Handbook Fractography (1998) WW Part 1 ppt

ASM INTERNATIONAL ® The Materials Information Company Publication Information and Contributors Fractography, was published in 1987 as Volume 12 of the ASM Handbook. The Volume was prepared under the direction of the ASM Handbook Committee. Authors and Reviewers • LAMET UFRGS • D.L. Bagnoli Mobil Research & Development Corporation • Kingshuk Banerji Georgia Institute of Technology • Bruce Boardman Deere & Company • R.D. Bucheit Battelle Columbus Laboratories • H. Burghard Southwest Research Institute • Theodore M. Clarke J.I. Case Company • E. Philip Dahlberg Metallurgical Consultants, Inc. • Barbara L. Gabriel Packer Engineering Associates, Inc. • J. Gurland Brown University • R.W. Hertzberg Lehigh University • Jan Hinsch E. Leitz, Inc. • Brian H. Kaye Laurentian University • Victor Kerlins McDonnell Douglas Astronautics Company • Campbell Laird University of Pennsylvania • Robert McCoy Youngstown State University • W.C. McCrone McCrone Research Institute • C.R. Morin Packer Engineering Associates, Inc. • Alex J. Morris Olin Corporation • J.C. Murza The Timken Company • D.E. Passoja Technical Consultant • R.M. Pelloux Massachusetts Institute of Technology • Austin Phillips Technical Consultant • Robert O. Ritchie University of California at Berkeley • Cyril Stanley Smith Technical Consultant • Ervin E. Underwood Georgia Institute of Technology • George F. Vander Voort Carpenter Technology Corporation • George R. Yoder Naval Research Laboratory • F.G. Yost Sandia National Laboratory • Richard D. Zipp J.I. Case Company Contributors of Fractographs • R. Abrams Howmedica, Division of Pfizer Hospital Products Group, Inc. • C. Alstetter University of Illinois • C A. Baer California Polytechnic State University • R.K. Bhargava Xtek Inc. • H. Birnbaum University of Illinois • R.W. Bohl University of Illinois • W.L. Bradley Texas A&M University • E.V. Bravenec Anderson & Associates, Inc. • C.R. Brooks University of Tennessee • N. Brown University of Pennsylvania • C. Bryant De Havilland Aircraft Company of Canada Ltd. • D.A. Canonico C-E Power Systems Combustion Engineering Inc. • G.R. Caskey, Jr. Atomic Energy Division DuPont Company • S H. Chen Norton Christensen • A. Choudhury University of Tennessee • L. Clements San Jose State University • R.H. Dauskardt University of California • D.R. Diercks Argonne National Laboratory • S.L. Draper NASA Lewis Research Center • D.J. Duquette Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute • L.M. Eldoky University of Kansas • Z. Flanders Packer Engineering Associates Inc. • L. Fritzmeir Columbia University • M. Garshasb Syracuse University • D. Gaydosh NASA Lewis Research Center • E.P. George University of Pennsylvania • R. Goco California Polytechnic State University • G.M. Goodrich Taussig Associates Inc. • R.J. Gray Consultant • J.E. Hanafee Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory • S. Harding University of Texas • C.E. Hartbower Consultant • H.H. Honnegger California Polytechnic State University • G. Hopple Lockheed Missiles & Space Company, Inc. • T.E. Howson Columbia University • D. Huang Fuxin Mining Institute People's Republic of China • T.J. Hughel General Motors Research Laboratories • N.S. Jacobson NASA Lewis Research Center • W.L. Jensen Lockheed-Georgia Company • A. Johnson University of Louisville • J.R. Kattus Associated Metallurgical Consultants Inc. • J.R. Keiser Oak Ridge National Laboratory • C. Kim Naval Research Laboratory • H.W. Leavenworth, Jr. U.S. Bureau of Mines • P.R. Lee United Technologies • I. Le May Metallurgical Consulting Services Ltd. • R. Liu University of Illinois • X. Lu University of Pennsylvania • S.B. Luyckx University of the Witwatersrand South Africa • J.H. Maker Associated Spring, Barnes Group Inc. • K. Marden California Polytechnic State University • H. Margolin Polytechnic Institute of New York • D. Matejczyk Columbia University • A.J. McEvily University of Connecticut • C.J. McMahon, Jr. University of Pennsylvania • E.A. Metzbower Naval Research Laboratory • R.V. Miner NASA Lewis Research Center • A.S. Moet Case Western Reserve University • D.W. Moon Naval Research Laboratory • M.J. Morgan University of Pennsylvania • J.M. Morris U.S. Department of Transportation • V.C. Nardonne Columbia University • N. Narita University of Illinois • F. Neub University of Toronto • J.E. Nolan Westinghouse Hanford Company • T. O'Donnell California Institute of Technology • J. Okuno California Institute of Technology • A.R. Olsen Oak Ridge National Laboratory • D.W. Petrasek NASA Lewis Research Center • D.P. Pope University of Pennsylvania • B. Pourlaidian University of Kansas • N. Pugh University of Illinois • R.E. Ricker University of Notre Dame • J.M. Rigsbee University of Illinois • R.O. Ritchie University of California at Berkeley • D. Roche California Polytechnic State University • R. Ruiz California Institute of Technology • J.A. Ruppen University of Connecticut • E.A. Schwarzkopf Columbia University • R.J. Schwinghamer NASA Marshall Space Flight Center • H.R. Shetty Zimmer Inc. • A. Shumka California Institute of Technology • J.L. Smialek NASA Lewis Research Center • H.J. Snyder Snyder Technical Laboratory • S.W. Stafford University of Texas • J. Stefani Columbia University • J.E. Stulga Columbia University • F.W. Tatar Factory Mutual Research Corporation • J.K. Tien Columbia University • P. Tung California Institute of Technology • T.V. Vijayaraghavan Polytechnic Institute of New York • R.C. Voigt University of Kansas • R.W. Vook Syracuse University • P.W. Walling Metcut Research Associates, Inc. • D.C. Wei Kelsey-Hayes Company • A.D. Wilson Lukens Steel Company • F.J. Worzala University of Wisconsin • D.J. Wulpi Consultant • R.D. Zipp J.I. Case Company Foreword Volume 12 of the 9th Edition of Metals Handbook is the culmination of 43 years of commitment on the part of ASM to the science of fracture studies. It was at the 26th Annual Convention of the Society in October of 1944 that the term "fractography" was first introduced by Carl A. Zapffe, the foremost advocate and practitioner of early microfractography. Since then, the usefulness and importance of this tool have gained wide recognition. This Handbook encompasses every significant element of the discipline of fractography. Such depth and scope of coverage is achieved through a collection of definitive articles on all aspects of fractographic technique and interpretation. In addition, an Atlas of Fractographs containing 1343 illustrations is included. The product of several years of careful planning and preparation, the Atlas supplements the general articles and provides Handbook readers with an extensive compilation of fractographs that are useful when trying to recognize and interpret fracture phenomena of industrial alloys and engineered materials. The successful completion of this project is a tribute to the collective talents and hard work of the authors, reviewers, contributors of fractographs, and editorial staff. Special thanks are also due to the ASM Handbook Committee, whose members are responsible for the overall planning of each volume in the Handbook series. To all these men and women, we express our sincere gratitude. Raymond F. Decker President, ASM International Edward L. Langer Managing Director, ASM International Preface The subject of fractography was first addressed in a Metals Handbook volume in 1974. Volume 9 of the 8th Edition, Fractography and Atlas of Fractographs, provided systematic and comprehensive treatment of what was at that time a relatively new body of knowledge derived from examination and interpretation of features observed on the fracture surfaces of metals. The 8th Edition volume also documented the resurgence of engineering and scientific interest in fracture studies, which was due largely to the development and widespread use of the transmission electron microscope and the scanning electron microscope during the 1960s and early '70s. During the past 10 to 15 years, the science of fractography has continued to mature. With improve methods for specimen preparation, advances in photographic techniques and equipment, the continued refinement and increasing utility of the scanning electron microscope, and the introduction of quantitative fractography, a wealth of new information regarding the basic mechanisms of fracture and the response of materials to various environments has been introduced. This new volume presents in-depth coverage of the latest developments in fracture studies. Like its 8th Edition predecessor, this Handbook is divided into two major sections. The first consists of nine articles that present over 600 photographic illustrations of fracture surfaces and related microstructural features. The introductory article provides an overview of the history of fractography and discusses the development and application of the electron microscope for fracture evaluation. The next article, "Modes of Fracture," describes the basic fracture modes as well as some of the mechanisms involved in the fracture process, discusses how the environment affects material behavior and fracture appearance, and lists material defects where fracture can initiate. Of particular interest in this article is the section "Effect of Environment on Fatigue Fracture," which reviews the effects of gaseous environments, liquid environments, vacuum, temperature, and loading on fracture morphology. The following two articles contribute primarily to an understanding of proper techniques associated with fracture analysis. Care, handling, and cleaning of fractures, procedures for sectioning a fracture and opening secondary cracks, and the effect of nondestructive inspection on subsequent evaluation are reviewed in "Preparation and Preservation of Fracture Specimens." "Photography of Fractured Parts and Fracture Surfaces" provides extensive coverage of proper photographic techniques for examination of fracture surfaces by light microscopy, with the emphasis on photomacrography. The value of fractography as a diagnostic tool in failure analyses involving fractures can be appreciated when reading "Visual Examination and Light Microscopy." Information on the application and limitations of the light microscope for fracture studies is presented. A unique feature of this article is the numerous comparisons of fractographs obtained by light microscopy with those obtained by scanning electron microscopy. The next article describes the design and operation of the scanning electron microscope and reviews the application of the instrument to fractography. The large depth of field, the wide range of magnifications available, the simple nondestructive specimen preparation, and the three-dimensional appearance of SEM fractographs all contribute to the role of the scanning electron microscope as the principal tool for fracture studies. Although the transmission electron microscope is used far less today for fracture work, it remains a valuable tool for specific applications involving fractures. These applications are discussed in the article "Transmission Electron Microscopy," along with the various techniques for replicating and shadowing a fracture surface. A point-by-point comparison of TEM and SEM fractographs is also included. Quantitative geometrical methods to characterize the nonplanar surfaces encountered in fractures are reviewed in the articles "Quantitative Fractography" and "Fractal Analysis of Fracture Surfaces." Experimental techniques (such as stereoscopic imaging and photogrammetric methods), analytical procedures, and applications of quantitative fractography are examined. An Atlas of Fractographs constitutes the second half of the Handbook. The 270-page Atlas, which incorporates 31 different alloy and engineered material categories, contains 1343 illustrations, of which 1088 are SEM, TEM, or light microscope fractographs. The remainder are photographs, macrographs, micrographs, elemental dot patterns produced by scanning Auger electron spectroscopy or energy-dispersive x-ray analysis, and line drawings that serve primarily to augment the information in the fractographs. The introduction to the Atlas describes its organization and presentation. The introduction also includes three tables that delineate the distribution of the 1343 figures with respect to type of illustration, cause of fracture, and material category. Fig. 1 Comparison of light microscope (top row) and scanning electron microscope (bottom row) fractographs showing the intergranular fracture appearance of an experimental nickel-base precipitation- hardenable alloy rising-load test specime n that was tested in pure water at 95 °C (200 °F). All shown at 50×. Courtesy of G.F. Vander Voort and J.W. Bowman, Carpenter Technology Corporations. Additional comparisons of fractographs obtained by light microscopy and scanning electron microscopy can be found in the article "Visual Examination and Light Microscopy" in this Volume. Officers and Trustees of ASM International Officers • Raymond F. Decker President and Trustee Universal Science Partners, Inc. • William G. Wood Vice President and Trustee Materials Technology • John W. Pridgeon Immediate Past President and Trustee John Pridgeon Consulting Company • Frank J. Waldeck Treasurer Lindberg Corporation • Trustees • Stephen M. Copley University of Southern California • Herbert S. Kalish Adamas Carbide Corporation • William P. Koster Metcut Research Associates, Inc. • Robert E. Luetje Kolene Corporation • Gunvant N. Maniar Carpenter Technology Corporation • Larry A. Morris Falconbridge Limited • Richard K. Pitler Allegheny Ludlum Steel Corporation • C. Sheldon Roberts Consultant Materials and Processes • Klaus M. Zwilsky National Materials Advisory Board National Academy of Sciences • Edward L. Langer Managing Director Members of the ASM Handbook Committee (1986-1987) • Dennis D. Huffman (Chairman 1986-;Member 1983-) The Timken Company • Roger J. Austin (1984-) Materials Engineering Consultant • Peter Beardmore (1986-) Ford Motor Company • Deane I. Biehler (1984-) Caterpillar Tractor Company • Robert D. Caligiuri (1986-) SRI International • Richard S. Cremisio (1986-) Rescorp International Inc. • Thomas A. Freitag (1985-) The Aerospace Corporation • Charles David Himmelblau (1985-) Lockheed Missiles & Space Company, Inc. • John D. Hubbard (1984-) HinderTec, Inc. • L.E. Roy Meade (1986-) Lockheed-Georgia Company • Merrill I. Minges (1986-) Air Force Wright Aeronautical Laboratories • David V. Neff (1986-) Metaullics Systems • David LeRoy Olson (1982-) Colorado School of Mines • Paul E. Rempes (1986-) Champion Spark Plug Company • Ronald J. Ries (1983-) The Timken Company • E. Scala (1986-) Cortland Cable Company, Inc. • David A. Thomas (1986-) Lehigh University • Peter A. Tomblin (1985-) De Havilland Aircraft of Canada Ltd. • Leonard A. Weston (1982-) Lehigh Testing Laboratories, Inc. Previous Chairmen of the ASM Handbook Committee • R.S. Archer (1940-1942) (Member, 1937-1942) • L.B. Case (1931-1933) (Member, 1927-1933) • T.D. Cooper (1984-1986) (Member, 1981-1986) • E.O. Dixon (1952-1954) (Member, 1947-1955) • R.L. Dowdell (1938-1939) (Member, 1935-1939) • J.P. Gill (1937) (Member, 1934-1937) • J.D. Graham (1966-1968) (Member, 1961-1970) • J.F. Harper (1923-1926) (Member, 1923-1926) • C.H. Herty, Jr. (1934-1936) (Member, 1930-1936) • J.B. Johnson (1948-1951) (Member, 1944-1951) • L.J. Korb (1983) (Member, 1978-1983) • R.W.E. Leiter (1962-1963) (Member, 1955-1958, 1960-1964) • G.V. Luerssen (1943-1947) (Member, 1942-1947) • G.N. Maniar (1979-1980) (Member, 1974-1980) • J.L. McCall (1982) (Member, 1977-1982) • W.J. Merten (1927-1930) (Member, 1923-1933) • N.E. Promisel (1955-1961) (Member, 1954-1963) • G.J. Shubat (1973-1975) (Member, 1966-1975) • W.A. Stadtler (1969-1972) (Member, 1962-1972) • R. Ward (1976-1978) (Member, 1972-1978) • M.G.H. Wells (1981) (Member, 1976-1981) • D.J. Wright (1964-1965) (Member, 1959-1967) Staff This volume was published under the direction of Robert L. Stedfeld, Director of Reference Publications. ASM International staff who contributed to the development of the Volume included Kathleen Mills, Manager of Editorial Operations; Joseph R. Davis, Senior Technical Editor; James D. Destefani, Technical Editor; Deborah A. Dieterich, Production Editor; Heather J. Frissell, Editorial Supervisor; George M. Crankovic, Assistant Editor; Diane M. Jenkins, Word Processing Specialist; Donald F. Baxter Jr., Consulting Editor; Robert T. Kiepura, Editorial Assistant; and Bonnie R. Sanders, Editorial Assistant. Conversion to Electronic Files ASM Handbook, Volume 12, Fractography was converted to electronic files in 1998. The conversion was based on the Second Printing (1992). No substantive changes were made to the content of the Volume, but some minor corrections and clarifications were made as needed. ASM International staff who contributed to the conversion of the Volume included Sally Fahrenholz-Mann, Bonnie Sanders, Marlene Seuffert, Scott Henry, Gayle Kalman, and Sue Hess. The electronic version was prepared under the direction of William W. Scott, Jr., Technical Director, and Michael J. DeHaemer, Managing Director. Copyright Information (for Print Volume) ASM International® The MaterialsInformation Society Copyright © 1987 ASM International. All rights reserved First printing, March 1987 Second printing, May 1992 ASM Handbook is a collective effort involving thousands of technical specialists. It brings together in one book a wealth of information from world-wide sources to help scientists, engineers, and technicians solve current and long-range problems. Great care is taken in the compilation and production of this volume, but it should be made clear that no warranties, express or implied, are given in connection with the accuracy or completeness of this publication, and no responsibility can be taken for any claims that may arise. Nothing contained in the ASM Handbook shall be construed as a grant of any right of manufacture, sale, use, or reproduction, in connection with any method, process, apparatus, product, composition, or system, whether or not covered by letters patent, copyright, or trademark, and nothing contained in the ASM Handbook shall be construed as a defense against any alleged infringement of letters patent, copyright, or trademark, or as a defense against any liability for such infringement. Comments, criticisms, and suggestions are invited, and should be forwarded to ASM International. Library of Congress Cataloging in Publication Data ASM International Metals handbook. Includes bibliographies and indexes.Contents: v. 1. Properties and selection [etc.] v. 9. Metallography and Microstructures [etc.] v. 12. Fractography. 1. Metals Handbooks, manuals, etc. I. ASM International. Handbook Committee. TA459.M43 1978 669 78-14934 ISBN 0-87170-007-7 (v. 1) SAN 204-7586 Printed in the United States of America History of Fractography Introduction Fractography is the term coined by Carl A. Zapffe in 1944 following his discovery of a means for overcoming the difficulty of bringing the lens of a microscope sufficiently near the jagged surface of a fracture to disclose its details within individual grains (Ref 1). The purpose of fractography is to analyze the fracture features and to attempt to relate the topography of the fracture surface to the causes and/or basic mechanisms of fracture (Ref 2). Etymologically, the word fractography is similar in origin to the word metallography; fracto stems from the Latin fractus, meaning fracture, and graphy derives from the Greek term grapho, meaning descriptive treatment. Alternate terms used to describe the study of fracture surfaces include fractology, which was proposed in 1951 (Ref 3). further diversification brought such terms as macrofractography and microfractography for distinguishing the visual and low magnification (≤ 25×) from the microscopic, and optical fractography and electron fractography for distinguishing between studies conducted using the light (optical) microscope and electron microscope. This article will review the historical development of fractography, from the early studies of fracture appearance dating back to the sixteenth century to the current state-of-the-art work in electron fractography and quantitative fractography. Additional information can be obtained from the cited references and from subsequent articles in this Volume. Acknowledgements ASM wishes to express its appreciation to the following individuals for their assistance in compiling the historical data used in this article: G.F. Vander Voort, Carpenter Technology Corporation; C.S. Smith, Massachusetts Institute of Technology; R.O. Ritchie, University of California at Berkeley; C. Laird, University of Pennsylvania; J. Gurland, Brown University; R.T. Kiepura, American Society for Metals. References 1. C.A. Zapffe and M. Clogg, Jr., Fractography A New Tool for Metallurgical Research, Preprint 36, American Society for Metals, 1944; later published in Trans. ASM, Vol 34, 1945, p 71-107 2. J.L. McCall, "Failure Analysis by Scanning Electron Microscopy," MCIC Report, Metals and Ceramics Information Center, Dec 1972 3. C.A. Zapffe and C.O. Worden, Temperature and Stress Rate Affect Fractology of Ferrite Stainless, Iron Age, Vol 167 (No. 26), 1951, p 65-69 History of Fractography Fracture Studies Before the Twentieth Century Valuable information has long been known to exist in the fracture surfaces of metals, and through the years various approaches have been implemented to obtain and interpret this information (Ref 4). According to metallurgical historian Cyril Stanley Smith, fracture surfaces have been analyzed to some degree since the beginning of the Bronze Age (Ref 5). Early metalsmiths and artisans most likely observed specific fracture characteristics of metal tools and weapons and related them to variables in smelting or melting procedures. Sixteenth to Eighteenth Centuries. The first specific written description of the use of fracture appearance to gage the quality of a metallurgical process was by Vannocio Biringuccio in De La Pirotechnia, published in 1540 (Ref 6). He described the use of fracture appearance as a means of quality assurance for both ferrous and nonferrous (tin and copper- tin bronzes) alloys. Another early authority was Lazarus Ercker, who discussed fracture tests in a 1574 publication (Ref 7). The quality of copper, for example, was determined by examining the fracture surface of an ingot that had been notched and then broken by a transverse blow. Brass was similarly tested. A gray fracture surface was found to be associated with subsequent cracking during working; this gray surface was the result of the use of a special variety of calamine, which caused lead contamination of the ingot. Brittle fractures of silver were traced to lead and tin contamination. In 1627, Louis Savot described in greater detail the use of the fracture test as a method of quality control of copper-tin- bismuth cast bells (Ref 8). He recorded observations of grain size in fracture control samples as a guide for composition adjustments to resist impact fracture when the bells were struck. In the same year, Mathurin Jousse described a method of selecting high-quality grades of iron and steel, based on the appearance of fracture samples (Ref 9). One of the most significant early contributions to the study of metal fractures was by de Réaumur (Ref 10), who published a book in 1722 that contained engravings illustrating both the macroscopic and microscopic appearance of fracture surfaces of iron and steel (although the microscope was invented circa 1600, at the time of de Réaumur it was necessary to sketch what one saw and then transfer the sketch to metal, wood, or stone by engraving). In this classical work, de Réaumur listed and illustrated seven classes of fracture appearance in iron and steel. These are described below and shown in Fig. 1: • Type I fracture: Large, irregularly arranged, mirrorlike facets, indicating inferior metal (Fig. 1a and b) • Type II fracture: More regular distribution and smaller facets, indicating a slightly improved metal ( Fig. 1c to e) • Type III fracture: Interposed areas of fibrous metal between facets (Fig. 1f to h). • Type IV fracture: Fibrous metal, with very few reflecting facets (Fig. 1j) • Type V fracture: Framelike area surrounding an entirely fibrous center (Fig. 1k and m) • Type VI fracture: An unusual type, with a few small facets in a fibrous background (Fig. 1n, p, and q) [...]... Reinhold, 19 86, to be published History of Fractography References 1 2 C.A Zapffe and M Clogg, Jr., Fractography A New Tool for Metallurgical Research, Preprint 36, American Society for Metals, 19 44; later published in Trans ASM, Vol 34, 19 45, p 71- 107 J.L McCall, "Failure Analysis by Scanning Electron Microscopy," MCIC Report, Metals and Ceramics 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23... Vol 2, 19 63, p 369-3 71 108 A.D.G Stewart and M.A Snelling, "A New Scanning Electron Microscope," in Titlebach, 19 65, p 55-56 10 9 J.D Verhoeven, Scanning Electron Microscopy, in Materials Characterization, Vol 10 , 9th ed., Metals Handbook, 19 86, p 490- 515 11 0 C.F Tipper, D.I Dagg, and O.C Wells, Surface Fracture Markings on Alpha Iron Crystals, J Iron Steel Inst., Vol 19 3, Oct 19 59, p 13 3 -14 1 11 1 C Laird... Sons, 18 99, p 10 3, 10 5 29 R Arpi, Report on Investigations Concerning the Fracture Test and the Swedish Standard Scale, Jernkontorets Ann., Vol 86, 19 31, p 75-95 (in Swedish); see abstract in Stahl Eisen, Vol 51, 19 31, p 14 8 314 84 30 R Arpi, The Fracture Test as Used for Tool Steel in Sweden, Metallugia, Vol 11 , 19 35, p 12 3 31 B.F Shepherd, The P-F Characteristics of Steel, Trans ASM, Vol 22, 19 34,... Markings on Alpha Iron Crystals, J Iron Steel Inst., Vol 19 3, Oct 19 59, p 13 3 -14 1 11 1 C Laird and G.C Smith, Crack Propagation in High Stress Fatigue, Philos Mag., Vol 7, 19 62, p 847-857 11 2 J.T McGrath, J.G Buchanan, and R.C.A Thurston, A Study of Fatigue and Impact Features With the Scanning Electron Microscope, J Inst Met., Vol 91, 19 62, p 34-39 11 3 T Inoue, S Matsuda, Y Okamura, and K Aoki, The Fracture... Russkago Teckhnicheskago Obshestva, 18 79, p 1- 24; see English translation by W Anderson, Proc Instn Mech Engrs., 18 80 p 15 2 -18 3 22 J Percy, Metallurgy, Vol 1 to 4, John Murray, 18 61- 1880 23 A Martens, Über die Mikroskopische Untersuchung des Eisens, Z Deut Ing., Vol 22, 18 78, p 11 -18 24 A Martens, Zur Mikrostruktur des Spiegeleisens, Z Deut Ing., Vol 22, 18 78, p 205-274, 4 81- 488 25 A Martens, Ueber das Kleingefüge... Eisen, Vol 11 , 18 85, p 611 -620 27 H.M Howe, The Metallography of Steel and Cast Iron, McGraw-Hill, 19 16, p 527, and Table 29 on p 534-535 (Translation and condensation, with slight amendments, of original diagram from ref 19 , p 611 ) 28 B Kirsh, Beiträge zum Studium des Fliessens, Mitt Hlg, 18 87, p 67; 18 88, p 37; 18 89 p 9; see also G.C Hennings, Adolf Marten, Handbook of Testing of Materials, Part I,... Vol 11 , 19 35, p 12 3 31 B.F Shepherd, The P-F Characteristics of Steel, Trans ASM, Vol 22, 19 34, p 979 -10 16 32 B.F Shepherd, Carburization of Steel, Trans ASST, Vol 4, Aug 19 23, p 17 1 -19 6 33 B.F Shepherd, A Few Notes on the Shimer Hardening Process, Trans ASST, Vol 5, May 19 24, p 485-490 34 C.A Zapffe and G.A Moore, A Micrographic Study of the Cleavage of Hydrogenized Ferrite, Trans AIME, Vol 15 4, 19 43,... Phys., Vol 21 (No 11 ), 19 50, p 11 97 -11 98 39 C.A Zapffe, C.O Worden, and F.K Landgraf, Cleavage Patterns Disclose "Toughness" of Metals, Science, Vol 10 8 (No 2808), 19 48, p 440-4 41 40 C.A Zapffe, F.K Landgraf, and C.O Worden, Transgranular Cleavage Facets in Cast Molybdenum, Met Prog., Vol 54 (No 3), 19 48, p 328-3 31 41 C.A Zapffe, F.K Landgraf, and C.O Worden, History of Crystal Growth Revealed by Fractography, ... Embrittlement," Iron and Steel Institute, Aug 19 46 37 C.A Zapffe, Fractographic Structures in Zinc, Met Prog., Vol 51, March 19 47, p 428-4 31 38 C.A Zapffe, Étude Fractographique des Alliages Fer-Chrome, Rev Met (Paris), Vol 44 (No 3 and 4), 19 47, p 91- 96; see also C.A Zapffe and F.K Landgraf, Tearline Patterns in Ferrochromium, J Appl Phys., Vol 21 (No 11 ), 19 50, p 11 97 -11 98 39 C.A Zapffe, C.O Worden, and F.K... Metals, 19 44; later published in Trans ASM, Vol 34, 19 45, p 71- 107 3 C.A Zapffe and C.O Worden, Temperature and Stress Rate Affect Fractology of Ferrite Stainless, Iron Age, Vol 16 7 (No 26), 19 51, p 65-69 29 R Arpi, Report on Investigations Concerning the Fracture Test and the Swedish Standard Scale, Jernkontorets Ann., Vol 86, 19 31, p 75-95 (in Swedish); see abstract in Stahl Eisen, Vol 51, 19 31, p 14 8 314 84 . Herty, Jr. (19 34 -19 36) (Member, 19 30 -19 36) • J.B. Johnson (19 48 -19 51) (Member, 19 44 -19 51) • L.J. Korb (19 83) (Member, 19 78 -19 83) • R.W.E. Leiter (19 62 -19 63) (Member, 19 55 -19 58, 19 60 -19 64) •. (Member, 19 47 -19 55) • R.L. Dowdell (19 38 -19 39) (Member, 19 35 -19 39) • J.P. Gill (19 37) (Member, 19 34 -19 37) • J.D. Graham (19 66 -19 68) (Member, 19 61- 1970) • J.F. Harper (19 23 -19 26) (Member, 19 23 -19 26). the ASM Handbook Committee • R.S. Archer (19 40 -19 42) (Member, 19 37 -19 42) • L.B. Case (19 31- 1933) (Member, 19 27 -19 33) • T.D. Cooper (19 84 -19 86) (Member, 19 81- 1986) • E.O. Dixon (19 52 -19 54) (Member,