes them ‟political‟ Political discourse may be singled out as a prominent way of “doing politics” Indeed, most political actions (such as passing laws, decision making, meeting, campaigning, etc.) are largely discursive

1.3.2 The Language of Politics

The conception of language we need is that of discourse, language as a form of social practice, i.e language is a part of society, a social process, and a socially conditioned process Politics has its own code, a language variety particular to a specific group Language is a means of communication, a means of representing and shaping argument

and political argument is ideological, in that it comes from a series of beliefs The way language is used says a great deal about how the idea is shaped, thus when analyzing the language of a political text, it is important to look at the way the language reflects the ideological position of those who have created it Politicians choose their words carefully because they believe in the power of language to influence thought, and they believe implicitly in linguistic relativity Politicians throughout the ages have owed much of their success to their skillful use of rhetoric, whereby they attempt to persuade their audience of the validity of their view by their subtle use of elegant and persuasive language Some of the linguistic rituals, which are significant features of various political activities and regarded as potentially ideological, are as following (van Dijk, Fairclough, N., 2001, Jones,

J & Peccei, J S., 2004):

(i) Presuppositions are the implicit, taken-for-granted-to-be-true assumptions embedded

within a sentence or phrase

(ii) Implicatures allow the politician‟s audience to make assumption about the existence of

information that is not made explicit in what the politician actually says The use of presupposition and implicature is particularly useful in political discourse because it can make it more difficult for the audience to identify and (if they wish to) reject views communicated in this way, and can persuade people to take something for granted which is actually open to debate

(iii) Rhetoric is defined as „the art of using language to persuade or influence others; the

body of rules to be observed by a speaker or writer so that he may express himself with

eloquence‟ (Oxford Dictionary as cited in Jones, J & Peccei, J S., 2004: 45) Politicians often use rhetorical figures such as repetition, parallelism, additions, deletion, euphemism and substitution, which is the case for irony, metonymy and metaphor to increase the

impact of their ideas

(iv) Syntax: somewhat less obvious and more subtle than lexical style is the political

manipulation of syntactic style, such as the use of pronouns, variations of words order, the use of specific syntactic categories, active and passive constructions, nominalization,

clause embedding, sentence complexity and other ways such as the list of three, or contrastive pairs to express underlying meaning in sentence structures Prominently, Nominalization has a central role to play in political communication One effect of this grammatical form is that crucial aspects of the process are left unspecified: there is no

indication of the timing of the process; modality; and often an agent and/ or a patient Syntactic structures are able to put more or less emphasis, focus or prominence on specific words, phrases or clauses, and thus indirectly contribute to corresponding semantic stress

on specific meanings, as a function of the political interests and allegiances of the speaker

or writer (Fowler et al 1979, Kress & Hodge 1993 as cited in van Dijk) A close analysis

of texts in the next sections in terms of such features, particularly nominalization can

contribute to our understanding of power relations and ideological process in discourse

1.3.3 Language, power and ideology

Language only gains power in the hand of the powerful; language is not powerful per se Often enough, a specific language even symbolizes the group or person in power, and

fights about the status or discrimination of one or the other language, and Politics is inevitably connected to power- the ability of its holders to exact the compliance or obedience of other individual to their will (The New Dictionary of Modern Thought as

cited in Jones, J & Peccei, J S., 2004: 10) The common-sense assumptions which are implicit in the conventions according to which people interact linguistically, and of which people are generally not consciously aware are embedded in the forms of language that are

used, according to Fairclough, are ideologies Ideologies are closely linked to power,

because the nature of the ideological assumptions depends on the power relations which underlie the conventions; and because they are a means of legitimizing existing social relations and differences of power Also, ideologies are closely linked to language, because using language is the commonest form of social behaviour (Fairclough, N., 2001: 2) The exercise of power, in modern society, is increasingly achieved through ideology, and more particularly through the ideological workings of language The nature of the power relations acted here is often not clear, and the discourse involves hidden power for the

favored interpretations and wordings are those of the power-holders in our societies

1.4 Some Basic Characteristics of American and Vietnamese Culture

1.4.1 American Culture

The Americans have strong individualism, especially in economic environment of capitalism (Levine & Adelman, 1993 as cited in Nguyễn, Q., 2002:213) Because of the strong individualism, the Westerns or Americans have the psychology of individual-respecting, wanting to be free to make choice, to pursue their own ideas, which display the

“ego” or the “ironclad, hungry for success” in dealing with the outside world as they like

solving the conflicts by using arm forces and always keep in mind the ambition of having the opponent‟s absolute submission (Trần, N.T., 2008) Besides, the American themselves always proclaims the virtues of national independence and economic development, they have the habits of seeking to remark the region in the US image and pretensions about the universality and superiority of American ideas and ways of doing things (Douglas, 2004) They want to facilitate American hegemony and the expansion of US power around the world Most Americans have continually constructed self-image for themselves as citizens

of benevolent world power acting to support universal principles and interests (Melani, McA., 2005) Regarding the concept of the “ego”, the Anglicists objectify the “ego” and regard it as an object (Nguyễn, Q., 2002); therefore, in Anglicist language and culture, objectiveness encroaches Finally, according to Trần Ngọc Thêm (1999), Western people including Americans tend to express “action or dynamic property” by the expression of

“stationary”

1.4.2 Vietnamese Culture

Vietnamese culture was deeply rooted in wet-rice cultivating farming and the wet-rice agricultural-originated culture is the prominent characteristic of Vietnamese culture‟s identity and governs other characteristics The basic characteristics of Vietnamese culture are as following (Trần, Tr.D., 2001 & Phan, M.C, 2008): (i) having the spirit of loving the home, the village, the country and respecting the nature; (ii) living by the love-based rule; (iii) having the collective thinking way; (iv) flexibility in their community-organizing decided by the collective, dialectical and thoughtful thinking way of love-based farmers, which allows them to adjust to be suitable (reasonable) in each specific situation The love-based living regulation and the desire of having a peaceful life have made their flexible living way to be more profound, and have become the peaceable psychological foundation

in dealing with all kind of social relations; (v) having harmonized behaviour in receiving cultural flows from the outside world and the soft (flexible), peaceable attitude in dealing the pressure from the outside world; (vi) and having the patriotic doctrine, consciousness

of the national spirit and traditional undauntedness and indomitability in struggle because

of long and long construction, safeguarding of the country and struggles against the enemies What‟s more, Vietnamese are always aware of the “ego”, they appear as the subject of the world and the thing they usually take into consideration is not the thing itself but the relationship between them and the thing Therefore, according to Nguyễn Quang

(2002), in Vietnamese language and culture, subjectiveness is more prominent The last point, according to Trần Ngọc Thêm (1999), is that Vietnamese tend to use “dynamic property” to express “stationary”

CHAPTER 2: NOMINALIZATION IN ENGLISH AND VIETNAMESE:

„packaged‟ in nominal form as Themes Gradually, it has developed into most other varieties of adult discourse and becomes “a mark of prestige and power” (Halliday, 1994: 353) According to Thomson (1996: 170), nominal groups have two qualities which are useful First, a noun typically refers to a „thing‟, i.e something which exists and the meaning can now be treated as existing, as a kind of abstract thing Second, nominalization

is available to function as a participant in another process, and also as Theme Furthermore, nominalization is in harmony with ideology of science, and of academic, formal writing because it allows processes to be objectified, non-finite and unarguable This is intimately connected with the fact that it is “thingified‟ by being expressed as a noun For reasons mentioned above, in linguistic terms, academic, formal writing shows preference for noninalization which represents “fossilised” processes whose primary function is to express not dynamic action but the relationship between the nominals

2.2 Nominalization in English

2.2.1 What is Nominalization in English?

Nominalization is a prevalent linguistic phenomenon in English as Fowler said, “English is

a sort of nominalized language: (1991: 79) There are many definitions on nominalization Nominalization is a process of turning a verb or an adjective into a noun (Quirk et al, 1985) In Routledge Dictionary of Language and Linguistics (1996), nominalization refers

to any derivation of nouns from another word class, usually verbs or adjectives According

to Halliday (1985), nominalization refers to any element or group of elements that is made

to function as a noun or a nominal group in the clause, including clauses (finite or

non-finite clauses), nominalized adjectives (the so-called de-adjectival) or verbs (de-verbal)

Another definition offered by Dik is that nominalization is an embedded construction

which has one or more properties in common with a primary, nominal term (1997: 157)

He distinguishes two types of nominalization: headed, the embedded construction

adjoined to a nominal head with a rather general meaning such as “fact”, “thing”, or

“circumstance”; and non-headed, the predicate itself taking on certain nominal properties

Based on the above definitions on nominalization, we can see that in English

nominalization can occur at the different levels such as at the word level (Lexical

nominalization) or at the clause level (Clausal nominalization) For examples:

(1) …the argument to the contrary (Halliday, 1994)

(2) John deplored that Peter had to leave (Dik, 1997)

(3) I disapproved of John’s drinking (Dik, 1997)

2.2.2 Categories of Nominalization in English

2.2.2.1 Lexical nominalization

Lexical nominalization: refers to any nominalized word or word group which is derived

from verbs (named de-verbal nominalization) or adjectives (named de-adjectival

nominalization) Most derived nouns are abstract in meaning Lexical nominalizations are

created by adding suffixes to the roots Nominalizing suffixes in English are listed below;

the symbols V and A in the list show whether the noun is derived from a verb or an

a person who V-s, something used for V-ing

state or quality of being A state of being

a person (various meanings)

a person/ thing that V-s (various meanings)

wastage, postage, orphanage arrival, denial, proposal

assistance, resemblance, experience, dependence, difference, ignorance assistant, consultant, coolant

accuracy, adequacy, infancy

boredom, freedom, wisdom devotee, absentee, employee actor, writer, visitor

bravery, refinery, robbery likelihood

ideology, movement, tendency state or quality of being A action or instance of V-ing state or quality of being A action or instance of V-ing

feeling, meeting, training building, landing, crossing criticism, capitalism, Marxism ability, activity, responsibility argument, movement, treatment blindness, fairness, happiness communication, education, closure, departure, pressure

(Biber, Conrad, & Leech, 2009: 89-90)

De-verbal nominalizations can be: the agent of the verb (the nouns with suffixes: -ant, -er,

-or, -ar,); the patient of the verb (the nouns with suffixes: -ee); the process and result of the

verb (the nouns with suffixes: -age, -al, -ance, -tion, -ment); or the instrument of the verb (the nouns with suffixes: -age, -ant) De-adjectival nominalizations refer to: abstract concepts having the quality described by the adjectives (the nouns with suffixes: -ity, -ness,

-ism); or person having the quality described by the adjectives (the nouns suffixes: -ist)

Another way to derive nouns from other word classes is known as conversion (or „zero derivation‟) (Biber, Conrad, & Leech, 2009: 91); that is no affix is added to the base-the root, but the base itself is converted into a different word class, usually from a verb or adjective into a noun For examples:

conversion base meaning(s) of example of converted noun

from converted noun

adjectives (A)

verbs (V)

hopeful white

catch cheat

walk

someone who is A someone who is A

something that is V-ed someone who V-s

act of V-ing

presidential hopefuls they speak like the whites do

in the South they had a fine catch of fish

…accused him of being a cheat

we can go for a walk later

(Biber, Conrad, & Leech, 2009: 91)

Derived nouns can occupy the functions of nouns such as subject, object, complement of sentences, and complement in prepositional phrases For example:

The conventionalist system lacks the capacity to reach anything like the flexibility of

pragmatism, because any relaxation would inevitably involve the defeat of publicly

encouraged expectation (Biber, Conrad, & Leech, 2009)

2.2.2.2 Clausal nominalization

Clausal nominalization: refers to any finite or non-finite clause which functions as a noun

in a clause These kinds of clauses, complement clauses, include that-clauses, wh-clauses,

to-infinitive clauses, and V-ing clauses (Lock, 1996) For examples:

(1) That Aristotle appealed to such principles is not surprising

(2) Really understanding this aspect of grammar needs a fair bit of work

In addition to the four main types, there are two less productive types of complement

clause: bare-infinitive clauses, which are a special type of infinitive clause, and ed-clauses,

which are rare Both of them are non-finite clauses (Biber, Conrad, & Leech, 2009: 308); for examples:

(3) The film would help identify participants at the weekend party

(4) I got the door unlocked

Complement clauses are also called nominal clauses, because they often occupy a noun

phrase slot in a clause, such as subject, object, or predicative

(i) That-clauses

That-clauses can appear in post-predicate position which is the most common type of

that-clauses (accounting for 80 percent of all that-that-clauses-Biber, Conrad, & Leech, 2009: 312),

in extraposed construction, or serve as subject predicate and noun complements For examples:

(1) I didn‟t agree that he should be compelled to do singing

(2) It‟s a wonder that the tree’s alive, but it is

(3) The truth is that country is now specializing more in processing and marketing (4) The traditional belief that veal calves should be kept in warm environment is

unscientific

(ii) Wh-clauses

There are three types of wh-complement clauses: interrogative clauses, nominal relative

clauses, and exclamatives Interrogative clauses and nominal relative clauses use the same

wh-words, except that whether is used only with interrogatives Nominal relative clauses

can be paraphrased with a general head noun and relative clause Exclamative wh-clauses begin with how + adjective or what as a pre-determiner (Biber, Conrad, & Leech, 2009: 322) Exclamative wh-clauses are less common than the other types

Wh-clauses can occur as subject, object, subject predicate or as complement of adjectives, prepositions or nouns For examples:

(1) I was thinking how nice you are, what a good actor, and what a nice man

(2) What he did was surprising

(3) That‟s why I returned to the village

(4) It was incredible what had happened to them

(5) His parents were proud of what he had done

(6) We have no knowledge of where it came from

(iii) To-infinitive clauses

To infinitive complement clauses are more common in the written register than in conversation They are used to report speech, mental states, intention, desires, efforts, perceptions, and other general actions They often occur in post-predicate and subject predicate position However, they can also occur in subject position and in extraposed construction, or function as nouns complement (Biber, Conrad, & Leech, 2009: 328) For examples:

(1)I‟m just trying to get away early

(2)A fourth challenge is to develop management arrangements within hospital (3)I‟m not sure it‟s necessary to ask you not to pass any information on to the

Communist

(4)[…] „To take away the profits of crime is one thing; to seize the assets that have no

connection with crime is another

(5) Last year the society‟s committee made a decision to relaunch in a bid to attract

more members

(iv) V-ing clauses

Ing-complement clauses serve a wide range of functions They are often used with verbs

like begin, start, and stop to convey aspect However, they are also used to report speech acts, cognitive states, perceptions, emotions, and other actions Ing-clauses are common in

the written registers like fiction, news and academic prose than in conversation (Biber,

Conrad, & Leech, 2009: 344) Ing-clauses most often occur in post-predicate position In

addition, they can occur in subject position or as subject predicates and noun complement For examples:

(1) He began paging through old newspapers

(2) There is no reason why women should not be good at selling cars

(3) Really understanding this aspect of grammar needs a fair bit of work

(4) My uncle‟s hobby is collecting fish

(5) He had no intention of singing at anyone’s twenty-first birthday

1.4.3 Nominalization in Vietnamese

1.4.3.1 What is Nominalization in Vietnamese?

Nominalization is a sub-type of grammatical metaphor (or the transitivity of word class) (Diệp, Q.B., 2005) The transitivity of word class is a way of forming new words without the change of the root There are two ways of transferring: first, by adding a word (the so-

called morpheme or nominalizer) such as cái, nỗi, niềm, sự, việc, etc which signifies the

word class, here the noun class, to the root; secondly, by shifting a word of one class (i.e adjective or verb) into another word class (i.e noun) without any change of the root or any help of other morpheme The latter must be realized in context or the ability to combine

with other words (Nguyễn, V.T., 1976: 84) as in “Vượt khó được mới giỏi” & “Điều đó rất

khó thực hiện” By nominalization, an event, an action or a state is turned into a participant

and can be used in different position in a sentence, fulfilling any syntactic role as any other noun such as subject, object, complement or adverbial Nominalization is a real fact of Vietnamese, it accounts for the diversification of syntactic structures in Vietnamese and it

is considered among Vietnamese-speaking people that nominalization is characteristic for official and socio-political writings On the whole, by means of the adaptation of certain morphemes, nomimalized nouns can be found at the word level (Lexical nominalization)

or at the clause level (Clausal nominalization) For examples:

(1) Việc điều tra vụ giết người đang được cảnh sát tiến hành

(2) Điều anh nói làm cô ấy rất buồn

1.4.3.2 Categories of Nominalization in Vietnamese

1.4.3.2.1 Lexical Nominalization

Lexical nominalization, nominalization at word level, is the formation of a new noun from

a verb or an adjective by the adaptation of such morphemes or the so-called “nominal

preffixes” (Trần, H.M., 2005) or “nominalizers” as cái, nỗi, niềm, sự, việc, cuộc, điều,

điềm, tính, etc These morphemes can be lexical-meaningful or meaning-empty These

nominalized nouns can create the meaning of quality or the meaning of action

Verbs can be converted into abstract nouns or the names of actions by the adaptation of

such nominalizers as sự, việc, cuộc with a clause with or without subject They are those

which belong to three groups (Trần, H.M., 2005:439-40):

(i) state, achievement and accomplishment verbs; for example: sự phá hủy

“destruction” [ phá hủy “destroy”]

(ii) action verbs; for example: việc học “learning” [học “learn”]

(iii) verbs denoting finished actions; for example: việc điều tra “investigation” [điều

tra “investigate”]

Adjectives can also be nominalized to express mental phenomenon by nominalizers like

nỗi, niềm (Diệp, Q B., 2005: 487); for examples: niềm vui “happiness” [vui “happy”], tính hiền lành “gentleness” [hiền lành “gentle”]

Adjectives can also be nominalized to express quality by nominalizers such as tính, tính

chất, điều, điềm, màu, vị, etc (Diệp, Q B., 2005: 486); for examples: tính nóng nảy “a

short temper” [nóng nảy “short-tempered “], tính chất ôn hòa “equableness” [ôn hòa

“equable”], điều dữ “fierceness” [dữ “fierce”], điềm xấu “bad omen” [xấu “bad”], màu đỏ

“red” [đỏ “red”], vị đắng “bitterness” [đắng “bitter”]

Nguyễn Kim Thản (2008) adds some more nominal prefixes to the above list such as: tình,

chủ nghĩa, nhà, lòng, etc The classifier “cái” can be used to nominalize a verb or an

adjective to denote non-living things, inanimate objects (Nguyễn, V H, 2003) as in cái

chết “death” [ chết “die”], cái đẹp “beauty” [đẹp “beautiful”] Nguyễn Kim Thản (2008)

also represents four typical patterns of turning a clause which functions as such as Subject,

Predicate, Adverbial, Noun Complement, Verb Complement, or Adjective Complement into

a nominal group In academic prose, to make the language more abstract and stylistic, this

type of clauses can be turned into a noun group (called “de-clausal”) and often goes with

the linking word “của” The four grammatical patterns are listed below (Nguyễn, K.T., 2008):

Pattern 1: Tiếng Việt giàu đẹp là điều không còn nghi ngờ gì cả

→ Sự giàu đẹp của Tiếng Việt là điều không còn nghi ngờ gì cả

In this pattern, we have Sự + verb/adjective + của +complement

Pattern 2: Anh làm thế là đúng → Việc làm của anh đúng

In this pattern, we often use Việc/ cái + verb/adjective + của +complement; or a noun

functioning as predicate

Pattern 3: Nó sai lầm như thế đấy → Sai lầm của nó như thế đấy

Here the verb or adjective is used as a noun + của +complement

Pattern 4: Ta thắng rất lớn → Thắng lợi của ta rất lớn

Anh nghĩ thế không đúng lắm → Ý nghĩ ấy của anh không đúng lắm

In this pattern, we use a noun which is equivalent to the verb or adjective in term of

meaning together with của +complement

In addition to the nominalizing process by adding nominalizers to the front adjectives or

verbs, some words such as bó, chồng, gợn, xiên, etc are verbs per se but they can be turned into nouns or classifiers in particular as in bó (củi), chồng (sách), gợn (sóng), xiên (cá)

The list includes 25 words (Diệp, Q B, 2005: 489) Furthermore, like the case of converted nouns in English, in Vietnamese, some verbs or adjectives can be used as nouns without any addition of any morpheme They can be realized as a verb, an adjective or a noun in context For example: “Đầu óc căng thẳng vì tiếng bom, tiếng đạn, tiếng rú và trong mỗi

một người đều phải trải qua những bực tức, giận dữ, lo âu và cả sợ sệt nữa” (Bùi, M., T.,

1999)

Besides the nominal prefixes mentioned above, there are some more words that are used for the purpose of nominalization A rather long list of such morphemes and various interpretations of them (Hoàng Trọng Fiến 1970, cited in Lev Morev, 2005) testifies that

up to now there are no strict common linguistic rules of nominalization in Vietnamese (Lev Morev, 2005: 458)

1.4.3.2.2 Clausal Nominalization

According to Trần Hữu Mạnh (2005) and Nguyễn Kim Thản (2008), a clause, which

includes Subject and Predicate, can be nominalized by adding the nominalizer

“Việc/Điều/Cách” to the clause; therefore, it can function as a noun or noun group

Its structure will be “ Việc/Điều/Cách + subject + predicate” as in:

Anh lên tiếng là đúng → Việc anh lên tiếng là đúng

Cậu nói rất đúng → Điều cậu nói rất đúng

1.4.4 Concluding remarks

We have taken a deep look into English and Vietnamese nominalization with the regard of the definitions and categories of nominalization We can find out that nominalization in both English and Vietnamese is the process of forming a new noun or nominal from other parts of speech namely, verbs, adjectives or even clauses The nominalized nouns or nominals, which are abstract and stylistic, can fulfill the functions of nouns such as subject, predicate, complement or adverbial However, there are some differences First, English

lexical nominalization can be formed by adding suffixes like –ant, er,or, ism, ment,

-ness, -tion, etc to the root which can be an adjective or a verb On the contrary,

Vietnamese lexical nominalization can be created by the adaptation of such morphemes or

nominalizers as cái, nỗi, niềm, sự, việc, cuộc, điều, điềm, tính, ect to the front of the word

which can be an adjective or a verb In addition, a clause in Vietnamese can often be

nominalized by adding Sự/ Việc/ Cái to the verb or adjective + của +complement

Nevertheless, the case which is called converted nouns in English is the same as the case of turning some verbs into nouns without any adaptation of any morpheme in Vietnamese As

for clausal nominalization, in English it occurs not only with finite clauses (that-clauses and wh-clauses) but also with non-finite clauses (to-infinitive clauses and ing-clauses) Unlike in English, when nominalization appears at clause level by adding Việc/Điều/Cách

to the clause, its structure is “ Việc/Điều/Cách + subject + predicate”

The following sections will focus on a detailed description of Nominalization in English

and Vietnamese political discourses Nominalization can be used by politicians as a powerful device to establish and maintain ideologies; and influence people‟s political and ideological views

CHAPTER 3: NOMINALIZATION IN POLITICAL DISCOURSES

IN ENGLISH AND VIETNAMESE

3.1 Introduction

Systemic functional linguistics (SFL) has long been interested in the language of politics for a number of reasons It is one of the most instantly recognizable but not easy to comprehend Additionally, it performs distinct functions in society, claims a distinct set of users and has distinct grammatical and textual structures Because SFL is particularly concerned with describing the relationship between language and social context, the issues about political language tend to focus on the relationship between the language system and human ideologies SFL has attempted to map out the meaning potential of political discourse Such explorations allow us to understand the functionality of political language

In this chapter, the emphasis is put on the analysis of nominalization in political discourse with a case study on two political discourses: one is the speech of President Bush after September 11th event, the other is the speech of President Nguyen Minh Triet on Thang Long-Ha Noi 1000th birthday anniversary After all, we will have a full understanding of nominalization: its linguistic structures and its functions in the discourse A clear understanding of nominalization allows us to understand the speaker‟s/writer‟s ideologies and the hidden power in the discourse

3.2 Nominalization in President Bush’s Speech: Address to Congress (September 20 th , 2001)

On September 11th, 2001, two hijacked aircraft crashed into the World Trade Center in New York City, causing great damage Another plane hit the Pentagon, headquarters for the U.S military, outside Washington D.C A fourth plane, believed to be heading for Washington D.C., crashed in the rural Pennsylvania when passengers attempted to retake control from the hijackers Almost 3,000 people were killed in the attacks The U.S government blamed the attacks on terrorists Speculation centered around the al Qaeda organization and its leader Osama Bin Laden Bin Laden was believed to be operating out

of Afghanistan, a nation controlled by the Taliban As from the very first day of the attacks

on the Twin Towers, on September 20th, 2001, President George W Bush spoke a joint session of Congress in the U.S Capitol His speech served many purposes It stated the feelings of the nation as well as the government‟s intention to confront and defeat those that had caused such great damage to the country in an implicit way It honored those who

had died in the attacks, and those who were struggling to deal with the aftermath The president also sought to reassure Americans that they were safe and that steps were being taken to prevent future attacks Nevertheless, the central massage of the speech was that the United States remained strong and unafraid, and that it intended to eliminate terrorist threats The President went on to make it clear to the American people and the world that a protracted struggle against not only al Qaeda, but also world terrorism as whole, was underway and not only American‟s pursuit, but the world‟s as well President Bush‟s speech helped to honor the fallen and reassure the living; however, he did not convince the Taliban to give in to his commands The America was, in the end, successful in driving the Taliban out of power and destroying much of the terrorist‟s infrastructure

3.2.1 The Realization of Nominalization

It now seems necessary to identify the grammatical metaphor of nominalization that can be found in Bush‟s speech We should bear in mind that instances of grammatical metaphors

do not typically occur in isolation and sometimes there is some kind of interdependent There are 153 cases of nominalization including both lexical nominalization and clausal nominalization Nominalization appears 230 times in all in the speech This speech has 77

nominalizations per 1000 words

Table 1: Types of Nominalization in President Bush’s Speech

The table shows that there are more lexical nominalizations than the clausal nominalizations (59 % and 41 % respectively) Lexical nominalization includes de-verbal, de-adjectival and conversion, of which de-verbal nominalization and conversion or converted nouns that are all derived from verbs account for 49 % Verbs and adjectives are reified to be realized as things, entities or concepts Nominalization at clausal level is represented by finite and non-finite clauses (12% and 29% respectively) The clauses,

which are that-clause, wh-clause, to-infinitive clause and ing-clause are embedded to function as Head The nominalization of non-finite clauses can signify an act, the name of

action, event or other phenomenon; or a locution Meanwhile that of finite clauses represents a fact or an idea As can be seen, nominalization of non-finite clauses accounts for more than double that of finite clauses This is because of register factor: non-finite clauses are commonly used in academic prose whereas finite clauses are relatively rare in this prose (Biber, Conrad, & Leech, 2009: 350) Another reason is that finite clauses combine with relatively few verbs; meanwhile, non-finite clauses combine with a number

of different verbs In conclusion, most of nominalizations are derived from verbs or clauses, because by turning processes into nouns making clauses function as heads, the speaker can convey entities and typically assume the existence of such entities These nominalizations can become participants or circumstances of other processes, and somewhere they can be used as modifier or qualifier of nouns or noun groups All the transposition can be attributed to such functions as ideational function, textual function and interpersonal function The next sections will deal with nominalization in terms of these metafunctions

Table 2: Semantic Roles of Nominalization in President Bush’s Speech

Totally, there are 188 nominalizations which appear as participants or circumstance of processes In this speech, they often function as circumstance (29%), goal (18%) and phenomenon (12 %) With these functions, the nominalizations, which presupposed real existence, stability, can undergo other processes or modify the processes They rarely appear as identified or patient, or in existential process (0.5%) Other nominalizations can

be range, attribute, verbiage, carrier, actor or identifier of processes

The features associated with nominalization are ideological features (i.e deleting agency, reifying, positing reified concepts as agents, concise referencing and maintaining unequal power relation) First of all, nominalization is used to delete agency Fowler (1991) writes that nominalization offers opportunities for deleting information, such as information about the participants, time and modality Nominalization is a radical syntactic transformation of

a clause, which has extensive structural consequences, and offers substantial ideological opportunities To understand this, reflect on how much information goes unexpressed in a

derived nominal, compared with a full clause: for example, “assistance” (line212) with a full clause “X assists Y” Deleted in the nominal form are participants, indication of time,

and of modality as well; therefore, the speaker‟s views are as the truth or desirability of the proposition By using nominalization, the President Bush implies that America will certainly receive the assistance, and not just from an individual but from the whole world Secondly, nominalization helps create reifying The process of nominalization turns verbs

or adjectives into nouns (things, concepts or people) Nominalization facilitates reification because the processes assume the status of things-impersonal, inanimate, and processes are described as the name of linguistic entity whose existence is taken for granted; therefore, inarguable By means of nominalization, speakers/writers typically assume the existence of such entities, then the discourse is no longer describing actions, it focuses on objects or concepts, especially, in political discourse many nominal groups are concepts such as

freedom, leadership, extremism, security, pluralism, stability, etc

Also, the most important function of nominalization is to objectify opinion, especially, in this persuasive speech, so as to make it more difficult for the hearers to disagree With such

nominalized groups as attacks, destruction, their pretenses, the defeat, strikes, what the

Mafia is to crime, remarking the world, imposing its radical beliefs, fight, the endurance of rescuers, his unity, responsibilities, security, tolerance, stability, confidence, hopes,

struggles, etc the President Bush wants the hearers who are not only the American people

but also the people around the world to agree with what he has stated about what the terrorists have caused to the American and what the American has done and will do, which are objective and unchangeable things, to approve of and support his and the government‟s intention of the struggle against terrorism for the American‟s and the whole world‟s

freedom In another a noun group “the decency of a loving and giving people”, the effect in

the use of nominalization is to take information for granted and thus presuppose that the qualities conveyed by the noun are inherent to the American people

Another feature of nominalization is positing reified concepts as agents Speakers/writers can then use the abstract, reified concepts as agents of processes to perform actions Accordingly, nominalized forms appear as agents who do things (12%) According to Hallidayan grammar, this is an incongruent use of language Nominalization, through generalization and abstraction, can obfuscate agency, and therefore, responsibility Here the writer attributes the action of obfuscating to nominalization Such nominalizations as

our war (line104), our response (line 133) show that processes are construed as if they

were entities taking the roles of agents The first noun group as a thematized existent presupposes that American will certainly war against Al Qaeda and terrorism but does not state explicitly who declares, leads the war, take responsibilities of the war or how to war Nominalization also makes it possible to develop an argument step by step using packed

nominal groups such as the great achievement of our time, the dark threat of violence, or

the great hope of every time Another example reads as follows:

 Our grief has turned to anger and anger to resolution (line17)… As a symbol of America's resolve (line 221)… But our resolve must not pass (line 239)

Here, the change consists in the creation of a parallel construction, in a chain and the noun

resolution has turned from an attribute resolve to goal or affected, then the noun resolve

become the agent of other process The use of nouns in a kind of chain structure seems to highlight the steps in the process leading the American government from a passive attitude into a proactive one There are some other cases of this parallel construction in the speech

such as: a fringe form of Islamic extremism, a fringe movement, every tool of intelligence,

every instrument of law enforcement, every financial influence, etc

Nominalizations are also accompanied by the rules of three to make the arguments complete Examples are as follow:

 But its goal is not making money; its goal is remaking the world and imposing its

radical beliefs on people everywhere (line 55,56)

 They hate our freedoms: our freedom of religion, our freedom of speech, our freedom

to vote and assemble and disagree with each other (line 109,110)

 This is the world's fight This is civilization's fight This is the fight of all who believe

in progress and pluralism, tolerance and freedom (line 166-7)

The use of parallel structures and of the rule of three helps to build up the President‟s arguments without any disagreements from the hearers and the audience

3.2.3 Interpersonal Function

In terms of interpersonal function, nominalizations appear as the Subject, Complement or

Adjunct of the process

Table 3: Interpersonal Analysis of Nominalization in President Bush’s Speech

Grammatical metaphor of nominalization can also make meanings about role relations and attitudes between participants, their status and their feelings about what is said Nominalization allows for the expansion of the interpersonal semantic system and thus provides the speakers with additional, powerful resources for enacting social roles in the complex network of relations that make up the fabric of community of any kind

First, nominalization is used as a linguistic tool of exerting power A clause, instead of reporting concrete action in time, is transformed by the speaker into abstract entities or concepts out of time, thus mystifies all those processes and their participants creating extensive structural consequences and offering substantial ideological opportunities (Fowler, 1991) The speech of President Bush demonstrates a sufficient variety of nominal

nouns transformed from predicates For example, the use of command, diplomacy,

intelligence, law enforcement and every financial influence (line 125-8) is rather

ambiguous Only by assuming that the interaction takes place between the President and the members of the Congress and other audiences; and by taking into account the use of the

pronoun our, it can be asserted that the implied agent of the process encompasses all the

participants of the interaction Though it seems that the President claims solidarity, he

nevertheless asserts his authority The power being exercised here is a form of hidden power through the appeal to a vague but effective authority, for the invisible power is unchallengeable President Bush would be present as a powerful man to claim everything,

to demand others to do as directed The hidden power here is his power to tell the Taliban and the world what to do against the terrorism For examples:

 And tonight the United States of America makes the following demands on the Taliban (line 83).…These demands are not open to negotiation or discussion.(line

93)

 Every nation in every region now has a decision to make: Either you are with us or

you are with the terrorists (line 140-1)

There are a lot of nominal groups functioned as complement such as terror what the Mafia

is to crime, making money, remaking the world, imposing its radical beliefs No one

speaks, no one is construed as the listener, the message of the proposition exists at all the times, is unarguable The President makes himself have the authority to awaken the world

of the terrorists‟ threat

The text also presents another type of nominalization, embedded clauses with the

command verb “ask” The indirect commands to uphold the values of America and

remember why so many have come here, to continue to support the victims of this tragedy with your contributions, to be patient, to participate continually and to be confident are

realized metaphorically by hypotactic clauses embedded to function as Head of a nominal group (i.e as a nominalization) in which the speech function is represented as a proposition (realized in a statement) that projects the original proposal (a command) With indirect commands, the speech tone is softened and the social distance between the President and the audience is shortened and what he has said seems fixed, unarguable so that he will more likely to get the audience‟s understandings and approval The use of indirect commands together with that of parallel structures makes the speech flow smoothly so that

he can persuade the audience who are the American and people around the world implicitly into accepting his argument that he, the government and the American are strongly determined to defeat terrorism and nations all over the world need support him, his government and the American

3.2.4 Textual Function

Nominalizations are analyzed in terms of Theme and Rheme

Theme Rheme

Table 4: Theme- Rheme Analysis of Nominalization in President Bush’s Speech

As can be seen, nominalizations in the position of Theme account for 12% whereas those

in the position of Rheme are pervasive (occupying 88%) In some cases, nominalizations

are thematized so they help the process of logical reasoning go further For example, “the

leadership” and “our war” are repeated somewhere in the speech Another example is one

special case of nominalization seen in “pseudo-cleft” sentences (Halliday, 1985) or complement clauses Another group of element what is at stake (line 164) takes the

wh-function of a nominal group in an identifying clause It serves as a thematic purpose since

it is the Theme that the information is presupposed that the hearers have already known: American‟s and the world‟s freedom is at stake The theme is also equated or identified with the rheme and thus, “pseudo-cleft” sentences also called thematic equatives In general, one important feature of this type of constructions is that they add the semantic component of exclusiveness In the above example, that exclusiveness is broken by

negative polarity of the identifier not just For other cases of “pseudo-cleft” sentences such as: What the Mafia is to crime (line55), what they see right here in this chamber (line108),

what will be a long struggle (line195), what you will do (line204), what you have already done (line205, to whom it happened (line240), what happened that day (line239), etc

“Pseudo-cleft” sentences are used as complements of the clauses, and there is a sense that these statements have been made as if they are generally known truths Other cases of

nominalization such as its outpouring of support, great influence, our freedom, instant

retaliation, isolated strikes, etc appear in rheme position have the same meaning, the new

information treated as though it has already existed and is stable; therefore, the speaker‟s arguments are unchallengeable

For a further discussion, some nominal groups are repeated throughout the speech as a

means of cohesive device to create cohesion For example, terrorists and terrorism (22

times), the state of the union and his unity (4 times), freedom (9times), attacks (6 times), demands (3 times), war (8 times), responsibilities (2 times), security (5 times), the stability

of (2 times), hopes (3 times), fight (5 times), etc., the repetition creates a link throughout

the speech, maintains the topic of the speech and develop the President‟s arguments

gradually What the President wants to convey is because of the terrorists‟ attacks and their causing great damage, the United States of American will make demands on the Taliban, declare war against terrorism to protect their security, their freedom and ensure their strength with the American‟s high responsibility and with the sympathy and support from people around the world who are against terrorism The repetition which can be seen as a listing makes the hearers have a very strong emotion Therefore, the hearers could feel that there is a call for struggle Additionally, the hearers would be given the careful, step by step, justification for the struggle

3.3 Nominalization in President Nguyen Minh Triet’s Speech: Diễn Văn Khai Mạc Đại

Draped in red Communist banners and propaganda slogans, Ha Noi, Vietnam‟s capital, was opening an extravagant ceremony to celebrate its 1000th birthday The ever biggest national-level event, the most important event in the 10-day program to celebrate the

1000th birthday anniversary of Thang Long-Ha Noi, which received UNESCO‟s certificate

to be recognized as a World Cultural Heritage Site, started at 7.30 a.m of October 10th at the historical Ba Dinh Square Party, State and Government leaders, ambassadors, representatives from international organizations in Vietnam and a large number of Vietnamese attended the grand millennial anniversary Ba Dinh square was flooded with banners and flowers At 8.00 a.m, State President Nguyễn Minh Triết delivered a speech praising the proud history of Vietnamese nation and the 1000-year-old capital of Ha Noi A millennium ago, in 1010, King Ly Thai To transferred the imperial capital from Hoa Lu to Thang Long (nowadays Ha Noi), opening a new state for the development of Viet Nam Experiencing its 1000 years of ups and downs, Thang Long- Ha Noi is always been united

by patriotism, indomitable spirit, heroism and glorious feats of arms The capital is the county‟s heart and the place of convergence of national traditions and values Thang Long-

Ha Noi is a place that represents the aspiration for peace, friendship and solidarity with all nations around the world The capital will continue to develop and flourish in the future, being a worthy heart and the capital of the Vietnamese nation- the capital of heroism, peace and friendship That is the President‟s main ideology, is what he emphasizes to the listeners That is not only the President‟s hearted words but also Vietnamese people‟s and the nation‟s

3.3.1 The Realization of Nominalization

In President Nguyễn Minh Triết‟s speech, there are 45 cases of nominalization including both lexical nominalization and clausal nominalization Nominalizations are used 59 times

in all in the speech There are 38 nominalizations per 1000 words Table 1 gives a detailed

description of types of the nominalization

nominalization De-

Table 5: Types of Nominalization in President N.M Triet’s Speech

It can be seen that nominalizations at lexical level account for the majority (98.3%) while nominalization at clause level is rarely used (occupies only 1.7%) Among five types of lexical nominalizations, de-clausal nominalization, and conversion appear frequently (makes up 30.5% and 28.8% respectively) One typical feature of de-clausal

nominalizations is that they usually contain the word “của” to express the meaning of

possession The converted nouns are mainly derived from adjective (16 out of 17) adjectival nominalizations occupy for only 8.5%, ranking last The last type named

De-“other”, a noun which is equivalent to the verb or adjective in term of meaning, ranks the fourth (11.9%) These nominal entities can become participants or circumstance of others processes, fulfilling any function of a noun and serve other purposes such as deleting agency, concise referencing and exerting power In addition, nominalization can be used to express a certain extend of interpersonal function as well as to create textual function The

following sections provide a deep look into these metafunctions

3.3.2 Ideational Function

59 nominalizations are distributed as following: