Motivating non English major students at Ho Chi Minh City University of Industry through task based reading activities

The present study investigates learners’ motivation in learning EFL reading of high elementary-level college students at Ho Chi Minh City University of Industry.. The results of the stud

MINISTRY OF EDUCATION AND TRAINING

HO CHI MINH CITY OPEN UNIVERSITY _

-sLLaa -

MOTIVATING NON-ENGLISH MAJOR STUDENTS AT HO

CHI MINH CITY UNIVERSITY OF INDUSTRY THROUGH

TASK-BASED READING ACTIVITIES

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A thesis submitted in partial fulfillment of the requirements for

the degree of Master of Arts (TESOL)

Submitted by TRAN KIM HIEN, B.A

Supervisor

LE THỊ THANH, Ph.D

Ho Chỉ Minh City, September 2009

ABSTRACT Increasing learners’ motivation has always been the primary concern of many

language teachers The present study investigates learners’ motivation in learning

EFL reading of high elementary-level college students at Ho Chi Minh City University of Industry A useful approach in language teaching, task-based language teaching (TBLT), with carefully designed task-based reading activities

was applied to a traditional reading classroom with the aim of finding solutions to

certain problems such as poor learner motivation Deci and Ryan’s post- experimental Intrinsic Motivation Inventory was adapted to discover students’ learning motivation

The study was conducted with two approaches: survey and experiment with

80 non-English majors from two EFL classes The data’ were collected through

questionnaires, researcher’s diary and interviews

The results of the study revealed that (1) the majority of learners were unmotivated in learning English in general and in EFL reading in particular; (2) many of them misunderstood the concept of EFL reading — they defined it as

reading aloud the text, translating it into Vietnamese and answering comprehension

questions; (3) owning to lack of motivation, many students did not self-study English; and (4) most of them suggested for the support of task-based reading activities In addition, the findings from the experiment confirmed that task-based reading activities enhanced learners’ reading motivation and implementing TBLT approach not only created variety in learning activities for students but also helped

to get rid of usual boredom in most EFL classes, which\ stimulated students’

learning

Based on the outcomes of the study, the thesis strongly suggests that TBLT should be applied in teaching EFL reading and there should be cooperation among educators so that teachers and learners find it comfortable to fulfill their tasks

TABLE OF CONTENTS

Statement of authority

Acknowvl€B€THETIÉS nh "H440 1k gen ii ADSTRC( HH HH nh TH” 40400500 4010050400400500 0 00 Hi Tabl€ 0Ÿ €0Nf€nR(S 5-5-5 5 cọ HH HH HH HH HH Hư HT 04.04 án iv List of ÍÏEUIFCS o5 0 0 HH TH HH HH 0A Hà TT HH HH TH 000 0 ix List OŸ tablles, Ăn T401 00 TH cư HH nhe x AbbreVafÏODS ú Ăn HH HH HH Họ Họ Họ TH TH 00008000006 xỉ

1.2.3.1 General descrlptiO'S -á - ch." 5

1.2.3.2 The Syllabus 6

1.2.3.3 The textbook 2 eeeeeeccecsscsesesenesenenerenesereneeseseseseseacsceseesececessesuseeeeesesesenenens 7

1.2.4 Current popular methods of teaching reading at HUI 9

1.5 Significance of the study

1.6 Overview of the thesis ccccssssssssssessssssssessssssssssnssssossiovvssssaessssnussensecesvaresees 11

IS eee ccssesesseeessssencscneuensssseacseseusessssessesesasseseeeesecsesessesnsnenesaeererenenenesetegs 12 Chapter 2: LITERATURE REVIEW scscssssesessscececstsecncacecsnensneorersatsnsnasasnsoenenoes 13

2.1 Overview Of reading -c-cs kê HH4 HH H140122181212121111T171171E 13

PIN) co na a 13 2.1.2 Reading purposes and reading strategies 1 14

VI CN ha A434 14 2.1.2.2 Reading stra{€BÏCS . ntHnH1211111 211121111011 Hy 15 2.1.3 Background to the teaching of reading .sccecsscsssssssesssesessesssssescevavseareecerenees 17 2.1.3.1 Silent reading LH 1 1111111411111141111 11x cớ 17 2.1.3.2 Reading DTOCGSSGS ch 1110111011411 11414 11tr tre 17 2.1.3.3 Main stages in a reading lesSOH - 5 SSnS.S x22 2 vn trrererrrree 19 2.2 Task-based language teaching tt vt HH 410101111 61110101 111112 tre 21

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2.2.2 Deñnitions of tasks TH TT TT TT TH TT HT e1 2 2

V5 o c 24 2.2.4 Components of the TBLT ÍfaIt€WOIÍK sọc ntkterrrrerersrerrrrrrrrke 25

2.2.4.1 Pre-tasKk SH TT HT TH HT T111 1121111111 1T 25

V, VY an na 27 2.2.4.3 Languag€ ÍOCUS cv HH g0 HH Hà HH0 T1 1172111701121 T111 Tre 27

2.3 Overview Of MOtiVatION 0 eee càng HH HT HE T1 1x1 rrre 29

2.3.2 Main kinds 0Ÿ moOtIVaflOH chen e.ree 30

2.3.2.1 Extrinsic motiVALÏOT c- c«cecc ng grieo TH 01011111131 1x re 30

2.3.2.2 Intrinsic mOfIVA{[OH sành nh HH ng gui 31

PK oan ố ố n444HAHAH 33

Chapter 3: METHODOLOGY HH H110 114118021 114054015 01nxscre 35

3.1 Research methodolOgy - «cty giờ N 35

3.1.1 The survey approach «cty 11111 4111111.1111121111111 11 crke 35

3.1.2 The experimental approach - xxcxt tt v tr 11511111111 tr, 36 E.ui na nố d.€dY^ 39

3.2.1 Subj€CfS 2 HH HH KH HT HH TH 11111111 70E 39

KD KM an -.V:THA)) 39 E1» ca na 39 3.2.2 InstrumenIs -. 5 ch 43 3.2.2.1 Questionmaires TP .(Q(H ,., 42 3.2.2.2 Teacher's an 45

3.2.2.3 Structured interview with sfudenIs < ¬ 46

CV WP tc0i.vi 000i nh ố 53 Em 35

Chapter 4: RESULTS AND FINDINGS Ăn neveoeose 56

AD Results 56 4.1.1 Responses to the questÍOTTIAITGS cà v1 0191011121111 11x rrrrrre 56 4.1.1.1 Responses to the questionnaire surveying how students at HUI face with English and English reading skill 8 56 4.1.1.1.1 Learners’ reasons for learning English s<csssessxererrrrsrerrree 56

4.1.1.1.2 Learners' attitude and perception towards English 57 4.1.1.1.3 Learners attitude and perception towards English reading skill 60 4.1.1.1.4 Learners' favorite learning styÏÌe©s c so cà Là neo 64 4.1.1.1.5 Learners' selÍ-study s SH HH HH HH1 HH Hước 66 4.1.1.1.6 Learners' suggestions in learning English reading 68 4.1.1.2 Responses to the questionnaires for investigating reading motivation at two POints Of MEASUTCMENE NT 72 4.1.1.2.1 Students’ reading motivation at two points of measurement between the control and experimental groups .cccccscecsesesesssssseenesesesssssssescseessssececeecsnesesesesssnsneseaees 73 4.1.1,2.2 Students’ reading motivation at two points of measurement within two

5.2.3 Recommendations †o adiminisfTAfOTS - server 90

5.3 Limitation and recommendation for further research -. -ssxsxersrsreserree 91

REEERENCTES Họ TT T000 04 108401080878404003 5 se se 92

APPENDICTES o Họ HT TH TH BH g100414034410447940845070523e s0 96 APPENDIX 1 The table of content of the syllabus American Headway I & 2 for GE

APPENDIX 2 The post-experimental Intrinsic Motivation Inventory 98 APPENDIX 3 Questionnaire for surveying how students face with English and

2011030084-000 1-82 311001) 8543))1200Ẻ880 100 APPENDIX 4 Questionnaire for surveying how students face with English and English reading skill (In Vi€tT1aIm€§€) - chen 111411411412116 11x cee 104 APPENDIX 5 A contrast between the original and modified items from “Intrinsic

Motivation Inventory” used for the Study sssssscsesssssscesesecnecesesssseseseseseeeesestseseaeaees 108

APPENDIX 6 Questionnaire for investigating reading motivation (in English) 110

APPENDIX 7 Questionnaire for investigating reading motivation (in Vietnamese}

- .ẻốốốẽ 112 APPENDIX 8 A profile of task-based reading activities used for the study 114

APPENDIX 9 A profile of diary notes written by the researcher 137

APPENDIX 10

APPENDIX 11

Transcriptions of the interviewees’ opinions 145

A profile ofreading texts used for the study 147

Figure 2.1

Figure 3.1

Figure 3.2

Figure 3.3

Figure 4.1

Figure 4.2

Figure 4.3

Figure 4.4

Figure 4.5

Figure 4.6

Figure 4.7

Figure 4.8a

Figure 4.8b

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Figure 4.10a

Figure 4.10b

Figure 4.10c

Figure 4.11

LIST OF FIGURES Overview of TBLT framework

LL€aTn€TS” Ø€II€T nành HH HT 177111111111 11 Learners” hoI€fOWH <cS SH HH10181111111141111414114 6 0 ren 40

lì cu) 2 42

Learners” Interest in learning English -. ¿sc+xssccsscccsecer 38 Learners" attitude towards English lessons - 59

Learners’ evaluation of English skills ccssccssssesseeseeesesenereseees 60 Learners” perception of reading skilÏ cc sec 61 Learners" attitude towards English reading -.-.- 63

Leamers’ difficulties in English reading VY Y4 HH HH4 Hee 63 Learners’ favorite learning styles .ccsesssesseseseceserensenseeesneesesees 64 Learners’ self-study in BONA 66

Learners’ time for self-study in general .ccsssssseesesteeesestrsseseeee 67 Learners’ self-study in English 0 i teesesesseeeeeeensasereeseseeseeeseeee 67 Learners” reasons for not self-studying English 68

Learners” suggestions for innovating teaching method 69

Learners” suggestions for supplying further reading materials 69

Learners” suggestions for training two basic skills in reading 71

Learners’ reading motivation between and within two groups 77

Nưmber of the teaching staff at FEL 7s Scccscsevevesrrxcsrs 5

GE courses for college students 0 c:cccccssesscesssssessecetessseseesarereeees 5 Overview Of GE syllabus .ccecccecsssesssssesesseeseesssesesessessesesseeseees 6 Timeline for the SfUY, ch xe 38 Learners” age oo 40 Learners’ duration of learning English .cccccssesssssesseeeeeeens 41 The teaching program oc scssecessessseseseseseseeseseeeesesessesessesessssneneess 47 Data collection procedures .cccccccessssssssssesesesessessseesesesesnensseecenees 54 Learners’ reasons for learning English .:.cccscsssssssssseseseseseseecees 56 Reasons why learners like studying English - -c+c<-s- 58 Reasons why learners do not like studying English 59 Reasons why reading is a necessary skiÏÌ -.sccececececeeeres 61 Learners” perception of reading - _ 62 Methods of teaching reading -ss cv rrey 65 Learners” suggestions for organizing communicative activities 70 Learners’ suggestions for supplying additional tasks based on texts 71 Group descrIptive s†afÏSẨÍCS c1 73 Independent samples T-Test of two groups before the study 74 Independent samples T-Test of two groups after the study 75

Paired samples statistics .ccssssesceceeeteeeteeseeeteees "— 75 Paired samples T-T€Sí -. + + S211 76

: English as a Foreign Language

: English for Specific Purposes

: Faculty of Foreign Languages : General English

: Ho Chi Minh City University of Industry : Intrinsic Motivation Inventory

: Masters of Arts : Task-based Language Teaching

CHAPTER 1

INTRODUCTION This thesis examines the learning motivation of English reading of non-English major college students at Ho Chi Minh City University of Industry (HUI) to find the

appropriate way to motivate learners in learning EFL (English as a Foreign Language)

reading skill Among the suggested ways is the application of task-based reading

activities which are designed on the basis of reading texts in the course book American Headway This study, based on the findings, will then come up with some teaching implications for the success of EFL reading classes This introduction presents the problem, background, aims, research questions, significance and overview of the

1.1 The problem

Learning to be an effective reader is considered as a vital part of becoming a

successful language learner In reality, reading plays a very important role in our lives

It helps to open up new horizons and opportunities to readers As Nuttall (1996) states,

“reading is a key skill for success in examinations, work and study” (cover page)

Nunan (1999:249) also adds, ‘an enormous amount of time, money and effort is spent teaching reading in elementary and secondary schools around the world In fact, it is probably true to say that more time is spent teaching reading than any other skill.”

In many second or foreign language teaching situations, reading also receives a very special focus It is “a skill which is highly valued by students and teachers alike” (Richards & Renandya, 2002: 273) According to these two authors, the ability to read

in a foreign language is all that students ever want to acquire in most EFL situations

Thanks to reading, learners can get information, entertain themselves, ‘improve their

good models for writing Moreover, Anderson (2003:69) appreciates the role of reading as follows:

Reading is an essential skill for learners of English as a second language

For most of these learners it is the most important skill to master to ensure

success not only in learning English, but also in any content classes where

reading in English is required With strengthened reading skills, learners

will make greater progress and development in all other areas of learning

Due to the fact that reading plays such an important role in our lives, it is necessary for many language teachers to set up clear goals for teaching reading in classes which aim at cultivating learners’ interest in reading and help them become skilled readers Unfortunately, most EFL reading classés from high schools ,to universities in our country are teacher-orientated The teacher dominates class by talking all the time while the students are only passive listeners Little time is spared for the students to practice English in pairs or groups since the aim of teaching is to inform learners about linguistic knowledge instead of developing their learning skills Meanwhile, the students seem to depend too much on the teacher During a reading session, they wait for the teacher’s explanation about new words, structures and expect

a complete translation of the text before doing some comprehension exercises They are rarely taught some important reading skills such as skimming or scanning In some cases, teachers even dictate the answers to the exercises to save time for teaching grammar As a result, the students listen to the teacher passively and gradually lose interest in learning English

In fact, our EFL college students at HUI are among those victims who suffer from that teacher-centered educational system Many of them claimed that they never found anything interesting in English classrooms They were tired of unattractive

they came to English classes just for attendance checking and spent little time self- studying outside classroom For many students, English was a boring subject and English reading was reading aloud the text and then translated it into Vietnamese Actually, they were unmotivated learners without any learning skills in the foreign language Eventually they became poor English readers and unsuccessful language learners due to the shortage of motivation, even students with the best abilities cannot accomplish long-term goals (Dérnyei, 2001)

The whole situation requires that new teaching methods should be introduced to EFL students at HUI to find the solutions to certain problems such as poor learner motivation In this context, task-based language teaching (TBLT), a modern and efficient approach in which students play the central role, ntay be a perfect method-to refine the situation :

1.2 Background to the study

This section briefly describes physical conditions, teaching staff, General English (GE) courses for non-English major college students and current methods of teaching English reading at HUI

1.2.1 Physical conditions

HUI is one of the biggest academic institutions and technical and vocational educational establishments in Vietnam It has four other campuses locating in different places beside the main campus at 12 Nguyen Van Bao street, ward 4, Go Vap district,

Ho Chi Minh City Annually, HUI offers the multi-disciplined, multi-professional and multi-leveled training services to more than forty thousand students nationwide

The study is done ‘at the university’s main campus where the facilities are quite adequate with many new buildings and services including classrooms, canteen,

the whole university forms a small society in which students can receive all normal daily services This really creates favorable learning environment for many students Every classroom is well-equipped with basic teaching and learning facilities Also, cassette recorders are available for foreign language classes In addition, many rooms are air-conditioned and installed with a computer, a slide screen and an overhead projector Unfortunately, these rooms are often reserved for students in the international cooperative training programs or university level Thus, the participants

in the study cannot make use of those advantages because they are college students The teacher in the research, therefore, cannot apply modern technology in the experiment

-

Besides, the seating in classrooms is arranged orderly in front of the teachek’s desk With this layout, it is difficult for students to work in big groups or to move around for some learning activities

1.2.2 The teaching staff at the Faculty of Foreign Languages (FFL) at HUI

FFL is situated at room B.001 on the ground floor of HUI There are 30 permanent lecturers at FFL The youngest is 26 and the oldest is 59 All of them have been teaching English for at least 2 years Among them, there are 3 doctoral students,

11 masters (M.A.), 2 bachelors (B.A.) and the rest are post-graduate students Furthermore, FFL invites many guest lecturers with the quantity varying from semester to semester according to the numbers of students enrolled in GE courses The following table summarizes the teaching staff at FFL

Table 1.1 The teaching staff at FFL

1.2.3 Description of GE courses for college students at HUI

1.2.3.1 General description

Most GE courses are taught in the evening (3 evenings a week from 18:15 to 20:40) because there are not enough rooms for the day-time This is obviously a big disadvantage for many students since they also have afternoon classes for other subjects The table below gives a general description of GE courses

Table 1.2 GE courses for college students

When entering HUI, every non-English major college student has to take the English placement test to be put in the right level GE course The GE program is divided into 3 courses: A, (elementary level), A, (high elementary to low pre- intermediate level) and A; (pre-intermediate level) Based on the results of the test, students with score 5 or more are put in class As, those with less than 3 are placed in class A; and the others are grouped in class A> At the end of every GE course, they have to take the final test If they pass, they will continue to study for the next level If they fail, they have to retake the course After finishing course A; they will take ESP courses delivered by departments of their major

The participants chosen for this study belong to course A» because the researcher thought that they were interesting groups to investigafe They had enough time to adjust themselves to the learning environment or EFL teaching methods at HUL Therefore, only GE course A; is discussed in the next sections

1.2.3.2 The syllabus for GE course A;

Altogether the GE courses account for 240 periods (90 periods for A,, another 90 for Az and the other 60 for A3) The main textbook used is American Headway series

by Soars & Soars (2001) There is an overview of GE syllabus presented in the table below

Table 1.3 Overview of GE syllabus

AL 90 periods | Unit 1 > Unit 9 (American Headway 1)

Unit 10 > Unit 14 (American Headway 1)

Az 90 periods

Unit 1 > Unit 4 (American Headway 2) A; 60 periods | Unit 5 > Unit 13 (American Headway 2)

As seen from the table, students of course A, study the first nine units in American Headway 1; those of course A; cover the last five units in American Headway I and the first four units in American Headway 2 Students of course A; learn from unit 5 to unit 13 in American Headway 2 Nevertheless, only detailed syllabus for course A, is discussed due to the fact that the study focuses on students of this level

According to the detailed syllabus written by Mr Bui Van Hat, Dean of FFL, GE course A, is designed to provide students with basic knowledge about English: vocabulary, pronunciation, grammar, tenses, sentence structures and four language skills in order to prepare them for studying English at later higher levels After the

- course, students must be able to gain these objectives: “

Listening: listen and understand some simple conversations

Speaking: talk about some simple topics

Reading: read and understand short texts

Writing: write a short paragraph

1.2.3.3 The textbook for GE course A,

Overview of the textbook

American Headway is a multilevel series for adults and young adults who want to

vocabulary are presented and explained thoroughly and all four language skills are developed systematically There are 14 units in each book Each unit consists of 6 following sections:

Skills: reading and listening are always taught together with speaking Writing

-

is covered in the workbook

Vocabulary: a lot of vocabulary either relating to the topic of the text or used

in the text is introduced together with different exercise types

Everyday English: this section finishes off the unit and focuses on high-usage functional, situational or social language

(Adapted from Soars, L.; Soars, J & Maris, A., 2001) short, with that organization, it is possible for the teachers to apply modern teaching methods to develop learners’ communicative abilities

The reading topics taught for GE course A,

GE course Az covers 9 units in American Headway series which are taught in 90 class periods Each unit takes 9 periods and 9 periods left of the course is used for

reviewing and testing There will be a table of detailed content of each unit in

Appendix 1 at the back of this thesis

Although the teacher and the students in the study have to finish all sections in 9 units, the research focuses on motivating learners through task-based reading activities Therefore, these following reading topics are highlighted during the course:

* Topic 1: “Dangerous sport” (Unit 12 — American Headway 1)

" Topic 2: “A story in a story” (Unit 13— American Headway 1)

" Topic 3: “How to be100” (Unit 14— American Headway 1)

" Topic 4: “Communication” (Unit 1 — American Headway 2)

" Topic 5: “Living in the USA” (Unit 2 — American Headway 2)

" Topic 6: “A spy story” (Unit 3 — American Headway 2)

" Topic 7: “The best shopping street in the world” (Unit 4 — American Headway 2)

As mentioned above, GE course A, covers 9 units but only 7 reading topics are highlighted This is because the researcher spares the first two weeks to get the course ready and to administer the pre-questionnaire before offering the experimental group special treatment Those reading topics will be deeply discussed in chapter 3 of this thesis

1.2.4 Current popular methods of teaching reading at HUI

Many surveys on teaching reading in Vietnamese contexts have found that new approaches are not really implemented and the teachers often rely on traditional teaching methods Nguyen (2005: 5) puts it, “the absence of the application of more innovative methods (e.g communicative language teaching) is surely the weakest component of language teaching in Vietnam.”

Along with that common trend, many teachers at HUI have not fully applied new

found that English was not taught communicatively at HUI This finding supported many students’ comments They said that in most reading lessons, teacher wrote the new words on the board, dictated their meaning to students, read new words aloud for students to imitate Then he or she read the text aloud, explained sentence by sentence, analyzed difficult grammar structures, sometimes translated the text and finally asked students to answer comprehension questions As a consequence, students were accustomed to that way of learning reading They had no reading skills in English and they did not know how to self-study, a very necessary skill for tertiary levels Being taught in that way, students never discovered any interesting messages embedded in the texts As a result, they lost interest in reading and got bored with reading lessons

It can be understood that the teaching style discussed above originated from the assessment system at HUI The criterion for evaluating students’ performance during the course is completely based on the final test which consists of 50 multiple choice questions about grammar, vocabulary, structures and a short reading text It is this testing way that decides both teaching and learning methods Students do not need to train all four language skills and teacher spends most class time teaching grammar, structures or helping learners practice doing model tests

1.3 Aims of the study

This study primarily aims at:

(1) looking for practical evidence to support the hypothesis that task-based reading activities can enhance learners’ motivation in EFL reading classroom; and (2) providing recommendations to improve learners’ motivation in learning EFL reading at Universities or Colleges

1.4 Research questions

This study is guided by two main research questions as follows:

(1) How do non-English major college students at HUI face with English and English reading skill?

(2) To what extent can task-based reading activities motivate students in learning EFL reading?

1.5 Significance of the study

This study is done in the hope of finding evidence for the positive impact of task- based reading activities on students’ motivation in learning EFL reading The value of the project is that if the new teaching approach proves tO be feasible, then mary teachers at HUI should innovate their teaching methods for their students’ benefits Moreover, this research has significant contribution to the field of foreign language teaching and learning at Colleges or Universities where there is no research on the application of TBLT Finally, the study can create interests for further studies in the subject matters for many researchers at HUI and other Universities as well

1.6 Overview of the thesis

This thesis consists of 5 main chapters as follows:

Chapter 1 introduces the problem, background, aims, research questions, significance and overview of the thesis

Chapter 2 presents a review of the literature relevant to the study in three separate sections: (1) overview of reading; (2) task-based language teaching; and (3) overview

of motivation

Chapter 3 describes the methodology employed in the study This chapter

research design with information about the subjects, instruments and teaching materials The chapter ends with the introduction of data collection procedures

Chapter 4 analyses the results and discusses the findings of the study

Chapter 5 draws a conclusion of the thesis and provides some recommendations

for teaching and learning EFL reading to enhance learners’ motivation This chapter

also includes the limitation of the study and recommendations for further research 1.7 Summary

Chapter 1 has discussed the problem needing to be solved, the aims, research questions as well as general background to understand the thesis In addition, it has

provided the significance underlying the issue investigated and the overview of the thesis which helps readers have an overall look of the work being done Nonetheless* what theoretical background does this study base on? This question will be thoroughly

discussed in the next chapter

CHAPTER 2

LITERATURE REVIEW This chapter reviews the literature relevant to the study in three separate sections: (1) overview of reading; (2) task-based language teaching; and (3) overview of motivation The first section discusses the definition of reading along with reading purposes and reading strategies as well as general background to the teaching of reading The second section provides the definition of TBLT in general and tasks in particular It also summarizes some basic types of tasks, components of the TBLT framework and some typical text-based tasks as well The last part of the chapter reviews the definition of motivation and presents two main kinds of motivation: intrinsic and extrinsic Finally, post- experimental Intrinsic Motivation Inventory (IM) developed by Deci & Ryan (n.d) ‘is introduced as the research instrument for measuring the participants’ reading motivation

2.1 Overview of reading

2.1.1 Definition of reading

Based on different concepts of reading process, the term ‘reading’ can be defined

in a variety of ways According to Harmer (1991: 190), “reading is an exercise dominated by the eyes and the brain” In addition, Day & Bamford (2000) view reading as the construction of meaning from a printed or written message In fact, reading is an interactive process between the reader and the text (Nunan, 1989, 1999; Nuttall, 1996) Texts themselves do not contain meaning; rather they have potential for meaning (Wallace, 1992: 39) In the process of reading, the reader is required to fit the clues provided in the.text to his or her own background knowledge to attain comprehension In other words, reading is “a fluent process of readers combining information from a text and their own background knowledge to build meaning”

(Anderson, 2003: 68) To this view, reading is no longer a passive skill but it is an active process which constantly involves guessing, predicting, checking, and asking oneself questions (Grellet, 1981) In reality, reading is never done in a vacuum but within a social context Therefore, Gebhard (1996: 197) provides a more specific

viewpoint as “reading includes discovering meaning in print and script, within a social

context, through bottom-up and top-down processing and the use of strategies and

knowledge, personal experience and specific knowledge of the topic written in order to decode the message conveyed in the text to communicate with the writer

2.1.2 Reading purposes and reading strategies

More specifically, Rivers and Temperly suggest that second or foreign language learners want to read for the following purposes:

1 To obtain information for some purpose or because we are curious about some topic;

2 To obtain instructions on how to perform some task for our work or daily life (e.g., knowing how an appliance works);

3 To act in a play, play a game, do a puzzle;

4 To keep in touch with friends by correspondence or to understand business letters;

5 To know when or where something will take place or what is available;

6 To know what is happening or has happened (as reported in newspapers, magazines,

-

7 For enjoyment or excitement

(Adapted from Rivers & Temperly, 1978: 187; cited in Nunan, 1999: 251) Generally, reading is carried out for a personal purpose rather than reading the language itself Therefore, creating reading purposes among learners is the responsibility of many language teachers in order to enhance readers’ interest and performance In reality, different students learn to read in various ways The reading teacher, thus, should adopt different strategies to meet those diversified needs

2.1.2.2 Reading strategies

Having a purpose in mind does not ensure that the reader can read texts effectively Besides a strong desire for reading, good readers should possess some strategies dealing with text In Wallace’s viewpoint, “strategies involve ways of processing text which vary with the nature of the text, the reader’s purpose, and the context of situation” (Wallace, 1992: 57) They are plans for solving problems encountered in constructing meaning In fact, there are many reading strategies that

readers can apply in reading process Grellet develops a very useful typology of reading strategies as follows:

oe

& Types of strategy:

= Sensitizing

= Improving reading speed

= Going from skimming to scanning

Sensitizing is subcategorized into:

- Making inferences: through the context and through word-formation

- Understanding relations with the sentence

- Linking sentences and ideas

Going from skimming to scanning includes:

Classroom techniques using those strategies consist of:

- Ordering a sequence of pictures

- Comparing texts and pictures

- Matching

- Using illustrations

- Completing a document

- Mapping it out

- Using information in the text

- Jigsaw reading

- Reorganizing the information

- Comparing several texts

of the skill and avoid much emphasis on oral reading

2.1.3.2 Reading processes

Understanding the reading process has been the focus of many researchers for over the past century (Anderson, 2003: 70) Currently, reading researchers have

divided reading process into three categories: bottom-up models, top-down models, and interactive models (Nuttall, 1996; Anderson, 2003)

Bottom-up models typically consist of lower-level reading process Readers start with the smallest elements — individual letter and sound recognition which in turn allows for morpheme followed by word recognition; building up to the identification

of grammatical structures, sentences and longer texts; and finally arrives at comprehension (Anderson, 2003)

Top-down models, in contrast, begin with the idea that comprehension resides in the reader The reader uses background knowledge to make hypothesis or prediction about the meaning of the text he or she is about to read; and then searches the text to confirm or reject the prediction made earlier (Nunan, 1999: Anderson, 2003) As 4 result, the reader can understand the ‘passage in spite of not knowing all individual words

Obviously, although both bottom-up and top-down models are good ways of processing text, the reader cannot reach high level of efficiency if employing only one

of them For example, for bottom-up approach, sometimes the reader reads the whole page but cannot understand the message Top-down models, on the other hand, may cause problems for beginning readers for their linguistic knowledge is limited

To overcome those drawbacks, the third type of reading process, interactive models, which combines the elements of bottom-up and top-down models has been developed Murtagh (1989: 102) stresses that the best second or foreign language learners are those who can ‘efficiently integrate’ both bottom-up and top-down processes (cited in Anderson, 2003: 72) Also, Nuttall (1996: 17) states, “In practice, a reader continually shifts from one focus to another, now adopting a top-down approach to predict the probable meaning, then moving to the bottom-up approach to check whether that is really what the writer says”

In summary, bottom-up and top-down approaches are complementary ways of processing a text They are both used whenever we read; sometimes, one predominates, sometimes the other, but both are needed and should be integrated in the process of reading

2.1.3.3 Main stages in a reading lesson

Basically, there are three main stages in a reading lesson: pre-reading, while- reading, and post-reading

Pre-reading

This stage is designed to provide learners with a set of tasks which aim at activating students’ background knowledge The teacher becomes a bridge builder between what students already know about a concept and what they need to know in order to understand a particular text Nuttall (1996: 154) suggests some ways of delivering a pre-reading lesson as follows:

Providing a reason for reading

Introducing the text

- Setting a top-down task

- Breaking the text

- Dealing with new language

- Asking signpost questions

While-reading

The aims of this stage are to help students understand specific content and perceive rhetorical structure of the text (Celce-Murcia, 1991) At this stage, class activities are organized into three modes: individual mode, teacher-centered class, and

group work (Nuttall, 1996) In reality, these three models can readily be combined during the sequence of a reading lesson

During while-reading stage, learners can be provided with many reading activities such as answering comprehension questions, doing true/ false or multiple choice exercises, labeling a diagram, completing a table, choosing a picture that fits the meaning of the text, rearranging sentences, outlining the text, matching questions and answers, etc

Post-reading

Post-reading tasks are supplied to verify and expand knowledge acquired in the reading These last tasks also lead learners to discuss and analyze issues presented in the text It is the time to put questions of evaluation and personal response and relaté, the text to the outside world (Nuttall, 1996: 167) For each kind of text, different treatments may be required These are some typical work done at this stage:

- Eliciting a personal response from the readers (agree/disagree, like/dislike, etc.);

- Linking the content with the reader’s experience/knowledge;

- Drawing comparisons/contrasts between facts, ideas, etc in this text and others;

- Distinguishing fact from opinion;

- Reproducing the text;

- Ascertaining chronological sequence;

- Summarizing;

- Looking at the language of the text; etc

(Adapted from Nuttall, 1996: 167)

of language teaching approach which is based on the use of tasks as the central unit of

planning and implementing language instruction (e.g Willis, 1996; Nunan, 1989,

1999, 2006; Richards & Rodgers, 2001; Willis & Willis, 2001; Richards & Renandya, 2002; Ellis, 2003, 2006) In a TBLT class, students play the central role The teacher

does not pre-determine what language will be studied, the lesson is based around tie

completion of the central task and the language studied is determined by what happens

as the students complete it (Frost, 2004) In other words, students are free to choose

whatever language forms they wish to convey in order to fulfill the task goals

Willis (1996) also states that in a TBLT framework, most of the emphasis is on learners doing things, often in pairs or groups, using language to achieve the task outcomes under the teacher’s guidance When successfully completing the tasks of the lesson or after a series of lessons, students will feel more confident and more motivated

in learning In fact, tasks are said to improve learner motivation and thus promote learning (Richards & Rodgers, 2001)

Moreover, TBLT aims at integrating all four language skills and provide opportunities for learners to explore and experiment language in a natural context While learners are doing tasks, they are using language in a meaningful way Actually, task-based approach provides a link between outside-classroom reality and inside- classroom pedagogy as Nunan (2003) maintains, in TBLT, language lessons are based

connection between the things learners do in class and the things they will ultimately need to do outside the classroom

Outside Vietnamese context, a great number of researches on TBLT have been done and the achievements are great For example, Lochana & Deb (2006) conducted a study with 31 students of form IX at Basaveschwar boys’ high school in India and found that TBLT enhanced: learners’ language proficiency Also, in China, Wang Cheng-jun (2006) invested effort in designing communicative tasks for College English Course and applied them to 74 non-English freshmen The result was quite impressive The students were motivated to actively participate in learning activities and as a result, their English fluency and accuracy increased remarkably In accordance with Wang Cheng-jun’s findings, Zhou You-hua (2006) alSo found that TBLT was effective in developing students’ communicative competence in English language classroom after doing a research with 78 students of English major at Nanjing University of Information Science and Technology Furthermore, Ruso (2007) took an experiment with 54 first-year students at the Eastern Mediterranean University and discovered that TBLT was helpful in enhancing learners’ motivation and learning Most of the participants in the study had positive attitude towards the teaching approach and found classroom atmosphere enjoyable

Within our country, nonetheless, few studies on the application of TBLT are implemented in foreign language classrooms Therefore, the researcher in this thesis feels it necessary to try the new approach in her own class to check whether TBLT really works in our context

2.2.2 Definitions of tasks

As language-oriented scholars’ interest has increased, so has the literature on TBLT where one can find various ways in which a task can be defined For instance, Long (1985:89) argues that a task is

a piece of work undertaken for oneself or for others, freely or for some reward Thus, examples of tasks include painting a fence, dressing a child, filling out a form, buying a pair of shoes, making an airline reservation, borrowing a library book, taking a driving test, typing a letter, weighing a patient, sorting letters, taking

a hotel reservation, writing a cheque, finding a street destination, and helping someone across a road In other words, by ‘task’ is meant the hundred and one things people do in everyday life, at work, at play, and in between

According to this definition, task is a non-technical and non-linguistic term It may describe something that the person-in-the street would say if asked what they were doing Also, tasks have non-linguistic outcomes and individual task may be part of a larger sequence of tasks (Nunan, 2006) +

Different from Long’s viewpoint, Richards, Platt & Weber (1985) define tasks from a pedagogical perspective as follows:

A task is an activity or action which is carried out as the result of processing or understanding language, i.e as a response For example, drawing a map while listening to a tape, and listening to an instruction and performing a command, may be referred to as tasks Tasks may or may not involve the production of language A task usually requires the teacher to specify what will be regarded as successful completion

of the task The use of a variety of different kinds of tasks in language teaching is said

to make teaching more communicative since it provides a purpose for classroom activity which goes beyond practice of language for its own sake

(Cited in Ellis, 2003: 4) The above definition reveals that tasks are what learners will do in class rather than in the world beyond the classroom Also, it emphasizes the importance of having

a non-linguistic outcome

In addition, Nunan (1989:10) views a task as “a piece of classroom work which involves learners in comprehending, manipulating, producing or interacting in the target language while their attention is principally focused on meaning rather than form”

In general, although those definitions of tasks vary somewhat, they all emphasize the fact that tasks involve communicative language use in which the user’s attention is focused on meaning rather than on linguistic structure Taking into consideration all those features, Willis (1996: 23) draws a conclusion that tasks are always activities where the target language is used by the learner for a communicative purpose (goal) in order to achieve an outcome This definition was constantly kept in the researcher’s mind throughout the study in modifying and developing tasK-based reading activities for the experiment

2.2.3 Types of tasks

In the literature on TBLT, several attempts have been made to group tasks into categories, as a basis for task design and description Actually, tasks have been classified according to different criteria Nevertheless, after a close examination of a number of task classification, the researcher decided that the one proposed by Willis seemed to be more adequately in line with the kinds of activities developed in the thesis reported Willis (1996) proposes six types of tasks built on more or less traditional knowledge hierarchies She labels her tasks as follows:

1 Listing: Listing tasks may appear unimaginative, but in practice, they tend to strike a lot of talk as learners explain their ideas The steps involved are brainstorming and fact-finding In brainstorming, learners draw on their own knowledge and experience either as a class or in pairs/ groups In fact-finding, learners find things out

by asking each other or other people and referring to books, etc the outcome of this kind of task is a completed list

2 Ordering and sorting: These tasks involve four main processes such as sequencing (items, actions and events in a logical or chronological order); ranking (items according to specified criteria); categorizing (items in given groups); and classifying (items in different ways) The outcome is a set of information or data that has been ordered or sorted according to specified criteria

3 Comparing: Comparing tasks concern matching and finding differences or similarities of two or more sets of information on a common theme The outcomes vary according to the individual task goals

4 Problem-solving: These tasks demand intellectual activity as in puzzles or logic problems The outcome is the solution to the problem

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5 Sharing personal experiences: This kind of tasks allows learners to talk more freely about themselves and share their experiences with others The outcomes are casual social talks between human-beings

6 Creative tasks: These are often called projects and involve several stages that can incorporate the various task types above and can include the need to carry out some research The outcome is the end product which can be appreciated by a wider audience

2.2.4 Components of the TBLT framework

Task-based language teaching is not just about getting learners to do one task and then another task and then another The framework for TBLT consists of three main phases: pre-task, task cycle and language focus, as shown in figure 2.1 below

2.2.4.1 Pre-task

Teacher introduces the topic and the task Learners engage in brainstorming activities that either help them recall useful words and phrases for the performance of

Pre-task

Introduction to topic and task Teacher explores the topic with the class, highlights useful words and phrases, helps students understand task instructions and prepare

Students may hear a recording of others doing a

similar task

Task cycle

Students do the task, Students prepare to report Some groups present

in pairs or small to the whole class (orally their reports to the

group or in writing) how they did class, or exchange

Teacher monitors the task, what they decided wmtten reports, and

from a distance or discovered compare results “

Students may now hear a recording of others doing a similar task and compare

how they all did it

Language focus Analysis Practice

Students examine and Teacher conducts discuss specific practice of new words, features of the text or phrases and patterns transcript of the occurring in the data, recording either during or after the

2.2.4.2 Task cycle

Task cycle offers learners the opportunity to use whatever language they already know so as to carry out the task and then improve their linguistic competence under the teacher’s guidance while planning their reports on the task Task cycle provides students with a holistic experience of language in use It comprises three components: task, planning, and report

1 Task: Learners use whatever language they possess, working simultaneously in pairs or small groups to achieve the outcome of the task Success in achieving the task goal helps students’ motivation Teacher walks around and monitors from a distance

2 Planning: Students prepare to report to the class how they did the task and what they discovered They also rehearse what they will say or draft a written version for the class to read The teacher’s main role is that of a language adviser

3 Report: At this stage, learners tell or show class about their findings Teacher acts as a chairperson to introduce the presentation, to set a purpose for listening, to ensure all students read most of the written reports, to give feedback, and to sum up at the end

understanding Instead of being presented by the teacher, learners reflect on the language already experienced

2 Practice: Students practice words, phrases and patterns from the analysis activities

In brief, understanding those three stages of TBLT framework is vital for the teacher in the study reported inasmuch as it provides the basis for organizing her

reading lessons If the teacher strictly follows the procedures, students will be likely to

receive enough fundamental conditions for learning a foreign language, namely exposure, use, motivation, and instruction as Willis (1996) makes the point

“we

Since the focus of the project is on reading, it is worth taking a general review of some types of tasks based on texts Willis (1996) proposes six possible designs for

text-based tasks as follows:

1 Prediction tasks: Students predict or attempt to reconstruct the content on the

basis if given clues from headlines, titles, or parts of a text

2 Jumbles: Learners are given sets of sections, or parts of a complete text, but in the wrong order They have to read, hear each part carefully and decide the best

sequence

3 Restoration tasks: Students recover words or phrases omitted from text or

identify an extra sentence or paragraph added to text

4 Jigsaw tasks: Each student in a group reads or hears a different part of a whole

text Then they discuss how those parts are combined to form a whole

5 Comparison task: Learners compare two or more similar texts to spot factual or attitudinal differences or to find common points

6 Memory challenge tasks: After a single, brief exposure to the text, learners are asked to list, describe or write quizzes questions about what they can remember to show the others

In short, tasks based on text motivate students to read or listen to the text for particular purposes For each kind of task, learners interact with the text in a slightly different way and retrieve different kinds of meanings according the goals of individual tasks Teacher, therefore, should guide students to use helpful reading strategies in learning a foreign language by providing appropriate tasks or activities

2.3 Overview of motivation:

Motivation is the key to all learning Lack of motivgtion among students is perhaps the biggest obstacle faced by teachers and school administrators This is the reason why motivation is investigated in the present study Dornjei (2001: 2) believes that motivation “has a very important role in determining success or failure in any leaning situation” Nonetheless, what is motivation? How many basic types of motivation are there? How can motivation be assessed? These questions in turn will be

discussed in the following sections