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a study on expansion expressed in president barack obama's inauguration speech = nghiên cứu về bành trướng được thể hiện trong diễn văn nhậm chức của tổng thống barack obama

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Relationship between clauses in clause complex 10 Chapter 2: Expansion and its relations between clauses in clause complexes in English... phenomenon in language in terms of functional

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VIETNAM NATIONAL UNIVERSITY, HANOI UNIVERSITY OF LANGUAGES AND INTERNATIONAL STUDIES

FACULTY OF POST-GRADUATE STUDIES

NGUYỄN THỊ THÚY HẰNG

A STUDY ON EXPANSION EXPRRESSED IN PRESIDENT

BARACK OBAMA’S INAUGURATION SPEECH

NGHIÊN CỨU VỀ BÀNH TRƯỚNG ĐƯỢC THỂ HIỆN TRONG DIỄN VĂN

NHẬM CHỨC CỦA TỔNG THỐNG BARACK OBAMA

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VIETNAM NATIONAL UNIVERSITY, HANOI UNIVERSITY OF LANGUAGES AND INTERNATIONAL STUDIES

FACULTY OF POST-GRADUATE STUDIES

NGUYỄN THỊ THÚY HẰNG

A STUDY ON EXPANSION EXPRRESSED IN PRESIDENT

BARACK OBAMA’S INAUGURATION SPEECH

NGHIÊN CỨU VỀ BÀNH TRƯỚNG ĐƯỢC THỂ HIỆN TRONG DIỄN VĂN

NHẬM CHỨC CỦA TỔNG THỐNG BARACK OBAMA

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× : Enhancement Projection:

" : Locution ' : Idea

 Others

1st, 2nd, 3rd, ….: number of clause complex in the text (1), (2), (3), …: number of clause in the text

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Part B: DEVELOPMENT

Chapter 1: Theoretical background

1.4.1 Clause simplex and clause complex in systemic functional 9

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grammar 1.4.2 Relationship between clauses in clause complex 10

Chapter 2: Expansion and its relations between clauses

in clause complexes in English

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These above sentences show us how important and valuable grammar is It is one of the most effective ways to help human understand the nature of language Therefore, it comes

as no surprise to know that grammar has attracted great attention of many linguistics As a result, there are many approaches to grammar and all of them have both advantages and drawbacks Among the many trends of grammar, systemic functional grammar, which is developed by M.A.K Halliday, and other linguists such as R Hassan, D Morley, Th Bloor,

…., is considered to be the most effective one This kind of grammar is concerned with both spoken and written language and focuses on functions of language In comparison with traditional grammar, which focuses on written language and is concerned with rules of correct usage, systemic functional grammar is indeed the most useful tool of analysis

In Vietnam, systemic functional grammar has been studied by many grammarians such

as Cao Xuân Hạo (1991) with Tiếng Việt: Sơ thảo ngữ pháp chức năng, Hoàng Văn Vân (2005) with Ngữ pháp kinh nghiệm của cú tiếng Việt: Mô tả theo quan điểm chức năng hệ thống We, students at Department of postgraduate studies, Vietnam national university -

Hanoi college of foreign language, has also had a chance to learn systemic functional grammar and discover the interesting features of this new trend of grammar Systemic functional grammar, in fact, has given me much impression and inspired me to study about one

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phenomenon in language in terms of functional grammar – that is expansion in clause complex

There are two main reasons for my choice of the topic of the thesis –

1 Firstly, expansion is a kind of logico-semantic relation between clause complexes in English Therefore, the study of expansion will undoubtedly help us to understand the features behind a text more deeply and comprehensively This understanding, actually,

is of great use to the teaching and learning of English

2 Secondly, Barack Obama is the first African-American president in USA who has gained much popularity in the world I would like to choose the inauguration speech of Barack Obama to analyze from the perspective of functional grammar in order to better

my knowledge of expansion and also to see how the logico-semantic relations in the speech reflect the speaker‟s intention

2 Aims of the study

Within the framework of an MA thesis, the study attempts to:

- examine some basic notions in functional grammar and clarify types of expansion relations in a clause complex

- study how expansion relations are expressed in President Barack Obama‟s inauguration speech

- offer some implications for teaching and suggestions for further study

3 Scope of the study

This study does not cover all aspects of the relation above the clause due to its complexity Only one of the two subtypes of the logico-semantic relations between clauses – expansion- is taken into consideration

4 Data collection

Data will be collected from clauses in President Barack Obama‟s inauguration speech The examples used in the study are taken from grammar books by famous grammarians like Halliday (1994), Morley (2000) Thompson (1996)…

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5 Methods of the study

The aims of the study are to investigate the nature of expansion relation in English and analyze a chosen text from functional grammar perspective Therefore, the descriptive and analytical methods will be employed as the principal mothods in the thesis The descriptive method is resorted to when mentioning some basic notions The analytical method is applied

to analyze the chosen text

6 Design of the study

The study is divided into 3 parts:

Part A – introduction - presents the rationale for choosing the topic, the aims of the study, the scope and data collecion of the study as well as the design of the study

Part B- development – is the main part of the thesis, consisting 3 chapters:

Chapter 1, Theoretical Background, provides some fundamental and theoretical concepts which are relevant to the purposes of the study

Chapter 2 is aimed at examining the expansion relation in English In this chapter, expansion relation is investigated in detail, with a view to formulting a framework for the analysis of the chosen text

Chapter 3 deals with the representation of expansion relation in the chosen text – the inauguration speech of President Barack Obama The aim of this chapter is to find out how different types of expansion are used in the text and to see whether they express the intention

of the speaker clearly and accurately

Part C – conclusion – summarizes the results of the study, provides some implications for teaching and learning English, and makes some suggestions for further study

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Part B DEVELOPMENT Chapter 1 THEORETICAL BACKGROUND

This chapter re-examines some basic concepts of systemic functional grammar and of the relations in clause complex in order to establish a theoretical framework for the study The chapter is divided into 4 parts: (1) an overview of systemic functional grammar, (2) the concepts of function, micro-function, macro-function and metafunction,(3) three metafunctions of language and (4) clause and clause complex in English

1.1 An overview of systemic functional grammar

Systemic functional grammar (SFG) is a model of grammar developed by Michael Halliday in the 1960s It is part of a broad social semiotic approach to language called systemic linguistics It is systemic in the sense that it sees grammar as a non-arbitrarily motivated network (system) of potential choices Halliday (1994:15) states „language is a network of systems, or intrrelated sets of options for making meaning' It is functional in the sense that it attempts to explicate the communicative implications (function) of a selection within one of these systems

In comparison with formal or generative approaches to grammar, functional approaches to grammar treat language in different way Systemic functional grammar pays attention to the communicative aspect of language, meanwhile formal or generative grammar focuses on lnguage cognition The roots of Systemic Functional Grammar lie in sociology and anthropology rather than psychology and computer science

Systemic functional grammar has two components: Systemic grammar and functional grammar They are two inseparable parts for an integral framework of linguistic theory “ Systemic grammar aims to explain the interal relations in language as a system network, or meaningful potential And this network consists of subsystems from which language users make choices Functional grammar aims to reveal that language is a means of social interaction, based on the position that language system and the forms that make it up are inescapably determined by the uses of functions which they serve” (Hu Zhuanglin, 1988:307)

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Functional grammar has a number of features which make it suitable for studying language variation

Firstly, it is based on the notion of choice - it models grammar as a set of options (a repertoire or resource) This means that it presents grammar to teachers and students as a set of tools they can use rather than a set of rules about what not to do

Secondly, functional grammar looks at the way in which grammar is used to construct texts in their context of use - it is concerned in other words with real language not just with the made up examples of language that can be found in many language tests, exercises, work sheets or traditional grammar books Its application is not restricted to the analysis of isolated sentences - it explains the way in which sentences are structured to construct whole texts such

as stories, essays and reports which students learn to read and write in primary and seconday school

Thirdly, functional grammar is concerned with the way in which grammar is organised to make meaning Because it is concerned with meaning, it can be related directly to the concerns

of teachers and students in all subject areas

Overall, functional grammar is concerned with the way that the different kinds of meaning that contribute to grammatical structure are comprehensively addressed It is concerned with resources for

- analysing experience - what is going on,

- analysing interaction - who is communicating with whom

- analysing the ways in which messages are constructed

Because the study of language structure has not been an explicit part of teacher education for some decades, a technical approach to language is unfamiliar to many teachers However the resources described above are regularly used by speakers and writers to make meaning in speech and writing Bringing these resources to consciousness provides a powerful tool for teachers and students to use in comprehending and composing texts within contexts

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1.2 Functions

In systemic functional grammar, there are three types of functions: micro-function, function and metafunction

macro-1.2.1 Micro-function is the first function/use of a child's protolanguage

1.2.2 Macro-function can be identified in a child's transition between his/her protolanguage

and adult language

1.2.3 Metafunction

Systemic functional grammar argues for the existence of three main metafunctions which contribute to the way in which meanings are expressed: ideational metafunction, interpersonal metafunction and textual metafunction Each types of metafunctions deals with different aspect of the world and illustrates different kind of meaning of clauses, but “ forms part of a different functional configuration, making up a separate strand in the overall meaning of the clause” (Halliday, 1994:34) According to Bloor (1995:9) “ Newcomers to functional grammar are sometimes confused by metafunctions because they expect them to operate independently and discretely This is a mistaken expectation In almost any instance of language use, all three metafunctions operate simultaneously in the expression of meaning This is because certain aspects of the grammar realize the ideational function, the other aspects realize the interpersonal function and yet others realize the textual function.”

1.3 Three metafunctions of the language

1.3.1 Ideational metafunction

The ideational metafunction is the one that helps us understand, organize and express

perceptions of the world and our consciousness It relates to the field aspects of a text, or its

subject matter and context of use The ideational metafunction can be classified into two subtypes: the experiential and the logical Experiential metafunction, which is the function of understanding ideas, is distinguished from logical metafunction, which is that of organizing and correct expressing of ideas

The experiential metafunction organises our experience and understanding of the world It is the potential of the language to construe figures with elements and its potential to differentiate these elements into processes, the participants in these processes, and the circumstances in

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which the processes occur The experiential metafunction is realized through the system of transitivity According to Halliday, there are six types of process in the transitivity system of

English, namely, material, mental, relational, verbal, behavioral and existential

The logical metafunction works above the experiential It organises our reasoning on the basis

of our experience It is the potential of the language to construe logical links between figures; for example, "this happened after that happened" or, with more experience, "this happens every time that happens"

Experiential meanings are associated with the constituency structures whereas logical meanings are related to the interdependency ones, particularly, the coordination ( or parataxis)

or subordination ( or hypotaxis) between clauses

The following example illustrates the analysis of a clause with respect to its ideational metafunction

speech act.” The interpersonal metafunction represents the text‟s aspects of tenor or interactivity Tenor comprises three component areas: the speaker/writer persona (variation),

social distance and relative social status.The speaker/writer persona concerns the stance, personalisation and standing of the speaker or writer This involves looking at whether the

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writer or speaker has a neutral attitude, which can be seen through the use of positive or negative language Social distance means how close the speakers are, e.g how the use of nicknames shows the degree to which they are intimate Relative social status asks whether they are equal in terms of power and knowledge on a subject, for example, the relationship between a mother and a child would be considered unequal

Concerning interpersonal metafunction of the clause, Halliday points out two components: the Mood and the Residue The Mood consists of two parts: (1) the Subject, which is a norminal group and (2) the Finite operator, which is part of a verbal group In other words, it shows the relationship between the grammatical subject of the clause and the finite element of the verbal group.The Residue, according to Halliday, consists of functional elements of three kinds: Predicator, Complement, and Adjunct

The following example is analyzed on the basis of interpersonal metafunction:

1.3.3 Textual metafunction

„In using language, we organize our messages in ways that indicate how they fit in with other messages around them and with the wider context in which we are talking or writing‟ (Thompson, 2004: 30) Halliday describes, “Language makes links between itself and the situation; and discourse becomes possible because the speaker or writer can produce a text and the listener or reader can recognize one” (Halliday, 1971:334) In other words, the Textual metafunction accounts for the ways in which clauses are organized to comprise a message Depending on the type of message one desires to express, the way in which the text flows will change Clauses can be divided into two main functional parts: Theme and Rheme

The Theme consists of the first functional element of the clause up to and including the first experiential element The Theme is a resource for organizing the interpersonal and ideational meanings of each clause in the form of a message Each clause will occur at some particular

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point in the unfolding of the text; this is its textual environment The system of THEME sets

up a local environment, providing a point of departure by reference to which the listener interprets the message With this system the speaker specifies the place in the listener's network of meanings where the message is to be incorporated as relevant The local environment, serving as point of departure, is the Theme; what is presented in this local environment is the Rheme The clause as a message is thus a configuration of two thematic statuses, Theme + Rheme The Theme is what the clause is about while the remainder of the clause (the Rheme) provides the actual content Identifying the Themes of a text helps us see the development of the text

In English, thematic status is expressed by position in sequence The Theme is realized by initial position and the Rheme is realized by non-initial position

As mentioned above, three kinds of metafunction are of equal importance and closely related

“They all contribute to the overall meaning of the structure of the text” (Morley, 2000:16) The following example will illustrate their simultaneous operation in the expression of meaning

Metafunction system In the garden the Prince danced with his

girlfriend

Interpersonal MOOD Adjunct Subject Finite/

Predicator

Adjunct

Ideational TRASITIVITY Location Actor Material

Process

Accompaniment

1.4 Clause and clause complex

1.4.1 Clause simplex and clause complex in systemic functional grammar

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The term “clause” in systemic functional grammar is identical with „sentence‟ in the formal grammar Clause or clause simplex equals simple sentence in formal grammar and clause complex equals complex sentence Clause in SFL is a grammatical unit that consists of three

main components, i.e (1) process, (2) participant, and (3) circumstance Process equals verb

in formal grammar, Participant equals subject or object, whilst circumstance equals

complement In functional grammar, clause is the point of origin of the systems of Trantivity, Mood and Theme, and is realized by three simultaneous structural layers (transitivity structure, modal structure and thematic structure)

1.4.2 Relationship between clauses in clause complexes

As mentioned above, ideational metafunction consists of two components: the logical meaning and the experiential meaning The relationship between clauses in clause complexes is just the realization of the logical metafunction

In Halliday‟s grammar, clauses in a clause complex are interrelated in terms of two systems: One is the system of interdependency, or “taxis” and the other is the logico-semantic system The former is “general to all complexes – word, group, phrase, and clause alike” (Halliday,1994:216) meanwhile the latter is “specifically an inter-clausal relation” (Halliday,1994:216) These two systems together provide a functional framework for describing the clause complexes

1.4.2.1 Taxis

Taxis or the system of interdependency specifies the relative status of the two clauses in a nexus Taxis tells us whether the clauses are of equal or unequal status Therefore, Taxis is divided into two kinds: parataxis and hypotaxis

“Parataxis handles the linking relationship between units of equal grammatical status, for example, coordinating two free clauses, coordinating two bound clauses of equal status or linking two phrases with the same function” (Morley, 2000:87) In other words, parataxis is

“the relation between two like elements of equal status, one initiating and the other continuing” (Halliday, 1994:218) Since clauses in paratactic relation are equal in status, the clauses are numbered sequentially, that is, "1" is used for the first clause, followed by "2" for the second clause, and so on

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|||This fish isn’t cooked || as I like it |||

(Alexander, 1988,25)

One striking feature that differentiate hypotaxis from parataxis is that: Paratatic relation is logically symmetrical and transitive whereas hypotatic relation is logically non-symmetrical and non-transitive The following examples will illustrate it clearly In the clause complex: “

He watched TV and she listened to music”, the relationship between clauses is paratactic We can change the position of the two clauses without changing meaning: “She listened to music and he watched TV” Thus, parataxis is symmetrical

However, the clause complex “I went to school although it rained” does not imply “It rained although I went to school” Therefore, non-symmetrical is one of the features of hypotactic

relationship

When we say “Jack planted trees and John dug a hole” and “John dug a hole and Mike painted the house”, these sentences imply “Jack planted trees and Mike painted the house” The parataxis is transitive Nevertheless, “I fret when I have to drive slowly” and “I have to drive slowly when it’s been raining” ( Halliday, 1994:221) do not imply “I fret when it’s been raining” Obviously, the relation here is non-transitive

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1.4.2.2 Logico-semantic system

The system of logical-semantic relations specifies what its name suggests: the particular kind

of logical interconnection This basically refers to the nature of the relation between clauses, which is both logical and semantic The logico-semantic relationships are of two broad kinds -

- Expansion (comprising Extension, Enhancement, and Elaboration), and Projection

(comprising Locution or Idea)

According to Halliday (1994:219), in expansion, the secondary clause expands the primary clause by elaborating it, extending it or enhancing it In other words, in expansion “one clause expands on the meaning of another in various ways” (Thompson, 1996:200)

In elaboration, the elaborating clause restates, comments, exemplifies, or specifies in greater detail In the case of hypotaxis, elaboration is typically realised by non-restrictive relative clauses The symbol "=" is used to signal elaboration

||| She sang poorly, // and was booed off the stage |||

||| She sang poorly, // being booed all the way |||

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In enhancement, the enhancing clause provides circumstantial features of time, place,

cause/reason, condition, result, etc The symbol "x" is used to signal Enhancement:

||| Peter wanted a band, // so he formed Boney |||

Locution is quoted or reported speech The symbol (") is used to signal Locution The quoted

or reported speech must be projected from a verbal process In other words, locution is projected verbal events

||| "Let's go out tonight!"// Alvin said |||

||| Alvin said // that we should stay at home |||

Idea is quoted or reported thought The symbol (') is used to signal Idea The quoted or

reported thought must be projected from a mental process

|||"When will we leave for New York?" // Mary wondered |||

||| Mary wondered // when they would leave for New York |||

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α 'β

As can be seen from the examples above, projection can be either paratactic or hypotactic Paratactic projection is typically “direct speech” In this case, projecting and projected clauses may occur in any order

||| “ He was a naughty boy”,// the teacher said |||

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Chapter 2 EXPANSION AND EXPANSION RELATIONS BETWEEN CLAUSES IN CLAUSE

COMPLEXES IN ENGLISH

2.1 Introduction

The purpose of this chapter is to re-examine expansion and its relations between clauses in clause complexes in greater detail The writer hope that a thorough investigation into expansion will provide the framework for the analysis in the next chapter

2.2 Expansion

Expansion is one of the two types of logico-semantic relations between clauses in clause complexes in English In a nexus related by expansion, the secondary clause picks up the message of the primary one and expands on it It may do this in any one of three ways: by elaborating, by extending, or by enhancing In other words, expansion embraces three subtypes: elaboration, extension and enhancement

2.3 Types of expansion

2.3.1 Elaboration

In elaboration, one clause elaborates on the meaning of another by saying the same thing over again, either by repeating it directly or by rewording it, clarifying it, or giving an example Therefore, when elaboration occurs, the secondary clause „does not introduce a new element into the picture but rather provides a further characterization of one that is already there‟ (Halliday, 1994:225) Elaboration might be paratactic or hypotactic The equal sign ( =) is used to denote this relation

2.3.1.1 Paratactic elaboration (1=2)

In paratactic elaboration, the secondary clause expands on the primary clause by “refining in some way what has been said in it” (Morley, 2000:87) According to Halliday (1994:225) „the combination of elaboration and parataxis yields three types‟: exposition, exemplification and clarification

In exposition, the secondary clause restates in different words the proposition in the initial clause For example,

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I shan’t be going on Saturday; I’ve decided to give it a miss

(Morley, 2000:87)

In this example, “I‟ve decided to give it a miss” rephrases the meaning of “I shan‟t be going

on Saturday” from a different angle

This type of expansion represents the relationship “X, i.e Y” and may be introduced by

expressions such as or (rather), in other words or that is to say or in writing, i.e

In exemplification, the proposition in the first clause is specified further, often by giving an

actual example The conjunctives used in this type are for example, for instance, in particular,

or in writing, e.g

We used to have races – we used to have relays

(Halliday, 1994:226)

In clarification, the thesis of the primary clause is clarified with further detail, being backed up

“with some form of explanation or explanatory comment” (Halliday, 1994: 226) Expressions

such as in fact, actually, to be precise, indeed, at least are frequently used in this relation In

writing, the abbreviations i.e and viz are common This relationship can also be implicitly signalled by juxtaposing and in writing, by a colon (:) or a semicolon (;)

I like fish; I try to buy some once a week

(Morley, 2000:87) Alice could only look puzzled: she was thinking of the pudding

( Halliday, 1994:226)

2.3.1.2 Hypotactic elaboration (α = β)

In hypotactic elaboration, the dependent clauses, usually non-defining relative clauses, provide

an optional comment on the superordinate clauses “These relate either to the whole of the foregoing clause or just to a nominal phrase” (Morley, 2000:88)

For example:

I could eat a bar of chocolate everyday, which would probably be unhealthy

( Morley, 2000:88) Lagos, which is the capital of Nigeria, is a port

(Deivities, 1989:65)

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The dependent clause may be finite or non-finite

 Finite

The finite dependent clause in this type “has the same form as a defining relative clause of the WH-type” (Halliday, 1994:227) However, it is obvious that there are differences between defining (restrictive) and non-defining (non-restrictive) relative clauses in terms of meaning and expressions both in speech and in writing

Take meaning into consideration, the non-defining relative clauses “do not define subsets, in the way that a defining clause does” (Halliday, 1994:227) They merely add something to the subsets by giving more information Non-defining relative clauses provide interesting additional information which is not essential to understanding the meaning of the sentence However defining relative clauses is crucial in understanding the meaning of the whole sentence If we remove them, the sentence has a different meaning or no meaning

For example, in “The woman who lives next door is a famous writer”, the defining clause

“who lives next door” specifies the noun “the woman” Compared with the sentence “Hanoi, which is the capital of Vietnam, is very special”, the non-defining clause “which is the capital

of Vietnam” adds a further characterization to Hanoi which is taken to be already fully

specific In fact, the defining clauses restrict the scope of their antecedents, whereas the defining clauses provide additional information or give a comment on the antecedents

non-According to Halliday (1994:227), “the domain of a non-defining clause may be a whole clause”, for example:

He didn’t pass the exam, which surprised his teachers

or any of its constituents, for example:

Mary, who is standing overthere, is my best friend (1)

Tonight’s speaker, who comes from my hometown, should be very interesting (2)

(Morley, 2000:88) Have you ever been to Ha Long Bay, where your boyfriend was born (3)

That year, where Giuliance studied with Carapetto, changed her whole life (4)

(Jacobs, 1996:314)

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The domain of non-defining clauses in (1), (2), (3), (4) are proper noun, nominal group, expression of place and exprression of time respectively The non-restrictive clause might be

at the end of the primary one or be enclosed in the primary clause When enclosure occurs, the angle brackets are used to denote the relation

Inflation, which was necessary for systems, became also lethal

(Halliday, 1994:227)

α <<=β>>

As far as the expression is concerned, non-defining clauses differ from defining clauses both

in speech and in writing In written form, the former is marked off by punctuation - usually commas, sometimes dash, meanwhile the latter is not marked off by any punctuation In spoken form, “whereas a defining relative clause enters into a single tone group together with its antecedent, a non-defining relative clause forms a separate tone group” (Halliday, 1994:228)

Also, the non-finite non-restrictive clauses form a separate tone group and again, are signalled

by punctuation It is obvious that in the non-finite clauses, there is neither WH-form nor any preposition acting conjuntively and the subjects, in most cases, are implicit Therefore, it causes some difficulties when interpreting these clauses

2.3.2 Extension

Extending means adding something new, giving an exception to it or offering an alternative According to Morley (2000:87), “clauses of extension expand on the previous clause in one of two ways With many of them, it is merely a matter of addition, but with others the extension involves some forms of variation of the content expressed in the first clause” Basically,

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extension is classified into two subtypes: addition and variation As in the case with elaboration, extension might also be paratactic and hypotactic The notation (+) is used to denote this relation

2.3.2.1 Paratactic extension (1+2)

The combination of extension with parataxis “covers most of what is traditionally called

coordination” (Thompson, 1996:203) Therefore, conjunctions and, or, nor, but are commonly

used

 Addition

Addition means adjoining one process to another The relationship may be:

 Positive addition: (X and Y)

The window in the room was open and half noises came from the street

(Horton, 1996:242)

 Negative addition: ( not X and not Y)

Jane does not drink coffee nor does he eat eggs

 Adversative addition: ( X and conversely Y)

Jill does not drink milk but she does eat eggs

 Replacive: ( not X but Y, X instead Y)

She didn’t come by bus but instead took a taxi

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We must be early or we won’t get a seat

( Thomson & Martinet, 1998:289) The relationship may be made explicit by conjunctive expressions such as instead, but, except, only, or, alternatively, conversely

According to Halliday (1994:231), there is no finite form of replacement Hypotactic clauses

of subtraction are introduced by “ except that, but for the fact that”

But for the fact that you had learned hard, you would have never passed the exam

He is a good student, except that he sometimes goes to school late

Hypotactic form of alternative relation is expressed by conditional structure “if…not” with the dependent clause coming first

If you are not her students, then you must be her relatives

Besides wasting a lot of money, we got soaking well (positive addition)

We walked the whole day in the cloud, without seeing anything.(adversative addition) Instead of just sitting there, come and give me a hand (replacive variation)

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Other than by squeezing the tube hard, you’ll never get the paste out (subtractive variation)

(Morley,2000:88)

2.3.3 Enhancement

According to Halliday (1994:232), “in enhancement, one clause enhances the meaning of another by qualifying it in one of a number possible ways: by reference to time, place, manner, cause or condition” The symbol “×” is used to denote enhancement

As with other types of expansion, there are paratactic and hypotactic enhancement

2.3.3.1 Paratactic enhancement ( 1× 2)

Paratactic enhancement is still a kind of co-ordination but it has circumstantial feature

incorporated into it Paratactic enhancing clause is typically realized through the use of

conjunctions then, so, for, but, yet, still, or a conjunction group with “and” such as: and then, and there, and thus, and so, and yet or through the combination of “and” with a conjunctive, e.g and at that time, and in this case…

Halliday (1994:234) classifies paratactic enhancement into four kinds: temporal, spatial, manner and causal-conditional

 Temporal

To introduce a paratactic enhancing clause of temporal, English uses conjunctions and

conjunction groups such as (and) then, now, and afterwards, and at that time, and before that

He marched out to the cease and then calmly hit a six off the first ball

(Morley, 2000:88)

He listened, then waited for silence

(London, 1996:108)

 Spatial

“and there” is the only conjunction to signal spatial relation

He came into the room and there he met a beautiful girl

 Manner

Paratactic enhancement clause of manner includes clause of means and that of comparison

Paratactic enhancing clause of means is often introduced by and in that way, (and) thus

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He learned hard to get good marks and in this way he wanted to make his parents delighted Paratactic enhancing clause of comparison is signalled by and similarly, (and) so, thus, (and) neither

or else, (or) otherwise but, (and) yet, still, but + nevertheless (though)

Example:

They are ugly and expensive; yet people buy them

(Thomson & Martinet, 1998:289) The princess was sad, for her father had died

(Deivitiis, 1989: 127)

2.3.3.2 Hypotactic enhancement (α×β)

According to Morley (2000:89), the circumstantial relation of clauses of enhancement is provided by traditional adverbial subordinate clauses In other words, hypotactic enhancing

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clauses are adverbial ones – specifically adverbial clauses of time, place, manner, cause and condition Again, hypotactic enhancing clauses might be finite and non-finite

 Finite

Finite hypotactic enhancing clauses, like paratactic enhancing clauses, consist of temporal, spatial, manner, causal-conditional

 Temporal :

Temporal enhancing clauses may refer to same time or different time (earlier or later) Typical

conjunctions of this relation are as, while, as soon as, after, before, since, etc

Example:

He hasn’t stopped complaining since he got back from his holidays

(Alexander, 1988:24) Our hostess, once everyone had arrived, was full of good humor

( Quirk and Greenbaum, 1987:321)

 Spatial

Spatial enhancing clauses can be introduced by as far as, where, wherever, everywhere

The church was built where there had once been a Roman temple

(Alexander, 1988:25)

 Manner

Manner enhancing clauses can be realized through the use of as, as if, like, the way

This steak is cooked just the way I like it

(Alexander, 1988:25)

 Causal-conditional

Causal-conditional relations are typically marked off by because, as, since, in case, seeing that, considering, in order that, so that to express cause and if, provided that, as long as, unless, even if, although to introduce condition

Example

Seeing that Tom knows French, he’d better do the talking

Even if you don’t like him, you can still be polite

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(Thompson & Martinet, 1998: 299)

 Non-finite

Non-finite hypotactic enhancing clauses consist of temporal, spatial and causal-conditional clauses The following table presents principal markers of non-finite hypotactic enhancing clauses

Conjunction Preposition (i) temporal

same time: extent

same time: point

same time: spread

different time: later

different time: earlier

while when

since until

in (the course / process of)

on

after before (ii) spatial

same place: extent

same place: point

same place: spread

with, through, by, as a result, because

of, in case of … (in order / so as) to, for (the sake of), with the aim of, for fear of

in the event of but for, without despite, in spite of, without

Here are some examples:

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Biking last summer, I fell and hurt my knee

(While I was biking last summer, I fell and hurt my knee.)

Having never played Spades before, I was not very good

( Since I had never played Spades before, I was not very good.)

2 Each type of expansion is further classified into smaller dimensions Elaboration is divided into exposition, exemplification and clarification Extension consists of

addition and variation Enhancement includes temporal, spatial, manner and conditional

causal-3 Three subtypes of expansion also relate to TAXIS In other words, there exist

paratactic elaboration, hypotactic elaboration, paratactic extension, hypotactic

extension, paratactic enhancement and hypotactic enhancement

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Chapter 3 EXPANSION RELATIONS BETWEEN CLAUSES IN CLAUSE COMPLEXES IN THE INAUGURATION SPEECH OF PRESIDENT BARACK OBAMA

3.1 Introduction

The previous chapter has investigated the relation of expansion, making clear three types of expansion: elaboration, extension and enhancement In this chapter, we will try to seek for the realization of this logico-semantic relation in the chosen text – the inauguration speech of US President Barack Obama - with the aim of finding out the intention expressed by the writer

3.2 The chosen text

Barack Obama, a first-term senator from Illinois, becomes the first African-American president of the United States He was born on August 4th 1961, in Hawaii and has lived in many places, including Indonesia His mother was from Kansas and his father came from Kenya Obama attended Columbia University in New York and earned a law degree at Havard University in Massachusetts

Serving in the Senate since 2004, Obama introduced bipartisan legislation which allows Americans to learn online how their tax dollars are spent He also serves on the Veterans‟ Affairs Committee, which helps oversee the case of soldiers returning from Iraq and Afghanistan Therefore, his approval rate on the internet is high The most supporters of Obama are young people, African-American, poor citizens and the people who want to change Facing with the economic crisis, two wars in Iraq and Afghanistan, Obama gave his campaign slogan “change has come” and hoped to rebuilt the confidence and believe of Americans

In last August, Barack Obama defeated Hilary Rodham Clinton, the former first lady, and became the presidential candidate of the Democratic Party During the following months

in 2008, he defeated McCain, the Republican Party‟s presidential candidate, and won the all three televison debates held in Oxford, Nashville and Hemstead Finally, with 333 electoral

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