code-mixing of english in hoa hoc tro magazine in vietnam patterns and readers’ attitudes = hiện tượng pha trộn ngôn ngữ anh trong báo hoa học trò ở việt nam hình thức pha trộn và thái độ của độc giả

48 Figure 4: Question 6: Articles with code mixing often draw your attention 48 Figure 5: Question 7: You find it difficult to read the articles with English code-mixing in Hoa Hoc Tro

VIETNAM NATIONAL UNIVERSITY, HANOI UNIVERSITY OF LANGUAGES AND INTERNATIONAL STUDIES

FACULTY OF POST-GRADUATE STUDIES

o0o

TRẦN THỊ CÚC

CODE-MIXING OF ENGLISH IN HOA HOC TRO

MAGAZINE IN VIETNAM:

PATTERNS AND READERS’ ATTITUDES

HOA HỌC TRÒ Ở VIỆT NAM:

HÌNH THỨC PHA TRỘN VÀ THÁI ĐỘ CỦA ĐỘC GIẢ)

M.A COMBINED PROGRAMME THESIS

Hanoi, 2012 Field: English Linguistics

Code: 60 22 15

VIETNAM NATIONAL UNIVERSITY, HANOI UNIVERSITY OF LANGUAGES AND INTERNATIONAL STUDIES

FACULTY OF POST-GRADUATE STUDIES

o0o

TRẦN THỊ CÚC

CODE-MIXING OF ENGLISH IN HOA HOC TRO

MAGAZINE IN VIETNAM:

PATTERNS AND READERS’ ATTITUDES

HOA HỌC TRÒ Ở VIỆT NAM:

HÌNH THỨC PHA TRỘN VÀ THÁI ĐỘ CỦA ĐỘC GIẢ)

M.A COMBINED PROGRAMME THESIS

Hanoi, 2012

Field: English Linguistics

Code: 60 22 15 Supervisor: Đỗ Thị Thanh Hà, Ph.D

iv

Lists of tables

Tables

Page

Table 6: Respondents’ views on the code-mixing used in the four extracts 41

Table 7: Details of understanding and feeling good about 4 extracts 42

Table 9: Attitudes towards code-mixing of secondary and high school

students

57

v

List of figures

Figure 1: Question 3: You often understand articles in Hoa Hoc Tro

Magazine with code mixing

47

Figure 2: Question 4: You often feel comfortable when you read Hoa Hoc

Tro Magazine with code mixing

47

Figure 3: Question 5: In general, you prefer code-mixing in Hoa Hoc Tro

Magazine

48

Figure 4: Question 6: Articles with code mixing often draw your attention 48

Figure 5: Question 7: You find it difficult to read the articles with English

code-mixing in Hoa Hoc Tro Magazine

49

Figure 6: Q8: Code – mixing of English in Hoa Hoc Tro Magazine destroys

Vietnamese impurity

50

Figure 10: Attention level paid on code mixing in different regions 53

Figure 12: Agreement if code-mixing destroys Vietnamese impurity 54

vi

Table of contents

Candidate’s statement……….i

Acknowledgement……….ii

Abstract……… iii

List of tables……… iv

List of figures……….v

Table of contents……… vi

CHAPTER I: INTRODUCTION i

1.1 Rationale 1

1.2 Scopes and aims 2

1.3 Research questions 2

CHAPTER II: LITERATURE REVIEW 3

A-THEORETICAL BACKGROUND 3

2.1 Code mixing 3

2.1.1 Code 3

2.1.2 Code mixing and code switching 3

2.1.3 Code-mixing and borrowing 5

2.2 Linguistics constraints on code- mixing 6

2.2.1 Particular grammatical constraints 6

2.2.2 Universal constraints on code- mixing 8

2.2.3 Extra-linguistic factors related to code-mixing 11

2.3 Patterns of code mixing 12

B - EMPIRICAL STUDIES 14

C - GENERAL REMARKS ON SYNTACTIC FEATURES OF VIETNAMESE 16

CHAPTER III: METHODOLOGY 20

3.1 Data Corpus 20

3.1.1 Hoa Hoc Tro Magazine 20

3.1.2 Language of magazines 21

3.2 Corpus observation 22

3.3 Questionnaires delivery 22

vii

3.3.1 Sampling 22

3.3.2 Questionnaires 23

3.4 Data analysis 24

CHAPTER IV: PATTERNS OF CODE-MIXING FINDINGS AND DISCUSSION 26

4.1 Findings of the quantification of mixed word class 26

4.2 Distribution of mixed words in the corpus 28

4.3 Overview description and discussion of mixed word classes 28

4.3 1 Nouns 28

4.3.2 Verbs 34

4.3.3 Adjectives 36

4.4.4 Vocabulary combined between English and Vietnamese 38

CHAPTER V: READERS’ ATTITUDES TO CODE-MIXING FINDINGS AND DISCUSSION 41

5.1 Part 1 of the questionnaires: Findings and Discussions 41

5.2 Part 2 of the Questionnaires: Findings and Discussions 41

5.3 Part 3 of the questionnaire: Findings and Discussion 45

5.4 Part 4 of the questionnaires: Findings and Discussion 52

CHAPTER VI: CONCLUSION 59

6.1 Summary 59

6.2 Implications 60

6.3 Limitations 60

6.4 Suggestions for further study 61

REFERENCES 62 APPENDIX

no longer a rare phenomenon to find many English words used as substitutes appearing in the newspapers or magazines of other languages, which has aroused interest of various linguistic and sociological researchers Sharing the same desire,

we also wished to get the holistic view on the process of producing such a mixture

of English language into the researcher‟s mother tongue, Vietnamese, as well as the reaction of Vietnamese, especially Vietnamese youth, towards the cases

The reason for me to choose Vietnamese young people as the subject of study is that they are assumed to have the highest frequency of mixing languages in their daily environment Obviously, as English have been nationwide taught in all Vietnamese schools for the past ten years, they could be exposed to English at the early age As a result, English turns out to be familiar with them Additionally, under the boom of entertainment industry and Western influence, English, more or less, become preferable in media It was also proved by Leung (2010) that young people preferred code mixing in advertising

Since 1970s, quite a number of researches have been done on code-mixing both in spoken and written languages in China, Hong Kong, Taiwan, and France In 2003, Ho-Dac Tuc also had a close view on spoken code-switching of English into Vietnamese community in Australia Though valuable results have been found, they still leave the gaps for code-mixing in written language, i.e magazines and newspapers for Vietnamese youth

2

For all of the reasons listed above, this research was carried out to focus on illustrating the patterns of and readers‟ attitudes towards code-mixing of English in Hoe Hoc Tro Magazine, a magazine for Vietnamese youngsters, using eclectic across qualitative and quantitative methods The research, once finished, is expected

to shed some light on code-mixing patterns used in Youth‟s newspapers in general, raise sociolinguistics related issues and lay foundation for further studies

Although there are various dimensions of code-mixing and magazine languages to

be studied, this combination of qualitative and quantitative study only examines the phenomenon of code-mixing in Hoa Hoc Tro Magazine in terms of its patterns and readers‟ views on it This work also focuses on the written articles, though code-mixing is more popular in spoken form

In order to reach the aim of exploring the forms of as well as readers‟ attitudes to the mixture of code in Hoa Hoc Tro Magazine, the research answered two questions

as follows:

1) What are the patterns of code-mixing used in Hoa Hoc Tro Magazine?

2) What are readers’ attitudes towards code-mixing phenomenon in Hoa Hoc Tro Magazine?

in telephoning As this is a sociolinguistic study, the function of “code” as “a system of words, letters, numbers or symbols that represent a message or record information secretly or in a shorter form” (Oxford Advanced Learners, 8th ed, OUP)

is implemented To be specific, in this study, “Code” is defined as “a verbal component that can be as small as a morpheme or as comprehensive and complex as the entire system of language.” (Ayeomoni, M.O, 2006)

2.1.2 Code mixing and code switching

The terms code alternation, code mixing and code switching have grounded heated debates in distinguishing Different definitions of code mixing, code switching as well as the differentiation between the thereof have been proposed

The first point of view was raised by Clyne (1991) who argued that there is no

difference between code mixing and code switching in which “the speaker stops using language „A‟ and employs language „B‟ ” (p 161)

However, Bentahila and Davies (1983) held the second view point that code-

mixing is the random alternation of two languages within a sentence Wei (1998) also shared the same idea that if code alternation occurs at or above clause level, it

is considered code switching, but if it occurs below clause level then it is considered code mixing According to Bhatia and Ritchie (2004), code-mixing as “the mixing

of various linguistic units (morphemes, words, modifiers, phrases, clauses and sentences) primarily from two participating grammatical systems within a sentence”

4

However, in her “Sometimes I‟ll start a sentence in English …”, Poplack (1980) defined code switching as “the alternation of two languages within a single discourse, sentence or constituent” and divided code switching into three types including tag switching, inter-sentential and intra- sentential ones

The first type, tag-switching, related to the inclusion of a tag (e.g: you know, OK, right, etc), can be illustrated in the following example of Portuguese- English

bilingual: “I look like Lilica, you know, nunca paro!” [ I look like Lilica, you know,

I never stop!] The second type, inter-sentential switching occurs in clausal level or

between sentences A case in point is the title of the of Poplack (1980)‟s study:

“Sometimes I’ll start a sentence in English y termino en español” [Sometimes I’ll

start a sentence in English and finish in Spanish] The third type is intra-sentential

code switching Below is an example of a Portuguese – English bilingual‟s speech:

“Yeah, I don’t know o meu lugar nesse mundo…so, something that is weird, like a,

like a, I guess it’s…” [… I don’t know my place in this world…] (Jalil A, 2009)

Therefore, both Poplack (1980) and Holmes (1992) proposed another view point which refers the third type, intra-sentential code switching, as code-mixing In other

words, code-mixing is a sub-type of code switching This is also agreed by Liu, P (2008) who states that: “Very often the expression code-mixing is used synonymously with code switching and means basically intra-sentential code switching”(p.4)

It is shown that the phenomenon defined differently as a result of different research interest as well as how researchers view the phenomenon In this study, we adopt

the third view point In brief, code switching refers to both inter-sentential and

intra-sentential code-alternation occurring when a bilingual speaker uses more than one language in a single utterance above the clause level to appropriately convey his/her intents, thus code switching relates to participants and discourse Mean

while code mixing refers to mixing the various language units below clause level

within a sentence, which results no discourse meaning occurring sentence internally

5

2.1.3 Code-mixing and borrowing

As code-mixing is defined as a subtype of code-switching in this study, the

distinction from code mixing and borrowing will be taken as the difference between

code- switching and thereof

There has been a variety of studies trying to make a distinction between

code-mixing (as a subtype of code-switching) and borrowing Some scholars take them as

related processes (Bentahila and Davies, 1991) and should not be considered as

distinct entities while many others consider them as distinct processes (Poplack

1980; Muysken 1987)

Poplack and Sankoff (1984) (see Tuc (2003:9)) discussed the relationship between

code-mixing and borrowing as follows:

Table 1: Distinction between code-mixing and borrowing

It is obvious seen from the table that borrowing is used more frequently with the

integration of phonology and syntax, and accepted by native speakers Unlike code

6

mixing, they are pronounced and used grammatically as part of the speaker‟s first language For example, cultural specific names such as “CD, video, radio” are borrowed into Vietnamese with phonological adaptation As in Vietnamese, they are translated into “đĩa CD” , “đầu vi -déo” or “đầu vi -đê-ô”, “đài ra -đi-ô” They become common in daily conversation among monolingual Vietnamese That is also another point separating borrowing from code – mixing In terms of speakers‟ degree of competence, borrowing needs only monolingual competence, whereas for the occurrence of code mixing, speakers should master both languages in order to

“have a genuine choice about which words or phrases they will use in which language” (Holmes, 1992)

Though the distinction between code-mixing and borrowing is still far from clear, the analysis of Poplack and Sankoff (1984)‟s chart has proved that the two phenomena have certain differences As a result, this study takes Poplack and Sankoff (1984)‟s contrast as principles for distinguishing In short, code-mixing differs from borrowing in terms of the frequency used, the morphological, phonological and syntactic integration as well as acceptability of and requirement from native speakers

2.2 Linguistics constraints on code- mixing

Sociolinguists have been interested in not only the functions, meanings and patterns

of code mixing but also the points at which code-mixing occurs in the sentence In other words, what are the constraints on code-mixing? Basing on what has been researched by Muysken (2000), studies on constraints of code-mixing have undergone three stages: (i) an early stage focusing on grammatical constraints specific to particular constructions of specific languages; (ii) the later stage with classical studies in around 1980s exploring universal constraints on code-mixing; (iii) the present stage, which may be characterized by the search for new perspectives of mixing strategies and relative constraints to particular strategy

2.2.1 Particular grammatical constraints

7

In 1970s, a large amount of research was carried out to study specific constraints on code mixing (Gumperz and Hernandez- Chavz 1975; Timm 1975; Lipski 1978; Plaff 1979) Most of these studies looked at a specific case of code-mixing and impose specific constraints rather than formulating universal constraints

Drawing on Spanish- English conversations of Mexican Americans and Puerto Ricans, Gumperz and Hernandez- Chavz (1975) noted that code mixing was easily possible in such context as:

(1) between a head noun and a relative clause

(2)between a subject and a predicate in a copular construction

Likewise, Timm (1975) also proposed the following constraints on Spanish English code- mixing:

(3) Subject and object pronouns must be in the same language as the main verb

(4) An auxiliary and a main verb, or a main verb and an infinitive must be in the same language

However, the above studies do not provide any examples from other language pairs that would confirm their constraints Specific language constraints studies continued

to be observed and followed by Lipski (1978) with two major findings including: (5) It is difficult to switch inside a prepositional phrase

(6) It is impossible to switch between the article and the noun

However, these were counter-acttacked by Plaff (1979) After analyzing a large number of cases, it was found that mixing internal to prepositional phrases (PPs), i.e of English nouns into Spanish PPs happens far more often than mixing at PP boundaries Also, more cases of a switch between the article and the noun are found than switches between article + nouns combinations and the rest of the sentence Obviously, it turned out to be difficult to rely on judgement data

Therefore, it has been recognized that the specific constraints are applicable with these language pairs code mixing but fail to explain the phenomenon among other

8

diverse pairs This impair proved the necessity and the extent stimulation of a general theoretical constraints in later studies on code-mixing

2.2.2 Universal constraints on code- mixing

From 1980s onwards, scholars have turned their directions to proposing universal models for code-mixing, such as Poplack‟s (1980) Free Morpheme Constraint and Equivalence Contraints, Singh (1986)‟s Government Constrain and Myers-Scottons (1993a)‟s Matrix Language Model

a Poplack’s Equivalence and Free Morpheme constraints

In Poplack (1980), The Equivalence constraint is stated as follows:

Code-switches will tend to occur at points in discourse where juxtaposition of

L1 and L2 elements does not violate a syntactic rule of either language, i.e at points around which the surface structure of the two languages map onto each other According to this simple constraint, a switch is inhibited from occurring within a constituent generated by a rule from one language which is not shared

by the other

(Poplack 1980:586)

In other words, code-mixing would only occur within sentences at points where the grammars of both languages match each other, which can be illustrated in the following example:

I told him that so that he would bring it fast

(Yo) le dije eso pa‟ que (él) la trajera rápido

(Poplack 1980 :586)

Similarly, Holmes (1992) gave an example of mixing an adjective and a noun if both languages use the same order for that adjective and noun

9

big house grande maison YES: i.e “big maison” or “grande house”

Poplack (1980) also proposed another principle called Free Morpheme Constraint, which states: “Code may be switched after any constituent in discourse provided that constituent is not a bound morpheme” (Poplack 1980:585-6) This principle was more clarified in her later version: “A switch is prohibited from occurring between a bound morpheme and lexical form unless the latter has been phonologically integrated into the language of the former” Basically, it is prohibited to switch between a free and bound morpheme basing on this constraint These two constraints are based on English – Spanish data However, when Poplack and Sankoff (1988) extended their applicability to other language pairs, they were criticized by many other scholars whose studies showed counter-examples to the two mentioned constraints Eliason (1990) even compiled a list of counter-examples and arguments against the two constraints based on Maori- English data (as cited in Tuc, 2003) These arguments and many other counter-examples have led researchers to a conclusion that even though Poplack‟s two constraints are very powerful, they still cannot be universally applicable to all code-mixing cases of language pairs but need relativising when considered

b Government Constraint

Another attempt to claim code mixing was made by Di Sciullo, Muysken and Singh (1986) who incorporated a number of universal principles within a Government-Binding framework of Chomsky (1981) to propose Government Constraint The Government-Binding framework, a theory of syntax and a phrase structure grammar (as opposed to a dependency grammar) in the tradition of transformational grammar, which includes two central subtheories of the theory: government, which

is an abstract syntactic relation, and binding, which deals with the referents

of pronouns, anaphors, and referential expressions Government explains the governing relationship while binding reasons the ungrammaticality of the two elements In the Government constraint developed later, mixing is only possible

10

between elements that are not related by government In detailed, switching subjects and verbs is allowed, but not between verbs and objects or within a prepositional phrase The relation between and its syntactic environment is restricted by the relation of government However theoretically appealing this constraint is, it still faces challenges as the class of governors include both content words and functional categories (Ho, 2003) Nortier (1990), who studied Dutch-Morroccan Arabic code-mixing in detail, presented counter-evidence to the government constraint There are no less than 14 cases of mixing between verbs and indirect objects and 97 mixes

of object noun phrases involving a single noun Demonstrated all the examples, the government constraint is apparently in adequate The problem now is not only universal basis but if it is supported when applied in specific language pairs

counter-c The Matrix Language Frame Model

In 1993, Myers- Scotton rejected all the earlier constraints to propose her full account of ambitious model called The Matrix Language Frame Model which holds that when an intra-sentential code switching occurs, the distribution of two languages is asymmetrical One is the Matrix Language (ML) which is more dominant, and the other one is Embedded Language (EL) ML can also be identified

as the first language of the speaker As structural constraints are imposed on code- switched utterances, system morphemes (e.g tense and aspect inflections) will always come from the ML, and the order in which morphemes may occur in code switched utterances will be determined by the MLF

Below is an example of MLF, the content words (in capitals) are from English, the

EL while the other morphemes and other characteristics such as prefixes, subject, person, number and gender are from the ML, Swalli

Eg:

Leo si-ku-COME na-BOOK z-angu

„Today I didn‟t come with my books‟

(Holmes, 1992)

11

Myers-Scotton‟s work, despite making the distinction between content (nouns, verbs, etc.) and system (articles, inflections, etc.) morphemes in the EL, has been criticized for a number of points: there has not been a clear-cut definition of system morphemes, the notion of ML frame is too rigid and the psycholinguistic processing model is assumed far from explicit

In brief, there are there prominent theories on universal constraints on code-mixing

Equivalence and Free Morphemes Constraints limit the scope of code-mixing in the equivalence of word order and words category In other words, code-mixing cannot happen if the two languages do not have the same structures or a free morpheme can

be switched with a bound one In Government Constraint, code-mixing will not happen between certain types of word categories or within prepositional phrase in a clause Matrix Language Model illustrates a frame in which system morphemes are embedded into the matrix language All these theories, either reach agreement or attacks from research community, carry unconvincing counter-evidence to attack themselves While the two former constraints could not be applied to all specific language pairs, the later one failed to define and distinguish the notion of system morphemes (Muysken, 2000) Thus, it is reasonable to admit that adequate formulation of constraints on code-mixing are not yet possible This study is not meant to support any specific constraint of code-mixing but rather take these constraints into consideration when dealing with English and Vietnamese in contact

in a given corpus

2.2.3 Extra-linguistic factors related to code-mixing

Bentahila and Davies (1995) realized that code-mixing could not be satisfactorily only along the dimensions of structural constraints or rhetorical functions A consideration of such extra-linguistic factors as age, sex, social networks will play

an equal role in explanation the patterns of code-mixing as well For instance, Poplack (1980) reported it her study of English- Spanish bilinguals that code mixing was used by those with high proficiency in both languages than those with less proficiency in English

12

However, the selection of extra-linguistic factors to establish the network is not simple According to Kerswill (1994, cited in Tuc, 2003), the selection requires the researcher to have the knowledge of the community under investigation As the matter of fact, the research, without the knowledge needed, will unlikely to able to choose which variable as the most important in the relationship with linguistic behaviors

Myers- Scotton (1993a) made an attempt to provide a general theoretical explanation of the sociolinguistic and pragmatic aspects of code-mixing called

“Markedness Model” Code-mixing is considered as a socially functional phenomenon which occurs with the speaker‟s intention In a given social context, if there are some conventionalized of code choice and code use, which are expected the majority of speakers, this is called code mixing as unmarked choice Whereas, if the speaker uses the unexpected code to negotiate or achieve a strategic effect in conversation, it is called marked code

The theory of Markedness model as well as the role of extra-linguistic factors are valuable to the researcher when she analyzes the patterns of code-mixing in the corpus in later parts In this study, the use of English in magazine is regarded as a marked choice because the normative medium (i.e., the unmarked choice) of written communication in Vietnam is Vietnamese Hence, this study will also explore the

“other-than-expected effects” of switching to English in the Magazine

Based on structural linguistics and sociolinguistics, code mixing was classified into three processes, namely insertion, alternation, and congruent lexicalization (Muysken (2000))

Insertion: Insertion happens when lexical items are incorporated/transferred/ embedded/ inserted into another language

13

Alternation: occurs when structures of two languages are alternated indistinctively

both at the grammatical and lexical level

Congruent lexicalization happens when two languages share grammatical

structures which can be filled lexically with elements from either language

(Muysken, 2000)

14

These classification is of worthy consideration However, these processes are too complicated; besides the distinction between the first and third type is not yet clear Therefore, in order for an easier approach, the researcher did not apply this categorization but took the methods of categorizing codes mixed in terms of their parts of speech such as Nouns, Verbs, Adjectives, Adverbs and others This classification was already done in the empirical studies carried out by different researchers before A clear justification of these empirical studies will be illustrated

in the following part

B - EMPIRICAL STUDIES

One of the pioneer of studying code alternation, especially code-switching, of

English into Vietnamese is Ho Dac Tuc In his study of Vietnamese-English

Bilingualism (2003), he chose Vietnamese community in Melbourne, Australia as

the subject of the study Totally, there were sixty informants with an equal number

of males and females, ranging from eighteen to sixty-two of age, being interviewed The findings showed that among 3157 codes switched found in the corpus, nouns occupy the highest percentage (50,61%), followed by verbs (12,35%) and adjectives (4,6%) Other parts of speech contribute about 10% What is special here is the ratio

of switching at clause level takes almost one fifth of all the switched cases Almost the English codes are about house hold, working and daily life activities

The findings of this study would be compared to those of Tuc‟s when relevant Nevertheless, as the focus of this study is intra-sentential code mixing, all the cases

of English switched above clause level will not be counted Also, as the given corpus is a magazine written in spoken language, the method of data collection will

be of difference No interview will be recorded but will be observed through publications of mentioned Magazine

Code-mixing in written forms, i.e in the newspapers and magazines have been widely researched in Chinese communities

on code mixing in print advertisement in Hong Kong, a society where both English and Chinese are official languages and code mixing in print advertisement is quite common 278 questionnaires sent to local Chinese residents revealed that (1) most code-mixed advertisements could be understood, (2) the products considered to be advertised with code-mixing are convenience and shopping ones and (3) code-mixing in advertising is more preferred by young and educated people Kia (2011) and his Malaysian colleagues identified the features of English lexical items code-mixed into Chinese entertainment news Around 1000 English code-mixed sentences in Chinese entertainment news were collected from three dailies in 2007

to be analyzed qualitatively Survey questionnaires were also delivered to respondents to find out their opinions on the features of some English lexical items code-mixed into the sentences of Chinese entertainment news It was found that many English abbreviations were inserted into Chinese entertainment news to make them easier and simpler Many adjectives were reduplicated, such as “sweet sweet”

so that is has the same grammar characteristics as Chinese Many nouns and verbs change their parts of speech when code-mixed into Chinese entertainment news Clearly, the language pair in the three studies above is dissimilar with the current study and the corpuses for investigation are not the same However, the method of collecting data, conducting questionnaires could be practical in the current study To

be more detailed, the current study is an attempt to further Kia, Chen and Leung‟s researches in different context with different corpus At the same time, unlike the focus of the studies on advertisement in different magazines, it is to focus on a variety of columns but only in one magazine

16

To sum up, this study has reviewed linguistics constraints including specific and universal ones as well as extra-linguistics influential factors to code-mixing In this study, Markedness Model and Matrix Language will be implemented as back-up theories Also, the study also wishes to fill the gaps left by the empirical studies about code-mixing in written language in the context of Vietnam

C - GENERAL REMARKS ON SYNTACTIC FEATURES OF

of at least one of the included optional forms

This can be demonstrated in these following sentences:

(1) Declarative sentence: Các bạn ấy đã đi rồi

“They went already”

You go Particle

“You‟d better go.”

17

You go Particle

“Did you go yet?”

So, different types of sentences can be generated from this formulation The declarative sentence takes neither F nor Q By contrast, the request or imperative sentence has a similar structure to that of the interrogative sentence in that it can take either F or Q

As mentioning to parts of speech, Nguyen, Hong Con (2003) divided Vietnamese lexis into ten types of words as below:

In order to make it clearer, basing on their main functions in the sentence, Vietnamese vocabulary consists of noun, pronoun, verb, adjective, number, attribute, adverb, conjunction, preposition, particle, modal particle

Table 2: Part of speech in Vietnamese

Meanwhile in English, basing on structures and functions in the sentence, parts of speech consist of two groups namely open-class and closed system items Those in

open class are Noun (John, room, answer, play), adjective (happy, steady, new,

large, round), adverb (really, very, then, happily) and verb (search, grow, play, be, have, do) Closed-system items include article (a, an the), demonstrative (that, this),

pronoun (he, they, anybody, one, which), preposition (of, at, in, without, in spite of), conjunction (and, that, when, although) and interjection (oh, ah, uh, phew)

Through comparing and contrasting the morphology of the two languages, the similarities and differences of the two languages are made explicit Needless to say,

19

there are content words in both language systems However, as the unlike characteristics in grammar, opposite points in function words such as particles are clearly seen

20

CHAPTER III: METHODOLOGY

3.1.1 Hoa Hoc Tro Magazine

Hoa Hoc Tro is a magazine published weekly under the verification and censorship

of Vietnam Youth‟s Union Specializing in youth‟s life, the magazine‟s readers are mainly students of secondary schools, high schools and colleges As it is written for the youngsters, the magazine is also believed to reflect Vietnamese young people‟s thoughts and life style The first volume of Hoa Hoc Tro Magazine was published

on October 15th, 1991 Up to now, Hoa Hoc Tro is one of the most successful and best-selling magazines in Vietnam

Depending on the amount of supplement, the page number of each volume ranges from 72 to 80, six of which are colored printed covers, 4-6 of which in the middle are also color-printed for advertising products, posters or entertainment targets The content of the rest pages varies with many columns

The compulsory columns for all the volumes include “TRÒ CHUYỆN ĐẦU

TUẦN” (New week talk), “NHÂN VẬT TIÊU ĐIỂM” (Focused character ), “Bản tin H2T Express” (Express News), “CUỘC SỐNG LÀ MỘT MÓN QUÀ” (Life is a gift), “TRUYỆN NGẮN” (Stories), “CÀ PHÊ CHIỀU THỨ BẢY” (Saturday afternoon café), “CẨM NANG TEEN” (Teen manual), “TRUYỆN CƯỜI” (Funny stories), “ANH CHÁNH VĂN” (Chanh van answer teen‟s questions), SKY‟S TALK SHOW (Discussion on a problem of teenagers), BẢN TIN FC (Fan club News), 360˚ SHOWBIZ CHÂU Á (360˚ Asian showbiz), CINELAND, Will thích điều này (Will loves these) On the final pages of the magazine are articles about music or films stars

Besides, there are other columns which do not necessarily appear in every volume

of such as: NHỮNG QUYỀN LỰC BI ̣ LÃNG QUÊN, GIA ĐÌNH LÌ KÌ CHUYỆN, TEEN ONLINE, HỒ SƠ CAO TH Ủ HỌC ĐƯỜNG , BÍ MẬT CỦA TỚ , CHÀO TUẦN MỚI RỰC RỠ, XU HƯỚNG TEEN, BLOG CỦA FAN

21

The researcher chooses this magazine for the interest in young people as well as the belief that young people are more inclined to use code-mixing in language as they are more exposed to English not only at school but also through entertainment and

As taken code mixing is a sub-kind of code switching, the current study also adopts the analyzing method of Tuc (2003)‟s, which means the categorization of codes embedded are also classified into parts of speech Before analyzing, all the cases of code mixing are highlighted and recorded before categorizing into the patterns of code mixing such as nouns, verbs, adjectives, adverbs and others

Also the frequency of patterns is calculated to see which phenomena are the most common in the magazine

3.3.1 Sampling

With the expectation of figuring out the reaction of readers of the North of Vietnam

on the use of code mixing in HHT magazine, informants will be selected from four provinces including Hanoi, Thai Binh and Son La These provinces are of different terrains, economic situations, so it is underpinned that youngsters will have different conditions to get approached with Hoa Hoa Tro Magazine As a result, their points of views towards code-mixing used in the magazine would be taken to

be unlike Respondents in Hanoi, the capital city, represented for the respondents from the cities while those from Thai Binh were for the country side Likewise, readers from Son La were on behalf of those from the mountainous areas Totally

450 respondents, with 150 from each region, were handed the questionnaires

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As the informants are mostly secondary and high school students, their ages range from 12 to 19 Their first language is Vietnamese, and all of them have learned English at school

3.3.2 Questionnaires

According to Brown (2001, p 6), “questionnaires are any written instruments that present respondents with a series of questions or statements to which they are to react either by writing out their answers or selecting among existing answers.” This definition is applicable in this study This questionnaire was designed, basing

on the questionnaires frame made by Leung (2010), in response to the aim of collecting a large amount of data in a relatively short period of time

The questionnaires comprise 13 questions structured in four main parts

The first part, also the first question (Q1) asks about the frequency of respondents

to read Hoa Hoc Tro Magazine This question helps to filter informants so that only answers from those groups who sometimes, usually or often read would count The responses of those who never or rarely read would not be considered

The second part including two questions exploring if readers can understand

English code-mixing words in the four extracts from four columns namely “Bản tin

H2T Express” (H2T Express), “Teen online”, “Như ̃ng con số biết nói” (Statistics), Entertainment In Q2, A respondent was asked whether he/she understood the code-

mixed statements and in Q3 whether he/she felt comfortable with them Likert scale was used and respondents might select from Strongly Disagree to Strongly

Agree

The third part contains six questions to get respondents‟ views on code-mixing of

English in Hoa Hoc Tro Magazine Likert scale was also implemented in these questions so that informants selected from Strongly agree to Strongly Disagree To

be more detailed, the questions made are as follows:

Q.4 You often understand articles in Hoa Hoc Tro Magazine with code mixing Q.5 You often feel comfortable when you read Hoa Hoc Tro Magazine with code mixing

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Q.6 In general, you prefer code-mixing in Hoa Hoc Tro Magazine

Q.7 Articles with code mixing in Hoa Hoc Tro Magazine often draw your attention Q.8 You find it difficult to read the articles with English code-mixing in Hoa Hoc Tro Magazine

Q9 Code – mixing of English in Hoa Hoc Tro Magazine destroys Vietnamese impurity

The last part consists of the questions about personal information of respondents

such as age, place of living, their school and their contact information (if they are willing)

On the delivery of the questionnaires, the researcher came to the respondents‟ schools, explaining the aim of the research as well as the instructions of the questionnaires and provided help whenever needed

Research question 1: All the phenomena of English code-mixing were highlighted

and recorded The codes were categorized according to parts of speech, so that all the code-mixed words or phrases would be put into these groups of parts of speech

to see: (1) Among all the intra-sentential code-mixed words, what functions most of them have (2) Which words or phrases and seem to happen the most often, (3)In which column the frequency of code-mixing is the highest

Research question 2:

In part 1: As stated earlier, only answers from those who sometimes, usually and

often read would be taken as valid responses All the questionnaires will be counted and classified into valid and invalid groups

In part 2: In both Questions 1 and 2, Agree and Strongly Agree answers would be

counted to see the percentage of people who (1) understood each extracts of magazine given and (2) found it comfortable to read the extracts with code-mixing

Questions in part 3 were similarly analyzed Answers of Agree and Strongly Agree

would be used to get the rate of people generally (i) understood code-mixed words

in Hoa Hoc Tro Magazine in general, (ii) found it comfortable to read code-mixed

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articles, (iii) Liked code-mixing in HHT Magazine, (iv) agreed that code-mixing drew attention, (v) had difficulties in reading code-mixed articles and (vi) agreed that Hoa Hoc Tro Magazine destroyed the impurity of Vietnamese

In part 4, such demographical factors as age or education level and place of living

will be taken into account to compare and contrast the attitudes towards mixing in Hoa Hoc Tro Magazine influenced by different conditions

4.1 Findings of the quantification of mixed word class

From the six volumes of Hoa Hoc Tro Magazine synthesized, 1379 code-mixing of English phenomena were found into Vietnamese sentences Among these 1379 intra-sentential code- mixing words, the most commonly used parts of speech in the sentences are 1261 nouns, followed by 69 verbs, 53 adjectives and only one interjection In other words, more than 90% of the lexical items code-mixed in Hoa Hoc Tro magazine are nouns This result coincides with that of Tuc (2003), Chen (2006) on the percentage of the English nouns mixed Nevertheless, English pronouns, adverbs, conjunctions, prepositions and interjections are not mixed in Vietnamese Hoa Hoc Tro Magazine The table below shows details of English lexical items added in the six volumes of Hoa Hoc Tro Magazine

Table 3: Patterns of code-mixing

From the table above, it can be assumed that in each volume of the sixty-page Hoa Hoc Tro Magazine, there is an average of 200 English words mixed The majority

of the words are nouns which are illustrated in the breakdown of switching by word classes in the following table:

Table 4: Breakdown of mixing by word classes

Apparently seen from the breakdown, all the codes mixed are content words (Nouns, Verbs and Adjectives) This can be referred back to the Matrix Language Model that the systems morphemes from English, the embedded language are of

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open class with content words only Other types of words, especially close system lexis are not switched into Vietnamese sentences

4.2 Distribution of mixed words in the corpus

This part will report the columns of the magazine in which code mixing is quite common Among the columns listed in the introduction of Hoa Hoc Tro Magazine,

it is observed that code mixing never happens in the editorial “TRÒ CHUYỆN ĐẦU TUẦN” (New week talk ), “CUỘC SỐNG LÀ MỘT MÓN QUÀ” (Life is a gift), “TRUYỆN NGẮN” (Stories), “CÀ PHÊ CHIỀU THƢ́ BẢY” (Saturday afternoon café), “ANH CHÁNH VĂN” (Chanh van answers teen‟s questions) This can be explained that “TRÒ CHUYỆN ĐẦU TUẦN” (New week talk) is the editorial or leading article, so it requires the sense of seriousness or principles of press This case may be applied to “TRUYỆN NGẮN” and “ANH CHÁNH VĂN”

in which open and frank discussion is the priority Oddly enough , even though

“CUỘC SỐNG LÀ MỘT MÓN QUÀ” and “CÀ PHÊ CHIỀU THƢ́ BẢY” are mostly the stories translated from English, there is not even an English word mixed More or less mixed words catering are found in other columns However, the ones with the highest density of English words are “Bản tin H 2T Express” (Express

“CẨM NANG TEEN” (Teen manual ), BẢN TIN FC (Fan club News ), 360˚ SHOWBIZ CHÂU Á (360˚ Asian showbiz), CINELAND, Will thích điều này (Will loves these) and the news about music and film stars at the back of the magazine

4.3 Overview description and discussion of mixed word classes

4.3 1 Nouns

When considering the quantification of nouns, all the proper nouns such as proper names, places, streets, buildings are excluded As stated above, among all the code-mixed words, nouns are the most frequent ones Below is the list of the most common words found in the corpus investigated:

Eg 1: “Teen” addresses “teenagers”:

“Năm nay, teen Sài Gòn sẽ được nghỉ Tết sớm hơn mọi năm 3 ngày.”

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( This year, teens in Sai Gon will have 3 days earlier Tet holiday)

Eg2: “Teen” addresses “students at school”

“Bạn T.N (teen 9) của trường cho biết:…” (T.N (a grade 9 student) said:…)

In some cases, “teen”, however, is also used as an adjective to replace “teenage”, such as:

Eg 3: “ Điều thu ́ vi ̣ là bản rap được thể hiê ̣n bởi chất giọng Hà Tĩnh , vơ ́ i nhiều

khán giả teen thì phải nói là cực kì lạ ” (Vol 941, p.18) (It was so stimulating that

the rap was sung with Ha Tinh accent, which surprised many teenage audience)

“Teen” can be found in almost columns of the magazine, from the news H2T Express to the composition of entertainment Following “teen” is 108 repetitions of

“fan” and 56 times of “album” Such words as “game” and “K-pop” are also quite popular The rest including “rating”, “show”, “live show” or “cosplayer” have the same quantity of 18 words

Even though these words also have Vietnamese equivalents, they still have been use widely; and as a result, their Vietnamese equivalents are somehow disregarded This

is partly due to the convenience in the condensed and user-friendly English codes, such as “fan” However, these words also partly indicate the development and the trends of the youth nowadays Needless to say, these nouns such as “fan”, “album”,

“show”, “live show” have close relation to music, especially Korean music Owing

to the rapid development of entertainment industry, especially music and cinema, there have been more and more music bands and movie stars As a result, more articles about youth‟s stars appear, which leads to the more often appearance of these words

As suggested by Tuc (2003), Vietnamese shares the same general characteristic of East and Southeast Asian languages such as Chinese, Thai Khmer, Hmong that they