Handbook Fractography (1998) WW Part 5 pps

Fig. 79 Microstructure and fracture appearance of type 316 stainless steel tested in creep to fracture at 770 °C (1420 °F) using a 62-MPa (8.95- ksi) load. Time to rupture: 808 h. (a) Optical micrograph showing crack nucleation and growth by dec ohesion along the carbide/matrix interfaces. Etched with dilute aqua regia. 440 ×. (b) SEM fractograph illustrating carbide morphology at the fracture surface. 3150 ×. (W.E. White, Petro-Canada Ltd.) Because of the economic importance of creep in high-temperature service, particularly in power generation equipment, considerably emphasis has been placed on predicting the remaining life of components (Ref 233, 234, 235, 236, 237, 238). This work has involved metallographic examination of the creep damage, including field metallographic procedures (Ref 239, 240, 241, 242, 243). Such predictions must also take into consideration the changes in microstructure that occur during the extended high-temperature exposure of metals and alloys (Ref 244, 245, 246, 247, 248, 249). References cited in this section 10. H.C. Rogers, The Tensile Fracture of Ductile Metals, Trans. AIME, Vol 218, June 1960, p 498-506 13. D.P. Clausing, The Development of Fibrous Fracture in a Mild Steel, Trans. ASM, Vol 60, 1967, p 504-515 20. C.T. Liu and J. Gurland, The Fracture Behavior of Spheroidized Carbon Steels, Trans. ASM, Vol 61, 1968, p 156-167 41. A. Phillips et al., Electron Fractography Handbook, AFML-TDR-64- 416, Air Force Materials Laboratory, 31 Jan 1965 42. A. Phillips et al., Electron Fractography Handbook, MCIC-HB- 08, Air Force Materials Laboratory and the Metals and Ceramics Information Center, June 1976 43. B.V. Whiteson et al., Electron Fractographic Techniques, in Techniques of Metals Research, Vol II, Pt. I, Interscience, 1968, p 445-497 44. C.D. Beachem, The Effects of Crack Tip Plastic Flow Directions Upon Microscopic Dimple Shapes, Metall. Trans., Vol 6A, Feb 1975, p 377-383 45. B.J. Brindley, The Mechanism of Ductile Fracture in an Fe-21% Cr-0.5% C Alloy, Acta Metall., Vol 16, April 1968, p 587-595 46. A.W. Thompson and P.F. Weihrauch, Ductile Fracture: Nucleation at Inclusions, Scr. Metall., Vol 10, Feb 1976, p 205-210 47. E.R. Parker et al., A Study of the Tension Test, Proc. ASTM, Vol 46, 1946 p 1159-1174 48. I.E. French and P.F. Weinrich, The Tensile Fracture Mechanisms of F.C.C. Metals and Alloys A Review of the Influence of Pressure, J. Austral. Inst. Met., Vol 22 (No. 1), March 1977, p 40-50 49. H.C. Rogers, The Effect of Material Variables on Ductility, in Ductility, American Society for Metals, 1968 p 31-56 50. L.D. Kenney et al., Effect of Particles on the Tensile Fracture of Aluminum Alloys, in Microstructural Science, Vol 8, Elsevier, 1980, p 153-156 51. B.I. Edelson and W.W. Baldwin, Jr., The Eff ect of Second Phases on the Mechanical Properties of Alloys, Trans. ASM, Vol 55, 1962, p 230-250 52. J. Gurland and J. Plateau, The Mechanism of Ductile Rupture of Metals Containing Inclusions, Trans. ASM, Vol 56, 1963, p 442-454 53. T. Inoue and S. Kino shita, Mechanism of Void Initiation in the Ductile Fracture Process of a Sphreroidized Carbon Steel, in Microstructure and Design of Alloys, Vol 1, Institute of Metals and the Iron and Steel Institute, 1973, p 159-163 54. C. Wells and R.F. Mehl, Transverse Mechanical Properties in Heat Treated Wrought Steel Products, Trans. ASM, Vol 41, 1949, p 715-818 55. E.A. Loria, Transverse Ductility Variations in Large Steel Forgings, Trans. ASM, Vol 42, 1950, p 486-498 56. E.G. Olds and C. Wells, Statistical Metho ds for Evaluating the Quality of Certain Wrought Steel Products, Trans. ASM, Vol 42, 1950, p 845-899 57. C. Wells et al., Effect of Composition on Transverse Mechanical Properties of Steel, Trans. ASM, Vol 46, 1954, p 129-156 58. H.H. Johnson and G.A. Fisher, Steel Quality as Related to Test Bar Fractures, Trans. AFS, Vol 58, 1950, p 537-549 59. J. Welchner and W.G. Hildorf, Relationship of Inclusion Content and Transverse Ductility of a Chromium-Nickel-Molybdenum Gun Steel, Trans. ASM, Vol 42, 1950, p 455-485 60. H.D. Shephard and E.A. Loria, The Nature of Inclusions in Tensile Fractures of Forging Steels, Trans. ASM, Vol 41, 1949, p 375-395 61. F.L. Carr et al., Correlation of Microfractography and Macrofractography of AISI 4340 Steel, in Application of Electron Microfractography of Materials Research, STP 493, American Society for Testing and Materials, 1971, p 36-54 62. J.A. Kies et al., Interpretation of Fracture Markings, J. Appl. Phys., Vol 21, July 1950, p 716-720 63. J. Nunes et al., Macrofractographic Techniques, in Techniques of Metals Research, Vol 2, Pt. 1, John Wiley & Sons, 1968, p 379-444 64. J.H. Hollomon, Temper Brittleness, Trans. ASM, Vol 36, 1946, p 473-541 65. W.R. Clough et al., The Rosette, Star, Tensile Fracture, J. Basic Eng. (Trans. ASME), Vol 90, March 1968, p 21-27 66. A.S. Shneiderman, Star-Type Fracture in the Tensile Testing of Testpieces, Ind. Lab., Vol 41, July 1974, p 1061-1062 67. F.R. Larson and F.L. Carr, Tensile Fracture Surface Configurations of a Heat-Treated Steel as Affected by Temperature, Trans. ASM, Vol 55, 1962, p 599-612 68. F.R. Larson and J. Nunes, Low Temperature Plastic Flow and Fracture Tension Properties of Heat- Treated SAE 4340 Steel, Trans. ASM, Vol 53, 1961, p 663-682 69. F.L. Carr and F.R. Larson, Fracture Surface Topography and Toughness of AISI 4340 Steel, J. Matter., Vol 4, Dec 1969, p 865-875 70. J.H. Bucher et al., Tensile Fracture of Three Ultra-High-Strength Steels, Trans. AIME, Vol 233 May 1965, p 884-889 71. F.L. Carr et al., Mechan ical Properties and Fracture Surface Topography of a Thermally Embrittled Steel, in Temper Embrittlement in Steel, STP 407, American Society for Testing and Materials, 1968, p 203-236 72. R.J. Hrubec et al., The Split, Layered, Cup-and-Cone Tensile Fracture, J. Basic Eng. (Trans. ASME), Vol 90, March 1968 p 8-12 73. B.M. Kopadia et al., Influence of Mechanical Fibering on Brittle Fracture in Hot Rolled Steel Plate, Trans. ASM, Vol 55, 1962, p 289-398 74. E.A. Almond et al., Fracture in Laminated Materials, in Interfaces in Composites, STP 452, American Society for Testing and Materials, 1969, p 107-129 75. E.A. Almond, Delamination in Banded Steels, Metall. Trans., Vol 1, July 1970, p 2038-2041 76. D.F Lentz, Factors Contributing to Split Fractures, in Mechanical Working and Steel Processing, Meeting XII, American Institute of Mining, Metallurgical, and Petroleum Engineers, 1974 p 397-411 77. D.M. Fegredo, The Effect of Rolling at Different Temperatures on the Fracture Toughness Anisotropy of a C-Mn Structural Steel, Can. Metall. Q., Vol 14 (No. 3), 1975, p 243-255 78. H. Hero et al., The Occurrence of Delamination in a Control Rolled HSLA Steel, Can. Metall. Q., Vol 14 (No. 2), 1975, p 117-122 79. P. Brozzo and G. Buzzichelli, Effect of Plastic Anisot ropy on the Occurrence of 0"Separations" on Fracture Surfaces of Hot-Rolled Steel Specimens, Scr. Metall., Vol 10, 1976, p 233-240 80. D.N. Hawkins, Cleavage Separations in Warm-Rolled Low-Carbon Steels, Met. Technol., Sept. 1976, p 417-421 81. A.J. DeAr do, On Investigation of the Mechanism of Splitting Which Occurs in Tensile Specimens of High Strength Low Alloy Steel, Metall. Trans. A, Vol 8, March 1977, p 473-486 82. B.L. Bramfitt and A.R. Marder, Splitting Behavior in Plate Steels, in Toughness Chara cterization and Specifications for HSLA and Structural Steels, American Institute of Mining, Metallurgical, and Petroleum Engineers, 1977, p 236-256 83. B.L. Bramfitt and A.R. Marder, A Study of the Delamination Behavior of a Very Low-Carbon Steel, Metall . Trans., Vol 8A, Aug. 1977, p 1263-1273 84. J.E. Ryall and J.G. Williams, Fracture Surface Separations in the Charpy V-Notch Test, BHP Tech, Bull., Vol 22, Nov 1978, p 38-45 85. B. Engl and A. Fuchs, Macroscopic and Microscopic Features of Separations in Structural Steels, Prakt. Metallogr., Vol 17, Jan 1980, p 3-13 86. G.D. Fearnehough Fracture Propagation Control in Gas Pipelines: A Survey of Relevant Studies, Int. J. Pressure Vessels Piping, Vol 2, 1974, p 257-282 87. R. Schofield et al., "Arrowhead" Fractures in Controlled-Rolled Pipeline Steels, Met. Technol., July 1974, p 325-331 88. T. Yamaguchi et al., Study of Mechanism of Separation Occurring on Fractured Surface of High Grade Line Pipe Steels, Nippon Kokan Tech. Rep. (Overseas), Dec 1974, p 41-53 89. D.S. Dabkowski et al., "Splitting-Type" Fractures in High-Strength Line-Pipe Steels, Met. Eng. Q., Feb 1976, p 22-32 90. M. Iino et al., On Delamination in Line-pipe Steels, Trans. ISIJ, Vol 17, 1977, p 450-458 91. A. Gangulee and J. Gurland, On the Fracture of Silicon Particles in Aluminum-Silicon Alloys, Trans. AIME, Vol 239, Feb 1967, p 269-272 92. C.J. McMahon, Jr., The Microstructural Aspects of Tensile Fracture, in Fundamental Phenomena in the Material Sciences, Vol 4, Plenum Press, 1967, p 247-284 93. J.C.W. Van De Kasteele and D. Broek, The Failure of Large Second Phase Particles in a Cracking Aluminum Alloy, Eng. Fract. Mech., Vol 9 (No. 3), 1977, p 625-635 94. A.S. Argon and J. Im, Separation of Second Phase Particles in Spheroidized 1045 Steel, Cu- 0.6 Pct Cr Alloy, and Maraging Steel in Plastic Straining, Metall. Trans. A, Vol 6, April 1975, p 839-851 95. T. Kunio et al., An Effect of the Second Phase Morphology on the Tensile Fracture Characteristics of Carbon Steels, Eng. Fract. Mech., Vol 7, Sept 1975, p 411-417 96. W.A. Spitzig, Effect of Sulfides and Sulfide Morphology on Anistropy of Tensile Ductility and Toughness of Hot-Rolled C-Mn Steels, Metall. Trans., Vol 14A, March 1983, p 471-484 97. J.E. Croll, Factors Influencing the Through-Thickness Ductility of Structural Steels, BHP Tech. Bull., Vol 20, April 1976, p 24-29 98. I.D. Simpson et al., Effect of the Shape and Size of Inclusions on Through-Thickness Properties, BHP Tech. Bull., Vol 20, April 1976, p 30-36 99. I.D. Simpson et al., The Effect of Non-Metallic Inclusions on Mechanical Properties, Met. Forum, Vol 2 (No. 2), 1979, p 108-117 100. H. 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Quick, "Mechanical Failures of Metals in Service," NBS Circular 550, National Bureau of Standards, 27 Sept 1954 122. V.J. Colangelo and F.A. Heiser, Analysis of Metallurgical Failures, John Wiley & Sons, 1974 123. D. McIntyre, Fractographic Analysis of Fatigue Failures, J. Eng. Mater. Technol. (Trans. ASME), July 1975, p 194-205 124. C.E. Feddersen, "Fatigue Crack Propagation in D6AC Steel Plate for Several Flight Load Profiles in Dry Air and JP-4 Fuel Environments," AFML-TR-72-20, Battelle Memorial Institute, Jan 1972 125. M.K. Chakko and K.N. Tong, Evaluation of Resistance to Spalling of Roll Materials, Iron Steel Eng., Vol 42, Oct 1965, p 141-154 126. J.D. Keller, Effect of Roll Wear on Spalling, Iron Steel Eng., Vol 37, Dec 1960, p 171-178 127. F.K. Naumann and F. Spies, Working Roll With Shell-Shaped Fractures, Pract. Metallogr., Vol 13, 1976, p 440-443 128. J.M. Chilton and M.J. 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Trans., Vol 9A, April 1978, p 489-494 221. R.A. Scriven and H.D. Williams, The Derivation of Angular Distributions of Planes by Sectioning Methods, Trans. AIME, Vol 233, Aug 1965, p 1593-1602 222. D.M.R. Taplin and L.J. Barker, A Study of the Mechanism of I ntergranular Creep Cavitation by Shadowgraphic Electron Microscopy, Acta Metall., Vol 14, Nov 1966, p 1527-1531 223. G.J. Cocks and D.M.R. Taplin, An Appraisal of Certain Metallographic Techniques for Studying Cavities, Metallurgia, Vol 75 (No. 451), May 1967, p 229-235 224. D.M.R. Taplin and A.L. Wingrove, Study of Intergranular Cavitation in Iron by Electron Microscopy of Fracture Surfaces, Acta Metall., Vol 15, July 1967, p 1231-1236 225. K. Farrell and J.O. Stiegler, Electron Fractography for Studying Cavities, Metallurgia, Vol 79 (No. 471), Jan 1969 p 35-37 226. A.L. Wingrove and D.M.R. Taplin, The Morphology and Growth of Creep Cavities in -Iron, J. Mater. Sci., Vol 4, Sept 1969, p 789-796 227. H.R. Tipler et al., Some Direct Observations on the Metallography of Creep- Cavitated Grain Boundaries, Met. Sci. J., Vol 4, Sept 1970, p 167-170 228. W.E. White and I. LeMay, Metallographic and Fractographic Analyses of Creep Failure in Stainless Steel Weldments, in Microstructural Science, Vol 5, Elsevier, 1977, p 145-160 229. V.K. Sikka et al., Twin-Boundary Cavitation During Creep in Aged Type 304 Stainless Steel, Metall. Trans., Vol 8A, July 1977, p 1117-1129 230. D.G. Morris and D.R. Harries, Wedge Crack Nucleation in Type 316 Stainless Steel, J. Mater. Sci., Vol 12, Aug 1977, p 1587-1597 231. W.M. Stobbs, Electron Microscopical Techniques for the Observation of Cavities, J. Microsc., Vol 116, Pt. 1, May 1979, p 3-13 232. R.J. Fields and M.F. Ashby, Observation on Wedge Cavities in the SEM, Scr. Metall., Vol 14 (No. 7), July 1980, p 791-796 233. A.J. Perry. Cavitation in Creep, J. Mater. Sci., Vol 9, June 1974, p 1016-1039 234. B.F. Dyson and D. 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Bengtsson, "Metallographic Methods for Observation of Creep Cavities in Service Exposed Low- Alloyed Steel," Report IM-1636, Swedish Institute for Metals Research, March 1982 242. J.F. Henry and F.V. Ellis, "Plastic Replication Techniques for Damage Assessment," Report RP2253- 01, Electric Power Research Institute, Sept 1983 243. J.F. Henry, Field Metallography. The Applied Techniques of In-Place Analysis, in Corrosion, Microstructure, & Metallography, Vol 12, Microstructural Science, American Society for Metals and the International Metallographic Society, 1985, p 537-549 244. M.C. Murphy and G.D. Branch, Metallurgical Changes in 2.25 CrMo Steels During Creep-Rupture Test, J. Iron Steel Inst., Vol 209, July 1971, p 546-561 245. J.M. Leitnaker and J. Bentley, Precipitate Phases in Type 321 Stainless Steel After Aging 17 Years at 600 °C, Metall. Trans., Vol 8A, Oct 1977, p 1605-1613 246. M. McLean, Microstructural Instabilities in Metallurgical Systems A Review, Met. Sci., Vol 12, March 1978, p 113-122 247. S. Kihara et al., Morphological Changes of Carbides During Creep and Their Effects on the Creep Properties of Inconel 617 at 1000 °C, Metall, Trans., Vol 11A, June 1980, p 1019-1031 248. S.F. Claeys and J.W. Jones, Role of Microstructural Instability in Long Time Creep Life Prediction, Met. Sci., Vol 18, Sept 1984, p 432-438 249. Y. Minami et al., Microstructural Changes in Austenitic Stainless Steels During Long-Term Aging, Mater. Sci. Technol., Vol 2, Aug 1986, p 795-806 Visual Examination and Light Microscopy George F. Vander Voort, Carpenter Technology Corporation Embrittlement Phenomena The expected deformation and fracture processes can be altered by various embrittlement phenomena. These problems can arise as a result of impurity elements (gaseous, metallic, or nonmetallic), temperature, irradiation, contact with liquids, or combinations of these or other factors. Metals can become embrittled during fabrications, heat treatment, or service. If the degree of embrittlement is severe enough for the particular service conditions, premature failures will result. Some of these problems introduce rather distinctive features that may be observed by macro- or microscopic fractographic methods, and the ability to categorize these problems properly is imperative for determining cause and for selecting the proper corrective action. It is well recognized that many metals, such as iron (Ref 250, 251, 252, 253, 254, 255, 256, 257), are embrittled by high levels of oxygen, nitrogen, phosphorus, sulfur, and hydrogen. Of these elements, the influence of oxygen on the intergranular brittleness of iron has produced the most conflicting test results. For example, in one investigation a series of iron-oxygen alloys with up to 0.27% O was tested, and intergranular fractures were observed in all but the lowest (0.001%) oxygen sample (Ref 251). On the other hand, in a study of high-purity iron and electrolytic iron, no influence of oxygen content (up to 2000 ppm) was observed on the ductile-to-brittle transition temperature (Ref 256). Increasing the carbon content to about 40 ppm decreased the ductile-to-brittle transition temperature and decreased the intergranular brittleness, irrespective of oxygen content. Other bcc metals, such as molybdenum, chromium, and tungsten, are embrittled by oxygen, nitrogen, and carbon (Ref 250, 258, 259). When embrittled, the fractures of these metals are intergranular. Face-centered cubic metals may also be embrittled by oxygen (Ref 260, 261) and sulfur (Ref 262, 263, 264, 265). For example, in a study of the grain-boundary embrittlement of intermetallics with a stoichiometric excess of active metal component, the extreme brittleness of these materials was shown to be due to grain-boundary hardening through absorption of gaseous impurities (oxygen and/or nitrogen) segregated to the grain-boundary areas (Ref 266). Metallography and fractography have played important roles in developing an understanding of embrittlement mechanisms. For example, early work on the embrittlement of copper by bismuth attributed the embrittlement to the presence of thin grain-boundary films of elemental bismuth (Ref 267, 268). However, careful metallographic preparation and examination of copper containing low amounts of bismuth (up to 0.015%) showed that the apparent films were actually steplike grooves at the grain boundaries (Ref 269). These grooves were not observed after either mechanical or electrolytic polishing, but were visible after etching. In another study, copper containing up to 4.68% Bi was tested, and the results were similar to those discussed in Ref 269; however, in alloys with high bismuth contents, either continuous grain-boundary films or discrete particles of bismuth with a lenticular shape were observed. Studies of the embrittlement of copper by antimony revealed results similar to that of the low-bismuth alloy (Ref 271, 272); that is, grain-boundary grooves, rather than discrete films, were observed after etching. The embrittled specimens fractured intergranularly. The influence of impurity elements on the hot workability of metals is well known. Copper will be embrittled during hot working in the presence of bismuth, lead, sulfur, selenium, tellurium, or antimony (Ref 273). Lead and bismuth also degrade the hot workability of brass (Ref 273). The hot workability of steels is degraded by sulfur (Ref 274, 275, 276, 277, 278, 279, 280) and by residual copper and tin (Ref 281, 282, 283, 284). Sulfides have also caused intergranular cracking in alloy steel castings (Ref 285). Poor hot workability is also a problem with free-machining steels containing lead and tellurium (Ref 286). Residuals such as lead, tin, bismuth, and tellurium can cause hot cracking during hot working of stainless steels (Ref 287, 288), and residual elements such as sulfur, phosphorus, bismuth, lead, tellurium, selenium, and thallium are detrimental to nickel-base superalloys (Ref 289, 290, 291). Excessive precipitation of aluminum nitride can cause cracking in steel castings and during hot working (Ref 292, 293, 294, 295, 296, 297, 298, 299, 300, 301, 302, 303). Certain materials are inherently brittle because of their crystal structure, microstructure, or both. For example, gray cast iron is an inherently brittle material because of the weakness of the nearly continuous graphite phase. However, if the graphite exists in isolated, spherical particles, as in nodular cast iron, excellent ductility can be obtained. Grain-boundary cementite films in high-carbon or carburized steels produce extreme brittleness, but if the same amount of cementite exists as discrete spheroidized particles, ductility is good. As-quenched high-carbon martensite is quite brittle, but tempering improves the ductility, although at a sacrifice in strength. The normally ductile austenitic stainless steels can be embrittled by the formation of hcp -martensite during service (Ref 304, 305, 306). Numerous types of embrittlement phenomena can occur in certain metals and alloys or under certain environmental conditions. These problems can be traced to compositional or manufacturing problems and/or service conditions. The more familiar embrittlement problems and their fractographic characteristics are summarized below. Creep-Rupture Embrittlement. Under creep conditions, embrittlement can occur and result in abnormally low rupture ductility. This problem has been encountered in aluminum (Ref 307) and steels (Ref 308, 309, 310, 311, 312, 313, 314, 315). Iron, in amounts above the solubility limit in aluminum, has been shown to cause creep-rupture embrittlement by development of intergranular cracking (Ref 307). The creep embrittlement of chromium-molybdenum steels has been extensively studied. Matrix precipitation strengthening has been shown to cause creep embrittlement (Ref 308). Also, coarse-grain areas in 2.25Cr-1Mo welds have been found to exhibit much lower creep ductility than fine-grain weldments (Ref 312). Impurities such as phosphorus, sulfur, copper, arsenic, antimony and tin have been shown to reduce rupture ductility, although rupture life increases. This behavior appears to be due to the grain-boundary segregants blocking grain-boundary diffusion, which reduces the cavity growth rate. High impurity contents increase the density of the cavities. Substantial intergranular cracking is observed in high-impurity material and is absent in low-impurity heats (Ref 313). Graphitization. In the early 1940s, several failures of welded joints in high-pressure steam lines occurred because of graphite formation in the region of the weld heat-affected zone (HAZ) that had been heated during welding to the critical temperature of the steel (Ref 316, 317, 318, 319, 320). Extensive surveys of carbon and carbon-molybdenum steel samples removed from various types of petroleum-refining equipment revealed graphite in about one-third of the 554 samples tested (Ref 316, 319). Generally, graphite formation did not occur until about 40,000 h or longer at temperatures from 455 to 595 °C (850 to 1100 °F). Aluminum-killed carbon steels were susceptible, but silicon-killed or low-aluminum killed carbon steels were immune to graphitization. The C-0.5Mo steels were more resistant to graphitization than the carbon steels, but were similarly influenced by the manner of deoxidation. Chromium additions and stress relieving at 650 °C (1200 °F) both retarded graphitization. Hydrogen Embrittlement. Hydrogen is known to cause various problems in many metals, most notably in steels, aluminum, nickel, and titanium alloys (Ref 321, 322, 323, 324, 325, 326, 327, 328, 329, 330, 331, 332). Various forms of hydrogen-related problems have been observed. • Blistering, porosity, or cracking during processing due to the lack of solubility during cooling of supersaturated material, or by cathodic charging, or other processes that form high-pressure gas bubbles • Adsorption or absorption of hydrogen at the surface of metals in a hydrogen- rich environment producing embrittlement or cracking • Embrittlement due to hydride formation • Embrittlement due to the interaction of hydrogen with impurities or alloying elements The problem of hydrogen effects in steels has been thoroughly studied. Hydrogen embrittlement is most noticeable at low strain rates and at ambient temperatures. A unique aspect of hydrogen embrittlement is the delayed nature of the failures; that is, after a specimen is charge with hydrogen, fracture does not occur instantly but only after the passage of a certain amount of time. Therefore, some researchers have used the term static fatigue to describe the phenomenon. However, this term is misleading. Tensile and bend tests have historically been used to detect and quantify the degree of embrittlement. For example, in tensile testing, it is common practice to compare the normal tensile ductility the %RA with the %RA in the presence of hydrogen in order to calculate an embrittlement index E showing the loss in reduction of area: (%)(%) (%) RAuRAc E RAu − = (Eq 2) where u and c indicate unchanged and changed, respectively. [...]... accelerated void growth, particularly for carbides at grain or subgrain boundaries (Ref 350 ) Void growth acceleration was greatest in the latter stage of void growth Quasi-cleavage facets were observed around inclusions in steels with high inclusion contents The influence of inclusions, particularly sulfides, on hydrogen embrittlement has been demonstrated (Ref 351 , 352 , 353 , 354 , 355 ) In one investigation... degraded because of improper processing after hot working This problem, called thermal embrittlement, occurs upon heating above 10 95 °C (2000 °F), followed by slow cooling or by interrupted cooling with holding in the range of 8 15 to 980 °C ( 150 0 to 1800 °F) (Ref 454 , 455 , 456 , 457 , 458 ) Embrittlement has been attributed to precipitation of TiC and Ti(C,N) on the austenite grain boundaries during cooling through... 2 75 J.M Middletown and H.J Protheroe, The Hot-Tearing of Steel, J Iron Steel Inst., Vol 168, Aug 1 951 , p 384-400 276 C.T Anderson et al., Effect of Various Elements on Hot-Working Characteristics and Physical Properties of Fe-C Alloys, J Met., Vol 5, April 1 953 , p 52 5 -52 9 277 C.T Anderson et al., Forgeability of Steels with Varying Amounts of Manganese and Sulfur Trans AIME, Vol 200, July 1 954 , p 8 35- 837... 1 45- 151 ; June 1940, p 177-184; Vol 12, July 1940, p 44 -51 ; Aug 1940, p 1 45- 148 C.A Zapffe, Defects in Cast and Wrought Steel Caused by Hydrogen, Met Prog., Vol 42, Dec 1942, p 1 051 -1 056 E.R Johnson et al., Flaking in Alloy Steels, in Open Hearth Conference, 1944, p 358 -377 336 A.W Dana et al., Relation of Flake Formation in Steel to Hydrogen, Microstructure, and Stress, Trans AIME, Vol 203, Aug 1 955 ,... McGraw-Hill, 1984 250 J.R Low, Jr., Impurities, Interfaces and Brittle Fracture, Trans AIME, Vol 2 45, Dec 1969, p 2481-2494 251 W.P Rees and B.E Hopkins, Intergranular Brittleness in Iron-Oxygen Alloys, J Iron Steel Inst., Vol 172, Dec 1 952 , p 403-409 252 J.R Low, Jr and R.G Feustel, Inter-Crystalline Fracture and Twinning of Iron at Low Temperatures, Acta Metall., Vol 1, March 1 953 , p 1 85- 192 253 B.E Hopkins... Iron Steel Inst., Vol 177, May 1 954 , p 110-117 254 B.E Hopkins and H.R Tipler, The Effect of Phosphorus on the Tensile and Notch-Impact Properties of High-Purity Iron and Iron-Carbon Alloys J Iron Steel Inst., Vol 188, March 1 958 , p 218-237 255 A.R Troiano, The Role of Hydrogen and Other Interstitials in the Mechanical Behavior of Metals, Trans ASM, Vol 52 , 1960, p 54 -80 256 C Pichard et al., The Influence... Table 2 Table 2 Properties of step-cooled embrittled AISI 4140 alloy steel Hardness, HRC Tensile strength, 50 % FATT(a), MPa Phosphorus, % ksi °C °F 0.004 33 1031 149 .5 -70 - 95 0.013 33 .5 1071 155 .4 -39 -38 (a) FATT, fracture appearance transition temperature based on a temperature for a 50 % ductile, 50 % brittle fracture appearance Scanning electron microscopy examination revealed no intergranular fracture... 3 05 580 690 12 75 Pale blue 350 660 (a) Samples held 60 min at heat (b) Source: Ref 4 15 (c) Source: Ref 416 Fig 91 SEM fractograph of a quench crack surface in AISI 51 60 alloy steel showing a nearly complete intergranular fracture path 680× Fig 92 Temper colors as a function of time at heat for AISI 10 35 steel Source: Ref 414 Figure 93 shows an interesting example of quench cracking on ASTM A3 25. .. Vol 7A, Dec 1976, p 1811-18 15 257 M.C Inman and H.R Tipler, Grain-Boundary Segregation of Phosphorus in an Iron-Phosphorus Alloy and the Effect Upon Mechanical Properties Acta Metall., Vol 6, Feb 1 958 , p 73-84 258 G.T Hahn et al., "The Effects of Solutes on the Ductile-to-Brittle Transition in Refractory Metals," DMIC Memorandum 155 , Battelle Memorial Institute, 28 June 1962 259 R.E Maringer and A.D Schwope,... series of test fractures of ASTM A508 class II material soaked at 12 05 to 1370 °C (2200 to 250 0 °F) and then quenched and tempered to a hardness of 37 to 39 HRC Figure 89 shows SEM views of typical facets in samples soaked at 12 05 and 1370 °C (2200 and 250 0 °F) The sulfides in the dimples in the 1370- °C ( 250 0- °F) specimen are clearly visible, but those in the 12 05- °C (2200- °F) specimen are extremely . corrective action. It is well recognized that many metals, such as iron (Ref 250 , 251 , 252 , 253 , 254 , 255 , 256 , 257 ), are embrittled by high levels of oxygen, nitrogen, phosphorus, sulfur, and. Steel, Trans. ASM, Vol 46, 1 954 , p 129- 156 58 . H.H. Johnson and G.A. Fisher, Steel Quality as Related to Test Bar Fractures, Trans. AFS, Vol 58 , 1 950 , p 53 7 -54 9 59 . J. Welchner and W.G. Hildorf,. Society, 19 85, p 53 7 -54 9 244. M.C. Murphy and G.D. Branch, Metallurgical Changes in 2. 25 CrMo Steels During Creep-Rupture Test, J. Iron Steel Inst., Vol 209, July 1971, p 54 6 -56 1 2 45. J.M.