Pesticides in Jamaica and the Commonwealth Caribbean 425Chapter 15 Use, fate, and ecotoxicity of pesticides in Jamaica and the Commonwealth Caribbean Ajai Mansingh, Dwight E. Robinson and Kathy M. Dalip INTRODUCTION Since their introduction into the Caribbean in 1945, synthetic organic pesticides have been used injudiciously in the region, without any appreciation or concern about the ecological and environmental consequences. The history and current status of research and data on the management of pests and pesticides, including establishment of the economic injury levels for pests; the efficacy of individual pesticides and alternate methods of pest management; legislative management of pesticides; the fate, persistence, and ecotoxicity of pesticides; and the environmental contamination by pesticide residues in the Commonwealth Caribbean are reviewed in this chapter. OVERVIEW The Commonwealth Caribbean The English-speaking Commonwealth Caribbean community comprises two thinly populated mainland countries (Guyana in South America and Belize in Central America) and a chain of islands in the Caribbean Sea that are grouped into ten independent countries and five British territories (Figure 15.1). These islands start with Trinidad and Tobago in the south and Barbados in the east, extend northwest in an arc made up of the Windward (Grenada, St Vincent and the Grenadines, St Lucia, and Dominica) and the Leeward (Montserrat, St Kitts and Nevis, Anguilla, and Antigua and Barbuda) islands and the British Virgin Islands to Jamaica and the Cayman islands just south of Cuba, and include the Turks and Caicos islands and the Bahamas to the north of Cuba. The more than 4.5 million people who live on these islands depend primarily upon agriculture, fishing, mining, and tourism for their livelihoods. Only Trinidad, with limited oil but enormous gas reserves has developed a strong industrial economy. The islands are volcanic in origin and the land is composed of white limestone, metamorphic rocks, and alluvium. Except for Trinidad, Barbados, and Antigua, © 2003 Milton D. Taylor, Stephen J. Klaine, Fernando P. Carvalho, Damia Barcelo and Jan Everaarts 426 Ajai Mansingh, Dwight E. Robinson and Kathy M. Dalip Figure 15.1 Map of the Caribbean Basin showing major islands and island groups © 2003 Milton D. Taylor, Stephen J. Klaine, Fernando P. Carvalho, Damia Barcelo and Jan Everaarts Pesticides in Jamaica and the Commonwealth Caribbean 427 which are fairly flat, the other islands have rugged central mountain ranges, which slope toward the coastal plains. Rivers originate in the mountains and drain the valleys and plains into the sea. Annual rainfall ranges between 1,000 and 5,000 mm and temperatures between 25° and 35°C. Antigua receives significantly less rainfall than the other islands. Jamaica, the largest island in the Commonwealth (area 1,140,480 ha; 235 km × 82 km), is situated between Lat. 17°30´ to 18°30´N and Long. 76°30´ to 78°30´W. The bird-shaped island is characterized by a central spine of rugged mountain ranges, which extend from east (highest peak, 2,300 m) to west (300 to 900 m high) and slope into valleys and the coastal plains in the north and south (Figure 15.2). Almost half of Jamaica is 300 m above sea level. Sixty percent of the land is composed of white limestone while the rest is made up of metamorphic rocks and alluvium. The island has twenty watersheds that are drained by nineteen major rivers, ten flowing generally north, eight south, one east and one west (Figure 15.3). Most watersheds experience at least twice-weekly rainfall although there are two defined rainy seasons, a minor one from May to June and a major one from September to early November. The annual rainfall ranges from 1,200 to 5,500 mm and the temperatures range between 23° and 33°C in the plains. Land use Since the early days of European colonization, agriculture has been the mainstay of the Caribbean economy, although only about 15 to 25 percent of arable land in the different islands is cultivated. In the mainland countries of Guyana and Belize, Figure 15.2 Topography of Jamaica a – Blue Mountain ranges, alt. 1,500–2,135m surrounded by high mountains and valleys (alt. 900–1,500m) b – mountain ranges, alt. 600–900m c – cockpit country, alt. 300–600m, limestone hills d – coastal plains, alt. 0–150m © 2003 Milton D. Taylor, Stephen J. Klaine, Fernando P. Carvalho, Damia Barcelo and Jan Everaarts 428 Ajai Mansingh, Dwight E. Robinson and Kathy M. Dalip cultivated land is only 1 percent and 2 percent of arable land, respectively (Table 15.1). Sugarcane is the major crop for the entire region except in Guyana where 120,000 ha are under rice and only 44,000 ha are under sugarcane (Higman, 1975). A century after its introduction in the region in 1872, bananas have become a major crop in many islands, particularly in the Windwards. Coconut, cocoa, citrus, vegetables, beans, coffee, cotton, peanuts, ornamentals, and a variety of root and other tropical crops are grown on a small scale on different islands. Jamaica has diversified its agriculture from sugarcane to bananas (in the 1870s), coconuts (around 1910), citrus and vegetables (in the 1920s), and to mangos and ornamentals in the 1980s (Table 15.2; Figure 15.3). Although coffee plantations were developed in the middle of the 1700s, their fortunes fluctuated until the 1970s, when massive renewal and expansion of the crop were initiated. Agronomic practices introduced by the Europeans in the coastal plains have remained essentially unchanged, although agriculture has since been extended to hillsides where slopes of up to 70° are cultivated. In many areas land is still being cleared by cutting trees and burning brush. There is no terracing of land or management of water flow. Soil erosion on the different islands is undocumented but is probably not very different from Jamaica where the estimated loss of top soil is about 13,000 T km –2 year –1 (Eyre, 1990). Figure 15.3 The watersheds of Jamaica and geographic distribution of the major agricultural crops of Jamaica B – bananas SC – sugar cane Ct – citrus fruit Co – coco Cf – coffee © 2003 Milton D. Taylor, Stephen J. Klaine, Fernando P. Carvalho, Damia Barcelo and Jan Everaarts Pesticides in Jamaica and the Commonwealth Caribbean 429 Table 15.1 Agricultural use of land in different Commonwealth Caribbean countries Land use (%) Country Area (km 2 ) Arable land Permanent Permanent Forests Coastline Area (ha) Area (ha) crops pastures (km) under crops under pasture Antigua and Barbuda 442 18 0 9 11 153 25,920 2,835 The Bahamas 13,940 1 0 0 32 3,542 14,985 810 Barbados 430 37 0 5 12 97 25,920 4,050 Belize 22,960 2 1 2 92 386 46,980 17,010 Dominica 754 9 13 3 67 148 17,010 2,025 Grenada 340 15 18 3 9 121 16,200 810 Guyana 214,970 2 0 3 84 459 833,895 2,430,000 Jamaica 10,990 14 6 24 17 1,022 241,380 247,050 Montserrat 100 20 0 10 40 40 2,025 810 St Kitts-Nevis-Anguilla 352 16 13 2 13 196 16,200 4,050 St Lucia 620 8 21 5 13 158 21,060 2,835 St Vincent and the Grenadines 389 10 18 5 36 84 18,225 810 Trinidad and Tobago 5,128 15 9 2 46 362 139,320 6,075 Source: Adapted from Higman, 1975 with additional information from The CIA World Factbook, 2000 . © 2003 Milton D. Taylor, Stephen J. Klaine, Fernando P. Carvalho, Damia Barcelo and Jan Everaarts 430 Ajai Mansingh, Dwight E. Robinson and Kathy M. Dalip Table 15.2 Area cultivated and annual consumption of pesticides in Jamaica by major crops based on a survey of farmers by the authors and data from each Commodity Board or Association Product Area (ha) Major pests Pesticides used a Mean application rate Pesticide load (kg or L a.i.) (kg or L a.i. year –1 ) Banana 34,000 Banana borer, thrips, I/N: ethoprophos, isazofos, 1.5 kg ha –1 ; 3 times per y 15 kg ha –1 y –1 ; 510,000 kg y –1 nematodes chlorpyrifos and other OPs Weeds H: paraquat, ametryn, 5 L ha –1 ; 3 times per y 4.5 L ha –1 y –1 ; 153,000 L y –1 glyphosate Sigatoka disease F: hexaconazole, chlorothalonil, 0.5 L ha –1 ; 6 times per y 3 L ha –1 y –1 ; 102,000 L y –1 tridemorph and others Cattle 1,500,000 Ticks, screw worm I/A: amitraz 0.003 L per animal per 0.078 L per animal per y; spray; 26 sprays per y 117,000 L y –1 Citrus 12,000 Citrus root weevil, I: carbaryl 9 kg ha –1 ; 2 times per y 18 kg ha –1 y –1 ; 216,000 kg y –1 ants Leaf miner, aphids, I: malathion, dimethoate, 2.8 L ha –1 ; 3 times per y 8.4 L ha –1 y –1 ; 100,800 L y –1 scale insects diazinon Gummosis, scab, foot F: benomyl, fosetyl, 3.4 kg ha –1 and 2.6 L ha –1 ; 6.8 kg ha –1 y –1 ; 81,600 kg y –1 rot copper hydroxide 2 times per y & 5.2 L ha –1 y –1 ; 62,400 L y –1 Weeds H: paraquat, glyphosate 0.3 L ha –1 ; 2 times per y 0.6 L ha –1 y –1 ; 7,200 L y –1 Coffee 10,112 Coffee berry borer I: endosulfan 0.3 L ha –1 ; 2 times per y 0.6 L ha –1 y –1 ; 6,070 L y –1 Coffee leaf miner I: dimethoate, diazinon, 0.5 L ha –1 ; 2–4 times per y 1.5 L ha –1 y –1 ; 15,168 L y –1 carbofuran Coffee leaf rust, F: copper oxychloride 1.1 kg ha –1 ; 2 times per y 2.2 kg ha –1 y –1 ; 22,246 kg y –1 anthracnose and brown eye spot Weeds H: paraquat, glyphosate 0.6 L ha –1 ; 2–4 times per y 1.5 L ha –1 y –1 ; 13,651 L y –1 Ornamentals 300 Mites I: various OPs 0.35 L ha –1 ; 20 times per y 7 L ha –1 y –1 ; 2,100 L y –1 Rust F: copper – based 0.5 kg ha –1 week –1 26 kg ha –1 y –1 ; 7,800 kg y –1 © 2003 Milton D. Taylor, Stephen J. Klaine, Fernando P. Carvalho, Damia Barcelo and Jan Everaarts Pesticides in Jamaica and the Commonwealth Caribbean 431 Product Area (ha) Major pests Pesticides used a Mean application rate Pesticide load (kg or L a.i.) (kg or L a.i. year –1 ) Sugarcane 2 41,000 West Indian canefly I: fenitrothion, malathion 0.1–0.2 L ha –1 ; occasionally 40.5–80.9 L ha –1 y –1 Weeds H: 2,4 – D, ametryn/amitraz 1.5 & 6 L ha –1 ; 1.5 times per y 2.3 L ha –1 y –1 ; 94,300 L y –1 diuron 4.3 kg ha –1 ; 1.5 times per y 6.5 kg ha –1 y –1 ; 266,500 kg y –1 Vegetables 2,500 Mites, aphids, army- I: deltamethrin, λ- cyhalothrin, 1 L ha –1 ; 54 times per y 54 L ha –1 y –1 ; 108,000 L y –1 worms, semi loopers, malathion, profenofos, diamondback moth, other OPs whiteflies, cucumber beetles Note: a Initials indicate: I-insecticide; N-nematicide; H-herbicide; F-fungicide; / indicates multiple use. © 2003 Milton D. Taylor, Stephen J. Klaine, Fernando P. Carvalho, Damia Barcelo and Jan Everaarts 432 Ajai Mansingh, Dwight E. Robinson and Kathy M. Dalip AGRICULTURAL MANAGEMENT, RESEARCH, AND TRAINING Management Large plantations owned by the British were the norm until the early twentieth century when departments or ministries assumed greater responsibility for man- aging agriculture. In many Commonwealth countries, semi-autonomous boards were set up to address the needs of farmers for major crops such as rice in Guyana, banana in the Windwards, and sugarcane, coffee, banana, coconut, cocoa, and citrus in Jamaica. These needs include supplying planting material, agricultural extension services, and marketing assistance. Research From plantation days when naturalist Hans Sloane first recorded the Jamaican citrus root weevil Exophthalmus vittatus L. (Coleoptera: Curculionidae) in 1725 to the 1970s, most research on plant protection in the Caribbean was restricted to recording and describing crop pests and their outbreaks. The notable exceptions to this trend have been the excellent work done on sugarcane pests by the Caroni Sugarcane Research Institute in Trinidad and the Sugarcane Research Institute in Jamaica. The Imperial College of Tropical Agriculture, founded in Trinidad in 1921, did not have much impact on insect pest control research in the region. This trend continued even when the college became the Faculty of Agriculture of the newly founded University of the West Indies (UWI) in 1962. At about the same time, a laboratory of the Commonwealth Institute of Biological Control, London, England was set up in Trinidad and two regional organizations – the Caribbean Agricultural Research and Development Institute (CARDI) and the Inter-American Institute for Cooperation in Agriculture (IICA) funded by various international agencies – became active in different countries of the Commonwealth. In spite of the infrastructure, research on plant protection continued to be of marginal value. The introduction of modern synthetic organic pesticides in the region in 1945 further exacerbated the problems of local entomologists. Pesticides provided an excellent cost–benefit ratio, much less dependence on a usually unreliable labor force, and the euphoria of being current with contemporary technology. The practice of chemical pesticide reliance created a ‘mutant culture’ within agriculture, the ‘pesticide subculture’, which has become deeply ingrained and difficult to reverse even in agricultural policy makers. Until the 1970s, almost no data existed on any crop pest that could be used for developing even short-term strategies for its control. To develop this type of data, A. Mansingh established an Insect Toxicology and Physiology Laboratory in 1974, which in 1985 became an interdisciplinary Pesticide and Pest Research Group (PPRG) in the Faculty of Pure and Applied Sciences at the UWI, Mona, Jamaica. The group embarked upon the relevant research as outlined in Figure 15.4. © 2003 Milton D. Taylor, Stephen J. Klaine, Fernando P. Carvalho, Damia Barcelo and Jan Everaarts Pesticides in Jamaica and the Commonwealth Caribbean 433 Figure 15.4 Integrated management of pests and pesticides in tropical island ecosystems: a prospectus IPM MODELS FUGALITY MODELS ECOTOXICITY MODELS QUARANTINE: C ROP CARE FATE OF RESIDUES IN ENVIRONMENT: E COTOXICITY AND RISK ASSESSMENT FIELD TRIALS ON EFFICACY, PERSISTENCE, TIMING, ETC.; & I NTEGRATION OF ALL STRATEGIES RE-ENTRY PERIOD, QUALITY CONTROL, PACKING, LABELS, SAFETY GEAR, ETC. INTEGRATED MANAGEMENT OF PESTS AND PESTICIDES APPLICATION TECHNOLOGY; E QUIPMENT DEVELOPMENT RESIDUES IN HUMANS , FOOD, ETC. PEST MANAGEMENT PESTICIDE MANAGEMENT TAXONOMY, BIOLOGY, PHYSIOLOGY, ECOLOGY; HOST PREFERENCES, NATURAL ENEMIES; ECONOMIC IMPORTANCE, ECONOMIC INJURY LEVEL GENERAL AWARENESS *** SPECIAL TRAINING OF HANDLERS, *** DEGREES AND PUBLIC AND STUDENTS APPLICATORS, FARMERS, OFFICERS DIPLOMAS ALL CONTROL STRATEGIES; CULTURAL, BIOLOGICA L, PHYSICAL GENETIC , STERILIZATION, ANTI- FEEDANT, SEMIOCHEMICAL, PESTICIDAL, PHYSIOLOGICAL, GROWTH REGULATORY LAB & GREENHOUSE SCREENING TRIA LS NEW FORMULATIONS; B OTANICAL PESTICIDES DEVELOPMENT & IMPLEMENTATION OF REGULATIONS , STANDARDS, ETC. Developmental aspect Monitoring aspect Research aspect Occupational aspect Developmental aspect Legal aspect Research aspect Legal aspect Training aspect Training aspect Basic Applied © 2003 Milton D. Taylor, Stephen J. Klaine, Fernando P. Carvalho, Damia Barcelo and Jan Everaarts 434 Ajai Mansingh, Dwight E. Robinson and Kathy M. Dalip Training It is unfortunate that training in pesticide use has traditionally been neglected by the UWI, agricultural schools, and Ministries of Agriculture of the Commonwealth Caribbean. Users have little appreciation of the occupational and environmental hazards of pesticides. Most receive training from their peers, which perpetuates the misuse and abuse of pesticides. Very few farmers can read or understand the manufacturer’s instructions, which are usually printed in fine print. Even most extension and training officers have little knowledge of the three ‘W’s (why?, what?, and when?) and three ‘H’s (how much?, how?, and how often?) of pesticide use. Occasionally the UWI, CARDI, and the Caribbean Conservation Association (CCA) hold training programs on pesticide application for a few farmers, depending upon availability of international funding. The College of Agriculture in Jamaica offers a two-year diploma and three- year associate degree program after grade 10 of high school, which superficially cover plant protection and pesticides. The Faculty of Agriculture, UWI offers a general BSc degree in Agriculture and MSc and PhD degrees in different disciplines, including plant protection, but the program is weak. The PPRG of the UWI, Jamaica offers quite extensive courses on insect taxonomy, ecology, physiology, and integrated management of pests and pesticides to final year undergraduate students. Its graduate school trains at least three students per year, offering masters and doctorate degrees in various fields. USE OF PESTICIDES Consumption It is difficult to establish the trend in pesticide use over the decades or calculate a pesticide load for the Commonwealth Caribbean countries as import data were never recorded until the 1970s. Even now, most countries record only the quantities of formulations imported – each may contain from 5 to 80 percent a.i. Data in Table 15.3 suggest that the relative consumption of different pesticide groups varies with crop and country. Consumption by group in Barbados and Trinidad is herbicides > insecticides > fungicides while in Jamaica and other islands the relative ranking is insecticides > herbicides > fungicides. However, when the quantity of a.i.(s) is considered, the use of herbicides in Jamaica is about 2- and 2.8-fold more than fungicides and insecticides, respectively, while in Guyana, these differences are 2.5- and 33.2-fold, respectively. There may be a similar trend for a.i. consump- tion in other Commonwealth countries depending on the mix of crops grown and local pest problems, although Belize currently uses more fungicides than herbicides or insecticides. The greatest quantity of pesticides per hectare of cultivated land is utilized in the cultivated fields of Barbados, followed by St Vincent > Dominica > St Lucia > others (Table 15.3). Pesticide loads (kg a.i. ha –1 cultivated) in Belize (0.1), Guyana © 2003 Milton D. Taylor, Stephen J. Klaine, Fernando P. Carvalho, Damia Barcelo and Jan Everaarts [...]... 1.8; β-endosulfan, 0 and 6.14; endosulfan sulphate, 0 and 3.9; dieldrin, 0 and 0.1; and p,p´-DDE, 0.84 and 6.14 (Robinson and Mansingh, 1999) Aldrin, heptachlor, endrin, total (∑) DDT, and lindane were detected in fairly high concentrations in the coastal waters of St Lucia in the 1980s (Table 15. 8) Aquatic fauna and flora Fish, shrimp, and oysters in Jamaican rivers and coastal waters accumulate pesticide. .. and 95 percent in malathion, diazinon, and dieldrin-treated plots, respectively, but recovered by approximately 80 percent in the OP-treated plots during the following three months In dieldrin-treated plots, recovery was approximately 25 percent in loamy sand soil during the following nine months but, in the sandy loam soil, almost total recovery was achieved within 10 to 12 months post treatment In. .. practice in all the countries and other stages of a pesticide s life cycle, e.g storage, packing, labeling, transport, retailing, aerial spraying, and applicator training, are being addressed and should be regulated within five years IPM implementation and education is still in its infancy in the Caribbean and progress has been painfully slow Meanwhile, the abuse and misuse of pesticides, contamination... p,p´-DDT, 7.02 and 0.35; dieldrin, 1.88 and 0.001; aldrin, 0 and 9.18; endrin, 0.26 and 0.006; lindane, 0 and 0.51; HCB, 0 and 1.01; and diazinon, 0.05 and 0.005, respectively (Mansingh and Wilson, 1995) A 1995 to1996 study confirmed the presence of the endosulfans © 2003 Milton D Taylor, Stephen J Klaine, Fernando P Carvalho, Damia Barcelo and Jan Everaarts 452 Ajai Mansingh, Dwight E Robinson and Kathy... Mansingh et al., 1997 Notes: a En dash (–) indicates below detectable limit © 2003 Milton D Taylor, Stephen J Klaine, Fernando P Carvalho, Damia Barcelo and Jan Everaarts Ajai Mansingh, Dwight E Robinson and Kathy M Dalip Residues in water (µg L–1) and sediment and fauna (ng g–1 ww) Pesticides in Jamaica and the Commonwealth Caribbean 451 Table 15. 7 Residues of OC and OP insecticides detected in selected... Everaarts Pesticides in Jamaica and the Commonwealth Caribbean 437 be disposed anywhere, including in rivers Empty pesticide containers and bags are routinely disposed of as litter Disposal of chlorpyrifos-coated plastic bags used for covering developing banana bunches is largely indiscriminate, particularly in the Windwards, where pesticides are eventually carried into rivers and streams by wind or torrential... have developed 1 5- to 67-fold resistance to carbaryl and a few OP insecticides (Rawlins, 1977; Rawlins and Mansingh, 1978) The CRW complex is extremely tolerant to dieldrin and other insecticides (Biggs-Allen, 1990) and the DBM has developed several thousandfold resistance to most insecticides as compared to the susceptible Chinese strain (Forbes, 1995) The coffee berry borer is 30 0- to 700-fold resistant... ww, respectively (Robinson and Mansingh, 1999) Deonarine (1980) has demonstrated selective partitioning of residues between flora and fauna in the brackish waters of the Caroni Swamp of Trinidad Detritus contained only dieldrin and DDT residues while algae contained these in addition to heptachlor residues Angiosperms had accumulated dieldrin, heptachlor, and endrin while crustacea and fish had accumulated... three (Table 15. 8) Aldrin, dieldrin, DDT, and chlordane were also detected in fish samples from St Lucia’s coastline (Shim, 1985) The accumulation of residues in coastal fauna varied with the species On the Portland Coast of Jamaica, mean levels of - and β-endosulfan and endosulfan sulphate were found to be 86.1, 30.9, and 24 ng g–1 fresh weight, respectively (Robinson and Mansingh, 1999) In Kingston Harbor,... aldrin (0.1), dieldrin (0.13), endrin (0.18 to 0.34), oxychlordane (0 to 0.64), γchlordane (0.05 to 1.4), α-chlordane (0 to 1.25), α-HCH (0 to 0.72), β-HCH (0.05 © 2003 Milton D Taylor, Stephen J Klaine, Fernando P Carvalho, Damia Barcelo and Jan Everaarts Table 15. 8 Residues of OC insecticides detected in water, flora and fauna in the Caroni Swamp in Trinidada and coastal waters of St Luciab Residues . credit for initiating and implementing pesticide awareness programs in the Commonwealth Caribbean during the 1970s and 1980s through printed and electronic media, seminars, and direct training of. Manage- ment of Pests and Pesticides (IMPP) and outlined in Figure 15. 4, be adopted, practiced, and promoted in developing countries, particularly in island ecosystems (Mansingh, 1993). IMPP in the Caribbean Recognizing. developed 1 5- to 67-fold resistance to carbaryl and a few OP insecticides (Rawlins, 1977; Rawlins and Mansingh, 1978). The CRW complex is extremely tolerant to dieldrin and other insecticides (Biggs-Allen,