400 Gonzalo Dierksmeier, Pura Moreno, R. Hernández and K. MartinezChapter 14 Pesticide use in Cuban agriculture, present and prospects Gonzalo Dierksmeier, Pura Moreno, R. Hernández and K. Martinez OVERVIEW Geographical location and topography With two major islands and many small keys, the Cuban archipelago is situated in the tropical Caribbean Sea between Lat. 19°47'36" to 23°17'09"N, Long. 80°53'55" to 84°57'54"W. It has a land mass area of 114,524 km 2 (National Geographic Society, 1981) and the two main islands are predominantly flat. Only 21 percent of Cuba’s land area is mountainous and this is concentrated in three areas in the eastern, central, and western provinces. The mountain’s heights vary between 200 and nearly 2,000 meters. The three mountainous regions, covered by dense forest, are the source of many of the watersheds and rivers of Cuba. They are economic- ally important for the valuable timber and other useful plants, e.g. fruit trees and medicinal shrubs, found there. Coffee and some other minor crops, e.g. banana (small-scale production only) are planted in some areas of the mountains. Primarily Cuba is one large savannah with the exception of a few small wetlands covering about 4 percent of the total land mass and located almost exclusively in the southern portion of the two main islands. The largest of these two wetlands Ciénaga de Zapata (southwest central part of the largest island) is a protected region because of its biodiversity. The greater part of the savannah has fertile soils and is primarily agricultural (Academia de Ciencias de Cuba, 1992). Geology The Cuban archipelago formed at the end of the Eocene period and its present shape was determined by tectonic plate movement. In general, the region has a low level of seismic activity; only in the eastern portion of the main island does sporadic seismic activity occur (Atlas Nacional de Cuba, 1970). Climate The Cuban climate is typical of Caribbean islands in that it is hot and humid with only two well-defined seasons, summer and winter. In summer, the daily average © 2003 Milton D. Taylor, Stephen J. Klaine, Fernando P. Carvalho, Damia Barcelo and Jan Everaarts Pesticide use in Cuban agriculture, present and prospects 401 solar illumination is >8.5 h out of a total of 10–14 h of solar radiation. The maximum solar flux is approximately 1.2 cal cm –2 min –1 at midday. Average wind velocity is low during summer with a maximum velocity of 7–10 km h –1 occurring during daylight hours. Winds generally decrease at night. However, hurricanes may develop during the summer. They annually threaten, and sometimes desolate, the region. The average air temperature is approximately 30°C with minor excep- tions for microclimates in hilly regions, where the temperature is slightly lower, and in the eastern province of Santiago de Cuba, where it is higher. Humidity is high throughout the year, but reaches its highest values in summer when it consist- ently exceeds 95 percent. In winter, air temperatures are lower, especially in the western part of Cuba due to the influence of frequent incursions of cold Arctic air masses. Winter temperatures average 20°C with minimums well below the average after passage of an Arctic cold front. Average solar illumination in winter is shorter, averaging seven hours while maximum solar flux decreases to <0.8 cal cm –2 min –1 at midday. Wind velocity in winter is greater with a maximum velocity of 20 km h –1 during daylight hours. Hurricanes do not develop during this season and humidity levels are lower than in summer, but rarely drop below 70 percent. Rainfall The average yearly rainfall in Cuba is 1,345 mm, depending on the season and, to a lesser extent, on the region. The normal rainy season is from May to October when 80 percent of the total yearly rainfall occurs. Regionally, rainfall is unevenly distributed with less rainfall along the northern coast. In the mountainous regions rainfall is heavier, especially during the summer months. Cuba normally experiences typical tropical-type rainfall, i.e. heavy short-duration downfalls. Ecologically this causes intense soil erosion which consequently increases the risk of contamination of lakes, ponds, rivers, and, ultimately, coastal zones from both agrochemicals and sediments loaded with organic matter. There are no deserts in Cuba, although several locations receive far below the yearly average rainfall (Atlas climático de Cuba, 1987). Watersheds Cuba has 563 watersheds, whose rivers, because of topography, flow from the main island’s center to the north or south – 236 flow north and 327 south. Some of these ‘rivers’ are wet weather streams, flowing only during the rainy season, while others, especially those that have their origins in the mountains, flow year- round. Because the main island is narrow, the average river is only 40 km long and few rivers are deep enough to be navigable. Likewise in Cuba, there are few natural lakes and lagoons. To retain part of the year’s rainfall for the summer growing season, more than 200 artificial dams and lagoons have been constructed in or © 2003 Milton D. Taylor, Stephen J. Klaine, Fernando P. Carvalho, Damia Barcelo and Jan Everaarts 402 Gonzalo Dierksmeier, Pura Moreno, R. Hernández and K. Martinez near regions with high agricultural water demand. More than 70 percent of the impounded water is used for that purpose (Academia de Ciencias de Cuba, 1992). The groundwater table in most of Cuba is very shallow, especially in the south where in many places groundwater is near the soil surface. However, in the north it is quite different for there it is generally necessary to drill through bedrock to reach water. For these reasons, the risk of agrochemicals leaching into groundwater is higher in the south, especially where light, sandy soils predominate. Groundwater contamination from agrochemicals is a concern in some areas of Pinar del Rio Province and on the second largest island, The Isle of Youth (formerly the Isle of Pines), located south of Havana Province. Both regions are important citrus pro- duction areas. Principal economic crops The most important crops, listed by area under cultivation or economic contri- bution, are sugarcane, banana, citrus, rice, tobacco, legumes, and vegetables. Sugarcane is the most important by both measures. Fields are evenly distributed across the flatlands, and occasionally are located very near the coast. However, only herbicides and plant growth regulators are used in sugarcane production resulting in low risk of contamination to aquatic ecosystems. Cultivation practices result in the same herbicides being applied each year and this may actually enhance the degradation of these compounds and consequently reduce the risk to the environment. Ecologically rice cultivation is more important not only because it requires a diversity of pesticides (Table 14.1) but also because the necessary application equip- ment for applying these compounds over large areas (primarily by aerial application) increases the likelihood of drift (Bossan et al., 1995) or accidental application to non-target aquatic ecosystems. Additionally, rice cultivation is ecologically impor- tant because of the proximity of most large rice producing regions to the coast (Figure 14.1). The last two factors contribute most to the potential for environ- mental contamination. Furthermore, drainage from rice paddy fields treated with pesticides may also impact local aquatic wildlife. Most of Cuba’s banana production is treated with fungicides to protect against disease. However, pesticides are applied only when the disease (or pest) reaches the EIL. This technique allows a reduction in the number of treatments and, thus, a lower impact on the environment. Banana plantations have experienced a reduc- tion of about 50 percent in the annual number of applications compared to other banana growers in the Caribbean region. Similar management practices in citrus, potato, and tobacco are in place but these crops are generally planted in sandy soil. The sandy soils contribute to the leaching hazard and consequent groundwater contamination from pesticide applications. Managing this risk requires the implementation of a monitoring program to evaluate leachable residue movement of highly persistent pesticide in © 2003 Milton D. Taylor, Stephen J. Klaine, Fernando P. Carvalho, Damia Barcelo and Jan Everaarts Pesticide use in Cuban agriculture, present and prospects 403 order to restrict or ban those found in well water. Another problem in these sandy soil lands is increased contamination of nearby waterways from runoff and erosion, each bearing substantial quantities of pesticides. Table 14.2 presents results from an experiment designed to measure desorption of pesticides from two typical agricultural soils of Cuba. Desorption was higher from the sandy soil due to its low organic matter content. Figure 14.1 Map of the Cuban Archipelago showing the major rice production areas Table 14.1 Pesticides authorized for use in rice cultivation Pesticide Rate (kg a.i. ha –1 ) Pesticide Rate (kg a.i. ha –1 ) Benfuracarb 20 Dalapon 4.4–13.5 Benomyl 2 Deltamethrin 0.0125 Bentazone 1.2 Dimethoate 0.4–0.6 β-Cyfluthrin 0.0125 Edifenphos 0.5–0.7 Buprofezin (a chitin 0.25 Thiobencarb 1.5–5 synthesis inhibitor) (a thiocarbamate herbicide) Carbaryl 1.7–2.5 Fenpropathrin 0.1–0.2 Carbofuran 1.0 Fenthion 0.5–0.75 Chlorpyrifos 0.48–0.72 Fenvalerate 0.2 Cyfluthrin 0.0037–0.05 Fenitrothion 0.3 2,4-D (isopropyl ester) 0.6–1.2 Iprobenphos 0.5–0.7 λ-Cyhalothrin 0.006–0.01 Isoprothiolane (fungicide/insecticide) 0.5 Malathion 1.14–1.4 Methyl parathion 1–1.5 Molinate (a thiocarbamate herbicide) 1.8–2.5 Phosphamidon 0.5 Methamidophos 0.4–0.6 Propanil 1.08–3.5 Oxadiazon 1–2 Tebuconazol (a conazole fungicide) 0.25 Source: Lista Oficial de Plaguicidas Autorizados, 1995/1996 (Ministry of Agriculture, 1996). © 2003 Milton D. Taylor, Stephen J. Klaine, Fernando P. Carvalho, Damia Barcelo and Jan Everaarts 404 Gonzalo Dierksmeier, Pura Moreno, R. Hernández and K. Martinez PESTICIDE USE AND DISTRIBUTION Past and current use patterns Pesticides have been used in Cuba since the early 1950s but the pesticide class and use patterns have changed over the years. The first organic pesticides used in Cuban agriculture were the herbicide 2,4-D, some OC insecticides, and dithiocarbamate fungicides. In this respect Cuba followed world trends in pesticide development and trade. During the 1960s, the triazine herbicides and some others were introduced for sugarcane weed control. Also, OP and carbamate insecticides were gradually substituted for more persistent OC insecticides. The introduction of synthetic pyrethroids in the late 1980s then contributed to a ban of all OCs. Currently no OC or other highly toxic or persistent pesticides are permitted to be used in agriculture. The present trend is to introduce and use only the less toxic and less persistent pesticides available on world markets. Cuba’s pesticide use pattern has undergone significant change from an initial use pattern of spraying according to a fixed schedule, independent of the presence or absence of the target pest. This placed an unnecessary chemical deposit on crops, increasing both the risk of undesirable environmental effects and significantly adding to production costs. In the late 1970s, a radical change was introduced whereby a pesticide was applied only if the pest density, disease prevalence, or weed density surpassed a threshold level that would result in economically significant damage to the final crop. This reduced the number of treatments, the unit cost, and the potential environmental impact. In recent years an important new trend has developed with the introduction for agricultural use of a new generation of pesticides that further reduces residue concentrations on or in crops and the potential environmental impact from their use. This is because application rates for these new pesticides are very low (ranging from 15 to 500 g a.i. ha –1 ) and they are generally easily biodegraded in the environ- ment. Examples of this trend include the introduction of pyrethroids and other biorational insecticides, e.g. Bacillus thuringiensis Berliner, which was substituted for Table 14.2 Desorption of pesticides in two Cuban soil types Pesticide Red ferralitic soil type Brown plastic soil type total desorption (%) total desorption (%) Simazine 73.34 68.30 Atrazine 62.30 67.93 Ametryn 60.14 75.45 Carbofuran 56.42 62.25 Bromacil 51.98 67.00 Prometryn 45.17 71.13 Pirimiphos-methyl 22.09 20.56 Source: Dierksmeier, forthcoming. © 2003 Milton D. Taylor, Stephen J. Klaine, Fernando P. Carvalho, Damia Barcelo and Jan Everaarts Pesticide use in Cuban agriculture, present and prospects 405 some carbamate and OP insecticides in the late 1970s, and the use of triazole fungicides in place of dithiocarbamates. More recently the introduction of sulfonyl urea herbicides in rice culture has reinforced this trend. This, coupled with new measures of biological control, has further reduced the demand for synthetic pesticides and stand as one of the significant advancements of the last decade. The trends that have taken place in plant protection in Cuban agriculture are similar to other countries (Farm Chemicals International, 1996) and follow world concerns about the use of and reliance on agrochemicals. Location of applications with respect to the marine environment Most pesticides used on Cuba’s primary agricultural crops are applied by aerial or large ground-based mechanical sprayers. In some cases, pastures are also treated by aerial applications, which are highly subject to drift. Because of the prevailing wind direction during daylight hours (almost all applications occur after daybreak), the risk of direct contamination of north-coast coastal waters is extremely low. On the contrary, along the south coast, particularly near some large rice fields (Figure 14.1), the risk of direct contamination is much greater. However, for technical and economic reasons, aerial applications are allowed only when the wind velocity is very low (<3 m sec –1 ). If this regulation is followed, drift and its concomitant contamination is effectively reduced. Another form of coastal contamination may occur when pesticides are adsorbed onto eroded soils in runoff and with drainage waters from rice culture areas. This form of environmental contamination is the most important, because rice fields are located along waterways or very near the coast. TECHNICAL APPROACHES Integrated pest management One of the most important achievements in agriculture worldwide in the last twenty years is undoubtedly the development of the concept of IPM and the subsequent introduction of ideas associated with it into agricultural practice (Verreet, 1995). The most significant ideas from the standpoint of environmental impact are the selection of insect and disease resistant crop varieties, adequate soil preparation for the specific crop, planting at the optimal time, rational use of chemical pesticides to minimize their detrimental effects on natural enemies of noxious insects, use of biological pest controls when economical and feasible, and the use of pesticides only after a pest reaches an economic injury threshold population level. IPM guidelines effectively reduce the need for applying pesticides and thus minimize their introduction into the environment. IPM has been implemented for several of Cuba’s major crops with excellent results. IPM programs are in place for rice, coffee, citrus, tobacco, and banana © 2003 Milton D. Taylor, Stephen J. Klaine, Fernando P. Carvalho, Damia Barcelo and Jan Everaarts 406 Gonzalo Dierksmeier, Pura Moreno, R. Hernández and K. Martinez with research ongoing to establish IPM guidelines for other crops, e.g. potato and some vegetables. To implement IPM, several steps are necessary. Basic and applied research is conducted by research institutes and universities, where extension education programs and large-scale demonstration projects are used to present the results of their work. Concurrently an intensive grass roots education and outreach program is conducted at the farmer level by the National Center of Plant Health, Agriculture Ministry. This includes training courses, workshops, and distribution of technical information using various media to present basic knowledge of IPM techniques for a specific crop. Another measure implemented to reduce pesticide residues in food crops is periodically checking for compliance with established pre-harvest intervals (Ministry of Agriculture, 1996). This work is done by the 14 provincial residue laboratories in Cuba. A substantial reduction in pesticide use is one of the results of IPM implementation. In some crops, such as banana, the actual use of pesticides is approximately 50 percent below the level needed without this new approach. Pesticide regulations Before 1987, the importation, distribution, storage, use, and waste disposal of pesticides were regulated by a patchwork of separate legal statutes, that considered in isolation were sufficient for each specific issue for which they were designed but overall lacked coordination and integration. For example, the statute on pesticide storage regulated all aspects related to this activity, e.g. storage building charac- teristics, ventilation facilities, and accident (fires, spills, etc.) procedures. However, it made no mention of pesticide quality assurance, maximum storage times, or other important considerations such as preventive health care for pesticide workers. Finally in 1987, Cuba enacted a law that created the National Pesticide Registra- tion Office (Gaceta Oficial de la República de Cuba Año 1987, 1989) which now strictly regulates the importation, transport, uses, storage, waste disposal, and other important aspects of pesticides. Before importation, all pesticides for agricultural or other uses must be registered. To register a new pesticide a.i. or a new formulated product of a known active material, it is mandatory that the producer or seller submit to the Registration Office all data required by legislation. These data include the chemical composition of the formulated product (a.i., impurities, solvents, co- adjuvants, inert materials, etc.); its biological effectiveness against targeted pests on crops for which the product will be used; the analytical methods used to obtain required data; toxicological evaluation data; ecotoxicology; and environmental behavior, fate, and transport. The law encourages submission of other aspects such as safe handling procedures for the formulated product. The multidisciplinary scientific staff of the Registration Office evaluate all data submitted and decides which data needs independent verification, though verifica- tion of some pesticide product data is mandatory according to the registration law. Mandatory verification includes checking the physiochemical parameters of © 2003 Milton D. Taylor, Stephen J. Klaine, Fernando P. Carvalho, Damia Barcelo and Jan Everaarts Pesticide use in Cuban agriculture, present and prospects 407 the product; its biological effectiveness against target pests, effectiveness in the crops proposed, and effectiveness under the climatic conditions and agricultural practices of Cuba; establishing residue levels in the proposed crops; and establishing the appropriate pre-harvest interval. The staff may require that the environmental behavior of the new formulated product, e.g. soil degradation, leaching potential, and water-sediment distribution (and degradation) be experimentally checked. In special cases, a product’s effect on honey bees, earthworms, or fish is considered based on its toxicological properties and its possible uses. In all cases, the Registration Office verifies the required parameters through contracts with research institutes in Cuba. If the new pesticide fulfills all requirements, the Registration Office grants a permit which is valid for importation and selling the new formulated product in Cuba for five years. If the new product fails to meet all requirements, the permit is refused and the importation of the compound is banned. Upon approval, the Registration Office will list the new formulated product in the ‘Cuban Official Pesticide Authorized List’ which it publishes yearly. Generally only those pesticides are allowed to be registered that do not present an excessive health hazard to consumers of agricultural products, wildlife, or the environment. The quality of all imported pesticides and those formulated in Cuba is checked periodically by the Pesticide Chemistry Laboratories of the Ministry of Agriculture (there is one in each Cuban province) and the Plant Protection Research Institute (INISAV). Violation of permitted parameters results in the Pesticide Registration Office canceling the offending pesticide’s permit. The Pesticide Registration Office has banned some persistent and health endangering pesticides from all uses in Cuba (Table 14.3). ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT OF PESTICIDES Behavior in soil and water Pesticide residues in crops and the environment are generally quite low due to the tropics’ favorable climatic conditions for pesticide degradation and Cuba’s strict regulations on their use. High solar radiation, air temperatures, soil temperatures, and moisture levels favor high dissipation rates for pesticides through photolysis, volatilization, and degradation (especially soil degradation from enhanced microbial activity) (Malbury et al., 1996). However, several moderately persistent pesticides may be found in the environment but generally at low concentrations. These pesticides are almost exclusively OCs which are now banned in Cuba and thus their environmental concentrations should continue to decline. INISAV studies the environmental behavior of pesticides with the goal of reducing the concentration of pesticide residues in crops, soils, and waters by systematically conducting laboratory and field experiments and monitoring programs with newly introduced pesticides. Specific adsorption constants (K values) for Cuban soil types and agricultural pesticides are developed which predict the © 2003 Milton D. Taylor, Stephen J. Klaine, Fernando P. Carvalho, Damia Barcelo and Jan Everaarts 408 Gonzalo Dierksmeier, Pura Moreno, R. Hernández and K. Martinez movement of those pesticides in various ecosystems and in water-sediment systems. Table 14.4 presents K values for selected pesticides in two major Cuban soil types. Lower K values predict higher rates of leaching and runoff for the pesticide. Leaching and upward capillary movement of pesticides in soils are two opposing phenomena, taking place simultaneously with upward capillary movement reducing the risk of water table contamination by the pesticide. Table 14.5 gives the leaching behavior of several pesticides commonly used in agriculture (Dierksmeier, forth- coming). Concentrations beyond the arable layer (25 cm depth) are low even under severe laboratory conditions. Table 14.6 shows the upward capillary movement of selected herbicides in a red ferralitic soil based on laboratory and field experiments. This demonstrates the opposing effect to leaching (Dierksmeier, 1986). Theoretically dissipation and degradation of pesticides in tropical soils should occur at higher rates than in temperate zones. This is the situation, in part due to favorable weather conditions throughout the year that enhance the development Table 14.3 Pesticides banned from use in Cuba Aldrin Heptachlor Dieldrin Leptophos Camphechlor (Toxaphene) Sodium fluoroacetate (Compound 1080) Chlordimeform Thallium salts (rodenticide) Chlorobenzilate 2,4,5-T Inorganic arsenic compounds Dinoseb DDT Hexachlorocyclohexane (Lindane) Dibromochloropropane (Nemagon) Nitrofen (herbicide) Inorganic mercurial compounds Fluoracetamide (rodenticide) Organic mercurial compounds Cyhexatin Endrin Ethylene dibromide Source: Dierksmeier, 1996. Table 14.4 Specific adsorption constants (K) for selected pesticides in two important Cuban agricultural soils K ( µ g g –1 ) a Pesticide Red ferralitic soil Brown plastic soil Simazine 2.4 12.7 Atrazine 0.41 1.5 Ametryn 4.04 7.71 Carbofuran 0.29 1.54 Bromacil 2.89 23.9 Prometryn 4.47 29.98 Pirimiphos-ethyl 29.3 54.9 Source: Dierksmeier, forthcoming. Note: a Determined according to Freundlich’s law. © 2003 Milton D. Taylor, Stephen J. Klaine, Fernando P. Carvalho, Damia Barcelo and Jan Everaarts Pesticide use in Cuban agriculture, present and prospects 409 of a microflora, which contributes to the degradation of the pesticides in soil (Pemberton, 1981). Other factors like photolysis, volatilization (due to high soil temperature in summer), and runoff contribute to rapid dissipation of these com- pounds in soil (Laskowski et al., 1983). This is illustrated in Table 14.7 for some triazine herbicides, which are commonly and extensively used in many crops including sugarcane. The residues after harvest of several soil-applied pesticides are shown in Table 14.8. These results are from under field conditions. Other factors including root uptake of part of the applied pesticide may have been responsible for some of the residues. In some cases, concentrations in the soil are sufficiently high to injure crops grown in rotation (Stougard et al., 1990). Repeated, long-term application of a pesticide to the same crop species over many years causes selection and development of a specific microflora. This micro- Table 14.5 Leaching of selected pesticides in two Cuban soil types Simulated annual rainfall (mm) 100 200 400 Pesticide Soil type Soil layer (cm) Leaching (% of total pesticide found in the column) Ametryn Red ferralitic 0–5 69.05 20.93 49.47 5–10 12.18 12.67 31.92 10–15 9.30 17.62 12.25 15–20 7.75 19.70 3.63 20–25 4.84 29.04 1.81 Atrazine Red ferralitic 0–5 67.62 20.60 34.64 5–10 14.16 18.04 34.75 10–15 9.80 19.18 18.82 15–20 5.84 16.83 7.85 20–25 2.70 16.33 3.92 Propachlor Red ferralitic 0–10 100 100 – a 10–20 – – – 20–30 – – – Brown plastic 0–10 42.7 60 – 10–20 38.2 24 – 20–30 19.1 16 – Propiconazole Red ferralitic 0–10 100 98.1 97.1 10–20 – 1.9 2.9 20–30 – – – Metolachlor Red ferralitic 0–10 49.3 29.3 18.8 10–20 28.4 35.8 43.1 20–30 22.3 34.8 38.1 Brown plastic 0–10 52.5 44.8 47.0 10–20 38.7 46.2 46.7 20–30 8.8 9.0 6.3 Source: Dierksmeier, forthcoming. Note: a En dash (–) indicates no data. © 2003 Milton D. Taylor, Stephen J. Klaine, Fernando P. Carvalho, Damia Barcelo and Jan Everaarts [...]... use of these agrochemicals, and strict regulations concerning all aspects of pesticide importation, transport, storage, use, and waste disposal For these reasons, there are no pesticide residues in drinking water beyond the MRLs while in crops, most pesticide residues are found in compliance with national and international standards In agricultural soils and in inland waters, pesticide dissipation is... of pesticide in water and sediment: Confirmation of residues by relative retention times using GC and HPLC and by relative Rf in TLC In: Proc 8th Int IUPAC Congress of Pesticide Chemistry, held 5–9 July 1994 in Washington, DC, USA Dierksmeier, G., Hernández, R., Moreno, P.L., Martinez, K and Ricardo, C 1996 Organochlorine pesticides in sediment and biota in the coastal region to the south of the Pinar... affinis Baird and Girad (Cyprinodontiformes: Poeciliidae) have given good results The indirect causes of pesticide contamination are numerous and while some are avoidable, others are inherent in pesticide use, and some are due to human failure One of the most important indirect sources of pesticide contamination in the environment is from washing empty pesticide drums, washing plastic pesticide containers,... Carvalho, Damia Barcelo and Jan Everaarts 414 Gonzalo Dierksmeier, Pura Moreno, R Hernández and K Martinez zone near Los Palacios, south Pinar del Rio Province (see Figure 14. 1) as part of a comprehensive international project focusing on the distribution, fate, and effects of pesticides on biota in the tropical marine environment using radiotracer technology This project is sponsored by the International Atomic... Klaine, Fernando P Carvalho, Damia Barcelo and Jan Everaarts 418 Gonzalo Dierksmeier, Pura Moreno, R Hernández and K Martinez for storing and transporting fuels or, in some cases, for domestic uses Good management practice requires thoroughly cleaning containers and adding the rinsing water to the spray mixture, thus saving money and protecting the environment Recently the Plant Protection Research Institute... Latin American study (UNESCO et al., 1994) The Centro de Investigación de Ingienería y Medio Ambiente (CIMAB) has monitored the contamination, including that from pesticides and hydrocarbons, of Cuba’s principal bays Recently research evaluating pesticide residue levels in sediment and biota near an extensive rice producing area has begun in the coastal © 2003 Milton D Taylor, Stephen J Klaine, Fernando... environment to preserve the environment and contribute to sustainable agriculture This will require investment in a scientific infrastructure and periodically upgrading the knowledge © 2003 Milton D Taylor, Stephen J Klaine, Fernando P Carvalho, Damia Barcelo and Jan Everaarts Table 14. 14 Pesticide residues found in samsples of some important crops in Cubaa Crop Pesticide Zineb b – – – 36 ND 0.1 – – 2 2 ND... protect consumer health and remain in compliance with international trade regulations To accomplish this, Cuba examines each combination of pesticide and crop following FAO guidelines (FAO, 1990) and good agricultural practices The dissipation of residues is followed analytically to establish pre-harvest intervals for each pesticide and crop based on MRL guidelines The Cuban National Pesticide Registration... Hernández, R and Merlo, M.E 1990 Cinética de degradación de los herbicidas atrazina, ametrina, prometrina, simazina, terbutrina y desmetrina en suelo In: 2nd Seminario Científico de Sanidad Vegetal Habana, Cuba, pp 57–63 Stougard, R.N., Shea, P.J and Martin, A.R 1990 Effect of soil type and pH on adsorption, mobility, and efficacy of imazaquin and imazethapyr Weed Sci 38:67–73 Tomlin, C (ed.) 1994 The Pesticide. .. coastal zone In: Extended Synopses Int Symp on Marine Pollution, held 5–9 October 1998 in Monaco, pp 386–7 Espinosa Gonzalez, J 1996 Fate of pesticides under tropical field conditions: Implications and research needs in a developing country In: Environmental Behavior of Crop Protection © 2003 Milton D Taylor, Stephen J Klaine, Fernando P Carvalho, Damia Barcelo and Jan Everaarts Pesticide use in Cuban . some persistent and health endangering pesticides from all uses in Cuba (Table 14. 3). ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT OF PESTICIDES Behavior in soil and water Pesticide residues in crops and the environment. Hernández and K. Martinez zone near Los Palacios, south Pinar del Rio Province (see Figure 14. 1) as part of a comprehensive international project focusing on the distribution, fate, and effects of pesticides. residue levels in sediment and biota near an extensive rice producing area has begun in the coastal Table 14. 10 Behavior of pesticides in water-sediment systems Pesticide Concentration in water (mg