Handbook Fractography (1998) WW Part 3 pptx

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Foroulis, Ed., The Metallurgical Society, 1979, p 284 189. P. Gordon and H.H. An, Metall. Trans. A, Vol 13A, 1982, p 457 190. S. Dinda and W.R. Warke, Mater. Sci. Eng., Vol 24, 1976, p 199 191. L.P. Costas, Corrosion, Vol 31, 1975, p 91 192. A.W. Funkebusch, L.A. Heldt, and D.F. Stein, Metall. Trans. A, Vol 13A, 1982, p 611 193. A.R.C. Westwood and M.H. Kamdar, Philos. Mag., Vol 8, 1963, p 787 194. S.P. Lynch, in Hydrogen Effects in Metals I.M. Bernstein and A.W. Thompson, Ed., The Metallurgical Society, 1981, p 863 195. P. Gordon, Metall. Trans. A, Vol 9A, 1978, p 267 196. K.S. Chan and D.A. Koss, Metall. Trans. A, Vol 14A, 1983, p 1343 197. G.F. Pittinato, V. Kerlins, A. Phillips, and M.A. Russo, SEM/TEM Fractography Handbook, MCIC-HB- 06, Metals and Ceramics Information Center, 1975, p 214, 606 198. A. Phillips, V. Kerlins, R.A. Rawe, and B.V. Whiteson, Electron Fractography Handbook, MCIC-HB- 08, Metals and Ceramics Information Center, 1976, p 3-8 199. J.R. Klepaczko and A. Solecki, Metall. Trans. A, Vol 15A, 1984, p 901 201. E. Manin, E. Beckman, and S.A. Finnegan, in Metallurgical Effects at High Strain Rates, R.W. Rohde, Ed., Plenum Press, 1973, p 531 202. S.M. Doraivelu, V. Gopinathan, and V.C. Venkatesh, in Shock Waves and High-Strain- Rate Phenomena in Metals, M.A. Meyers and L.E. Murr, Ed., Plenum Press, 1981, p 75 203. H.C. Rogers and C.V. Shastry, in Shock Waves and High-Strain-Rate Phenomena in Metals, M.A. Meyers and L.E. Murr, Ed., Plenum Press, 1981, p 285 204. G.L. Moss, in Shock Waves and High-Strain-Rate Phenomena in Metals, M.A. Meyers and L.E. Murr, Ed., Plenum Press, 1981, p 299 205. T.A.C. Stock and K.R.L. Thompson, Metall. Trans. A, Vol 1A, 1970, p 219 206. J.F. Velez and G.W. Powell, Wear, Vol 66, 1981, p 367 207. A.L. Wingrove, Metall. Trans. A, Vol 4A, 1973, p 1829 208. P.W. Leech, Metall. Trans. A, Vol 16A, 1985, p 1900 209. P.J. Wray, Metall. Trans. A, Vol 15A, 1984, p 2059 210. J.J. Lewandowsky and A.W. Thompson, Metall. Trans. A, Vol 17A, 1986, p 461 211. H. Kwon and C.H. Kim, Metall. Trans. A, Vol 17A, 1986, p 1173 212. A. Phillips, V. Kerlins, R.A. Rawe, and B.V. Whiteson, Electron Fractography Handbook, MCIC-HB- 08, Metals and Ceramics Information Center, 1976, p 3-5 213. T. Takasugi and D.P. Pope, Metall. Trans. A, Vol 13A, 1982, p 1471 214. W.J. Mills, Metall. Trans. A, Vol 11A, 1980, p 1039 215. D.M. Bowden and E.A. Starke, Jr., Metall. Trans. A, Vol 15A, 1984, p 1687 216. H.G. Nelson, in Effect of Hydrogen on Behavior of Materials, A.W. Thompson and I.M. Bernstein, Ed., The Metallurgical Society, 1976, p 603 217. G. Schuster and C. Altstetter, Metall. Trans. A, Vol 14A, 1983, p 2085 218. H.J. Cialone and J.H. Holbrook, Metall. Trans. A, Vol 16A, 1985, p 115 219. R.J. Walter and W.T. Chandler, in Effect of Hydrogen on Behavior of Materials, A.W. Thompson and I.M. Bernstein, Ed., The Metallurgical Society, 1976, p 273 220. P.K. Liaw, S.J. Hudak, Jr., and J.K. Donald, Metall. Trans. A. Vol 13A, 1982, p 1633 221. W.G. Clark, Jr., in Hydrogen in Metals, I.M. Bernstein and A.W. Thompson, Ed., American Society for Metals, 1974, p 149 222. J.D. Frandsen and H.L. Marcus, Metall. Trans. A, Vol 8A, 1977, p 265 223. R.D. Pendse and R.O. Ritchie, Metall. Trans. A, Vol 16A, 1985, p 1491 224. S.C. Chang and J.P. Hirth, Metall. Trans. A. Vol 16A, 1985, p 1417 225. R.P. Wei, P.S. Pao, R.G. Hart, T.W. Weir, and G.W. Simmons, Metall. Trans. A, Vol 11A, 1980, p 151 226. R.P. Wei, N.E. Fennelli, K.D. Unangst, and T.T. Shih, AFOSR Final Report IFSM-78- 88 (Air Force Office of Scientific Research), Lehigh University, 1978 227. S. Floreen and R.H. Kane, Metall. Trans. A, Vol 10A, 1979, p 1745 228. S. Floreen and R.H. Kane, Metall. Trans. A, Vol 13A, 1982, p 145 229. M. Müller, Metall. Trans. A, Vol 13A 1982, p 649 230. D. Eliezer, D.G. Chakrapani, C.J. Altstetter, and E.N. Pugh, in Hydrogen- Induced Slow Crack Growth in Austenitic Stainless Steels, P. Azou, Ed., Second International Congress on Hydrogen in Metals (Paris), Pergamon Press, 1977 231. L.H. Keys, A.J. Bursle, H.R. Kemp, and K.R.L. Thompson, in Hydrogen- Induced Slow Crack Growth in Austenitic Stainless Steels, P. Azou, Ed., Second International Congress on Hydrogen in Metals (Paris), Pergamon Press, 1977 232. L.H. Keys, A.J. Bursle, K.R.L. Thompson, I.A. Ward, and P.J. Flower, in Environment- Sensitive Fracture of Engineering Materials, Z.A. Foroulis, Ed., The Metallurgical Society, 1979, p 614 233. H. Ishii. Y. Sakakibara, and R. Ebara, Metall. Trans. A, Vol 13A, 1982, p 1521 234. I.L.W. Wilson and B.W. Roberts, in Environment-Sensitive Fracture of Engineering Materials, Z.A. Foroulis, Ed., The Metallurgical Society, 1979, p 595 235. E.F. Smith III and D.J. Duquette, Metall. Trans. A, Vol 17A, 1986, p 339 236. C.M. Ward-Close and C.J. Beevers, Metall. Trans. A, Vol 11A, 1980, p 1007 237. A. Boateng, J.A. Begley, and R.W. Staehle, Metall. Trans. 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Fract, Mech., Vol 14, 1968, p 159 251. R.P. Gangloff, Metall. Trans. A, Vol 16A, 1985, p 953 252. P.K. Liaw and E. Fine, Metall. Trans. A, Vol 12A, 1981, p 1927 253. P.S. Pao, W. Wei, and R.P. Wei, in Environment-Sensitive Fracture of Engineering Materials, Z.A. Foroulis, Ed., The Metallurgical Society, 1979, p 565 254. D.B. Dawson, Metall. Trans. A, Vol 12A, 1981, p 791 255. M. Okazaki, I. Hattori, and T. Koizumi, Metall. Trans. A, Vol 15A, 1984, p 1731 256. M.Y. Nazmy. Metall. Trans. A, Vol 14A, 1983, p 449 257. W.J. Evans and G.R. Gostelow, Metall. Trans. A, Vol 10A 1979, p 1837 258. G.S. Was, H.H. Tischner, R.M. Latanision, and R.M. Pelloux, Metall. Trans. A, Vol 12A, 1981, p 1409 259. A.W. Sommer and D. Eylon, Metall. Trans. A, Vol 14A, 1983, p 2179 Notes cited in this section ** Adiabatic process is a thermodynamic concept where no heat is gained or lost to the environment. The fatigue crack growth rate is expressed as da/dN, where a is the distance the fatigue crack advances during the application of N number of load cycles. When a fatigue striation is formed on each load cycle, the fatigue crack growth rate will about equal the striation spacing. The basic J-integral is a fracture mechanism parameter, and in the elastic case, the J- integral is related to the strain energy release rate and is a function of K (the range of the stress intensity factor, K) and E (elastic modulus). Modes of Fracture Victor Kerlins, McDonnell Douglas Astronautics Company Austin Phillips, Metallurgical Consultant Discontinuities Leading to Fracture Fracture of a stressed part is often caused by the presence of an internal or a surface discontinuity. The manner in which these types of discontinuities cause fracture and affect the features of fracture surfaces will be described and fractographically illustrated in this section. Discontinuities such as laps, seams, cold shuts, previous cracks, porosity, inclusions, segregation, and unfavorable grain flow in forgings often serve as nuclei for fatigue fractures or stress-corrosion fractures because they increase both local stresses and reactions to detrimental environments. Large discontinuities may reduce the strength of a part to such an extent that it will fracture under a single application of load. However, a discontinuity should not be singled out as the sole cause of fracture without considering other possible causes or contributing factors. Thorough failure analysis may show that the fracture would have occurred even if the discontinuity had not been present. Fractures that originate at, or pass through, significant metallurgical discontinuities usually show a change in texture, surface contour, or coloration near the discontinuity. Examination of a suspect area at several different magnifications and under several different lighting conditions will often help to determine whether a significant discontinuity is present and may provide information about its size and type. Varying the angle of incident light during examination with a low-power stereomicroscope may be especially helpful. Segregation or unfavorable grain flow sometimes contributes to fracture without showing evidence that can be detected by direct visual examination. Even when visual indications of a metallurgical discontinuity are present, corroborating evidence should be obtained from other sources, such as examination of metallographic sections through the suspect area or study of local variations in chemical composition by electron microprobe analysis or Auger electron spectroscopy (AES). Even though cracks usually originate at discontinuities, the type of discontinuity does not necessarily determine fracture mechanism. For example, fracture from a gross discontinuity, such as a rolling lap, can occur by any of the common fracture mechanisms. In general, discontinuities act as fracture initiation sites and cause fracture initiation to occur earlier, or at lower loads, than it would in material free from discontinuities. Additional information on material defects that contribute to fracture/failure is available in the "Atlas of Fractographs" in this Volume and in Volume 11 of ASM Handbook, formerly 9th Edition Metals Handbook. Laps, Seams, and Cold Shuts. An observer familiar with the characteristics of various types of fractures in the material under examination can usually find indications of a discontinuity if one was present at the fracture origin. A flat area that, when viewed without magnification, appears black or dull gray and does not exhibit the normal characteristics of fracture indicates the presence of a lap, a seam, or a cold shut. Such an area may appear to have resulted from the peeling apart of two metal surfaces that were in intimate contact but not strongly bonded together. A lap, a seam, or a cold shut is fairly easy to identify under a low-power stereomicroscope because the area of any of these discontinuities is distinctly different in texture and color from the rest of the fracture surface. Failures in valve springs that originated at a seam are shown in Fig. 99. The failure shown in Fig. 99(a) began at the seam that extended more than 0.05 mm (0.002 in.) below the spring wire surface. The fatigue fracture front progressed downward from several origins. Each one of these fronts produces a crack that is triangular in outline and is without fine detail due to sliding of the opposing surfaces during the later stages of fracture. This occurs when the fracture plane changes to an angle with the wire axis in response to the torsional strain. These surfaces are visible in the lower part of Fig. 99(a). Fig. 99 Fractures in AISI 5160 wire springs that originat ed at seams. (a) Longitudinal fracture originating at a seam. (b) Fracture origin at a very shallow seam, the arrow indicates the base of the seam. (J.H. Maker, Associated Spring) Fig. 100 Laps formed during thread rolling of a 300M steel stud. (a) Light fractograph showing laps (arrows). (b) SEM fractograph giving detail of a lap. (c) SEM fractograph showing heavily oxidized su rfaces of a lifted lap; the oxidation indicates that the lap was present before heat treatment of the stud. Arrow at right points to area shown in fractograph (d), and arrow at left points to area shown in fractograph (e). (d) and (e) SEM fractographs showing oxidized surfaces of the lifted lap in fractograph (c). See Fig. 101 for views of the stress- corrosion crack initiated by the laps. The failure shown in Fig. 99(b) has many of the characteristics of that shown in Fig. 99(a), except that the seam is scarcely deeper than the folding of the surface that results from shot peening. Observation of it requires close examination of the central portion of the fractograph. This spring operated at a very high net stress and failed at less than 10 6 cycles. The fractographs in Fig. 100 show laps that had been rolled into the thread roots of a 300M high-strength steel stud during thread rolling. The laps served as origins of a stress-corrosion crack that partially severed the stud. Both surfaces of a lifted lap (Fig. 100c) were heavily oxidized (Fig. 100d and e), indicating that the lap was formed before the stud was heat treated (to produce a tensile strength of 1930 to 2070 MPa, or 280 to 300 ksi). The stress-corrosion crack near the origin is shown in Fig. 101. Fig. 101 SEM views of the corrosion products (a) and the intergranular fracture and secondary grain- boundary cracks (b) that were the result of the laps shown in Fig. 100 Cracks. The cause and size of a pre-existing crack are of primary importance in fracture mechanics, as well as in failure analysis, because of their relationship to the critical crack length for unstable crack growth. Figure 102 shows a fracture in a highly stressed AISI 4340 steel part. A narrow zone of corroded intergranular fracture at the surface of the part is adjoined by a zone of uncorroded intergranular fracture, which is in turn adjoined by a dimpled region. The part had been reworked to remove general corrosion products shortly before fracture. It was concluded that the rework failed to remove about 0.1 mm (0.004 in.) of a pre-existing stress-corrosion crack, which continued to grow after the part was returned to service. Fig. 102 Fracture caused by a portion of a pre-existing intergranular stress- corrosion crack that was not removed in reworking. The part was made of AISI 4340 steel that was heat treated to a tensile strength of 1790 to 1930 MPa (260 to 280 ksi). (a) and (b) Remains of an old crack along the edge of the surface of the part (arrows); note dark zone in (a) and extensively corroded separated grain facets in (b). (c) Clean intergranular portion of crack surface that formed at the time of final fracture The heat treat cracks that most commonly contribute to service fractures are the transformation stress cracks and quenching cracks that occur in steel. When a heat treat crack is broken open, the surface of the crack usually has an intercrystalline or intergranular texture. If a crack has been open to an external surface of the part (so that air or other gases could penetrate the crack), it usually has been blackened by oxidation during subsequent tempering treatments or otherwise discolored by exposure to processing or service environments. Heat treatment in the temperature range of 205 to 540 °C (400 to 1000 °F) may produce temper colors (various shades of straw, blue, or brown) on the surface of a crack that is open to an external surface. The appearance of temper colors is affected by the composition of the steel, the time and temperature of exposure, the furnace atmosphere, and the environment subsequent to the heat treatment that produced the temper color. Additional information on heat treat cracks and the appearance of temper colors can be found in the article "Visual Examination and Light Microscopy" in this Volume. Incomplete fusion or inadequate weld penetration can produce a material discontinuity similar to a crack. Subsequent loading can cause the discontinuity to grow, as in Fig. 103, which shows a fracture in a weld in commercially pure titanium that broke by fatigue from crack nuclei, on both surfaces, that resulted from incomplete fusion during welding. Fig. 103 Fracture in a we ld in commercially pure titanium showing incomplete fusion. Unfused regions, on both surfaces (arrows), served as nuclei of fatigue cracks that developed later under cyclic loading. Inclusions. Discontinuities in the form of inclusions, such as oxides, sulfides, and silicates, can initiate fatigue fractures in parts subjected to cyclic loading (see, for example, Fig. 579 to 583 and Fig. 588 to 598 in the "Atlas of Fractographs" in this Volume, which illustrate the effect of inclusions on the fatigue crack propagation in ASTM A533B steel). In addition, such inclusions have been identified as initiation sites of ductile fractures in aluminum alloys and steels. At relatively low strains, microvoids form at inclusions, either by fracture of the inclusion or by decohesion of the matrix/inclusion interface. The very large inclusion shown in Fig. 104 was found in the fracture surface of a case-hardened AISI 9310 steel forging that broke in service. X-ray analysis of the inclusion led to the deduction that it was a fragment of the firebrick lining of the pouring ladle. Fig. 104 Inclusion in a surface of a service fracture in a case- hardened AISI 9310 steel forging. The diagonal view is a composite of several fractographs showing a very large inclusion, which was a fragment of the pouring-ladle firebrick lining. Fractographs 1 to 4 are higher-magnificatio n views of areas indicated by arrows 1 to 4, respectively, in the diagonal view. Figure 105 shows a large inclusion in a fracture surface of a cast aluminum alloy A357-T6 blade of a small, high-speed air turbine and two views of the fracture-surface features around this inclusion. Fig. 105 Fracture surface of a cast aluminum alloy A357-T6 air- turbine blade. (a) Overall view of the fracture surface showing a large inclusion (dark) near the tip of the blade. Approximately 0.4×. (b) and (c) Decohes ion at the interfaces between the inclusion and the aluminum matrix Figure 106 shows the fracture features associated with inclusions in AISI 4340 steel with a tensile strength of 1790 to 1930 MPa (260 to 280 ksi). Entrapped flux in a brazed joint can effectively reduce the strength of the brazement and also can create a long-term corrosion problem. A 6061 aluminum alloy attachment bracket was dip brazed to an actuator of the same alloy in a flux consisting of a mixture of sodium, potassium and lithium halides, then heat treated to the T6 temper after brazing. The flux inclusion, shown in Fig. 107, reduced the cross section of the joint, and a overload fracture occurred in the Al-12Si brazing alloy. [...]... 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