Copyright © National Academy of Sciences. All rights reserved. Rising Above the Gathering Storm: Energizing and Employing America for a Brighter Economic Future http://www.nap.edu/catalog/11463.html 150 RISING ABOVE THE GATHERING STORM • Flat or declining funding in many disciplines makes it harder to jus- tify risky or unorthodox projects. • The peer review system tends to favor established investigators who use well-known methods. • Industry, university, and federal laboratories are under pressure to produce short-term results—especially DOD, which once was the nation’s largest source of basic-research funding. • Increased public scrutiny of government R&D spending makes it harder to justify non-peer-reviewed awards, and peer reviewers tend to place confidence in older, established researchers. • High-risk, high-potential projects are prone to failure, and govern- ment oversight and media and public scrutiny make those projects increas- ingly untenable to those responsible for the work. A National Research Council study indicates that the Department of Defense’s budgets for basic research have declined and that “there has been a trend within DOD for reduced attention to unfettered exploration in its basic research program.” 38 The Defense Advanced Research Projects Agency (DARPA) was created in part because of this consideration (see Box 6-2). 39 Defense Advanced Research Projects Agency managers, unlike program managers at NSF or NIH, for example, were encouraged to fund promising work for long periods in highly flexible programs—in other words, to take risks. 40 The National Institutes of Health and National Science Foundation recently acknowledged that their peer review systems today tend to screen out risky projects, and both organizations are working to reverse this trend. In 2004, the National Institutes of Health awarded its first Director’s Pioneer Award to foster high-risk research by investigators in the early to middle stages of their careers. Similarly, in 1990 the National Science Foun- dation started a program called Small Grants for Exploratory Research (SGER), which allows program officers to make grants without formal ex- ternal review. Small Grants Exploratory Research awards are for “prelimi- nary work on untested and novel ideas; ventures into emerging research; and potentially transformative ideas.” 41 At $29.5 million, however, the to- tal SGER budget for 2004 was just 0.5% of NSF’s operating budget for 38 National Research Council. Assessment of Department of Defense Basic Research. Wash- ington, DC: The National Academies Press, 2005. P. 2. 39 It’s Time to Sound the Alarm Over Shift from Basic, University Projects. Editorial. San Jose Mercury News, April 17, 2005. 40 National Research Council. Assessment of Department of Defense Basic Research. Wash- ington, DC: The National Academies Press, 2005. P. 2. 41 National Science Board. Report of the National Science Board on the National Science Foundation’s Merit Review Process Fiscal Year 2004. NSB 05-12. Arlington, VA: National Science Foundation, March 2005. P. 27. Copyright © National Academy of Sciences. All rights reserved. Rising Above the Gathering Storm: Energizing and Employing America for a Brighter Economic Future http://www.nap.edu/catalog/11463.html WHAT ACTIONS SHOULD AMERICA TAKE IN RESEARCH? 151 BOX 6-2 DARPA The Defense Advanced Research Projects Agency (DARPA) was es- tablished with a budget of $500 million in 1958 following the launch of Sputnik to turn innovative technology into military capabilities. The agency is highly regarded for its work on the Internet, high-speed microelectron- ics, stealth and satellite technologies, unmanned vehicles, and new materials. a DARPA’s FY 2005 budget is $3.1 billion. In terms of personnel, it is a small, relatively nonhierarchical organization that uses highly flexible con- tracting and hiring practices that are atypical of the federal government as a whole. Its workforce of 220 includes 120 technical staffers, and it can hire quickly from the academic world and industry at wages that are substantially higher than those elsewhere in the government. Research- ers, as intended, typically stay with DARPA only for a few years. Law- rence Dubois says that DARPA puts the following questions to its princi- pal investigators, individual project leaders, and program managers: b • What are you trying to accomplish? • How is it done today and what are the limitations? What is truly new in your approach that will remove current limitations and improve performance? By how much? A factor of 10? 100? More? If successful, what difference will it make and to whom? • What are the midterm exams, final exams, or full-scale applica- tions required to prove your hypothesis? When will they be done? • What is DARPA’s exit strategy? Who will take the technologies you develop and turn them into new capabilities or real products? • How much will it cost? Dubois quotes a former DARPA program manager who describes the agency this way: c Program management at DARPA is a very proactive activity. It can be likened to playing a game of multidimensional chess. As a chess player, one always knows what the goal is, but there are many ways to reach checkmate. Like a program manager, a chess player starts out with many different pieces (independent research groups) in different geographic locations (squares on the board) and with different useful capabilities (fundamental and applied research or experiment and theory, for example). One uses this team to mount a coordinated attack (in one case to solve key technical problems and for another to defeat one’s opponent). One of the challenges in both cases is that the target is continually moving. The DARPA program manager has to deal continued Copyright © National Academy of Sciences. All rights reserved. Rising Above the Gathering Storm: Energizing and Employing America for a Brighter Economic Future http://www.nap.edu/catalog/11463.html 152 RISING ABOVE THE GATHERING STORM research and education. In 2004, the National Science Board convened a Task Force on Transformative Research to consider how to adapt NSF processes to encourage more funding of high-risk, potentially high-payoff research. Several accounts indicate that although program managers might have the authority to fund at least some high-risk research, they often lack incen- tives do so. Partly for this reason, the percentage of effort represented by such pursuits is often quite small—1 to 3% being common. The committee believes that additional discretionary funding will enhance the transforma- tional nature of research without requiring additional funding. Some com- mittee members thought 5% was sufficient, others 10%. Thus, 8% seemed a reasonable compromise and is reflected in the committee’s recommended action. The degree to which such a program will be successful depends heavily on the quality and coverage of the program staff. ACTION B-5: USE DARPA AS A MODEL FOR ENERGY RESEARCH The federal government should create a DARPA-like organization within the Department of Energy called the Advanced Research Projects Agency-Energy (ARPA-E) that reports to the under secretary for science and is charged with sponsoring specific R&D programs to meet the nation’s long-term energy challenges. 42 42 One committee member, Lee Raymond, shares the alternative point of view on this recom- mendation as summarized in Box 6-3. with both emerging technologies and constantly changing cus- tomer demand, whereas the chess player has to contend with his or her opponent’s king and surrounding players always mov- ing. Thus, both face changing obstacles and opportunities. The proactive player typically wins the chess game, and it is the proactive program manager who is usually most successful at DARPA. a L. H. Dubois. DARPA’s Approach to Innovation and Its Reflection in Industry. In Reducing the Time from Basic Research to Innovation in the Chemical Sciences: A Workshop Report to the Chemical Sciences Roundtable . Washington, DC: The National Academies Press, 2003. Chapter 4. b Ibid. c Ibid. BOX 6-2 Continued Copyright © National Academy of Sciences. All rights reserved. Rising Above the Gathering Storm: Energizing and Employing America for a Brighter Economic Future http://www.nap.edu/catalog/11463.html WHAT ACTIONS SHOULD AMERICA TAKE IN RESEARCH? 153 BOX 6-3 Another Point of View: ARPA-E Energy issues are potentially some of the most profound challenges to our future prosperity and security, and science and technology will be critical in addressing them. But not everyone believes that a federal pro- gram like the proposed ARPA-E would be an effective mechanism for developing bold new energy technologies. This box summarizes some of the views the committee heard about ARPA-E from those who disagree with its utility. Some believe that such applied energy research is already well funded by the private sector—by large energy companies and, increasingly, by venture capital firms—and that the federal government should fund only basic research. They argue that there is no shortage of long-term re- search funding in energy, including that sponsored by the federal gov- ernment. DOE is the largest individual government supporter of basic research in the physical sciences, providing more than 40% of associ- ated federal funding. DOE provides funding and support to researchers in academe, other government agencies, nonprofit institutions, and in- dustry. The government spends substantial sums annually on research, including $2.8 billion on basic research and on numerous technologies. Given the major investment DOE is already making in energy research, it is argued that if additional federal research is desired in a particular field of energy, it should be accomplished by reallocating and optimizing the use of funds currently being invested. It is therefore argued that no additional federal involvement in energy research is necessary, and given the concerns about the apparent short- age in scientific and technical talent, any short-term increase in federally directed research might crowd out more productive private-sector re- search. Furthermore, some believe that industry and venture capital in- vestors will already fund the things that have a reasonable probability of commercial utility (the invisible hand of the free markets at work), and what is not funded by existing sources is not worthy of funding. Another concern is that an entity like ARPA-E would amount to the government’s attempt to pick winning technologies instead of letting mar- kets decide. Many find that the government has a poor record in that arena. Government, some believe, should focus on basic research rather than on developing commercial technology. Others are more supportive of DOE research as it exists and are con- cerned that funding ARPA-E will take money away from traditional sci- ence programs funded by DOE’s Office of Science in high-energy phys- ics, fusion energy research, material sciences, and so forth that are of high quality and despite receiving limited funds produce Nobel-prize- quality fundamental research and commercial spinoffs. Some believe that DOE’s model is more productive than DARPA’s in terms of research quality per federal dollar invested. Copyright © National Academy of Sciences. All rights reserved. Rising Above the Gathering Storm: Energizing and Employing America for a Brighter Economic Future http://www.nap.edu/catalog/11463.html 154 RISING ABOVE THE GATHERING STORM Perhaps no experiment in the conduct of research and engineering has been more successful in recent decades than the Defense Advanced Research Projects Agency model. The new agency proposed herein is patterned after that model and would sponsor creative, out-of-the-box, transformational, generic energy research in those areas where industry by itself cannot or will not undertake such sponsorship, where risks and potential payoffs are high, and where success could provide dramatic benefits for the nation. ARPA-E would accelerate the process by which research is transformed to address economic, environmental, and security issues. It would be designed as a lean, effective, and agile—but largely independent—organization that can start and stop targeted programs based on performance and ultimate relevance. ARPA-E would focus on specific energy issues, but its work (like that of DARPA or NIH) would have significant spinoff benefits to national, state, and local government; to industry; and for the education of the next generation of researchers. The nature of energy research makes it particu- larly relevant to producing many spinoff benefits to the broad fields of engineering, the physical sciences, and mathematics, fields identified in this review as warranting special attention. Existing programs with similar goals should be examined to ensure that the nation is optimizing its investments in this area. Funding for ARPA-E would begin at $300 million for the initial year and increase to $1 billion over 5 years, at which point the program’s effectiveness would be reevaluated. The committee picked this level of fund- ing the basis of its review of the budget history of other new research activi- ties and the importance of the task at hand. The United States faces a variety of energy challenges that affect our economy, our security, and our environment (see Box 6-4). Fundamentally, those challenges involve science and technology. Today, scientists and engi- neers are already working on ideas that could make solar and wind power economical; develop more efficient fuel cells; exploit energy from tar sands, oil shale, and gas hydrates; minimize the environmental consequences of fossil-fuel use; find safe, affordable ways to dispose of nuclear waste; devise workable methods to generate power from fusion; improve our aging energy-distribution infrastructure; and devise safe methods for hydrogen storage. 43 ARPA-E would provide an opportunity for creative “out-of-the box” transformational research that could lead to new ways of fueling the nation and its economy, as opposed to incremental research on ideas that have already been developed. One expert explains, “The supply [of fossil-fuel sources] is adequate now and this gives us time to develop alternatives, but 43 M. S. Dresselhaus and I. L. Thomas. “Alternative Energy Technologies.” Nature 414(2001):332-337. Copyright © National Academy of Sciences. All rights reserved. Rising Above the Gathering Storm: Energizing and Employing America for a Brighter Economic Future http://www.nap.edu/catalog/11463.html WHAT ACTIONS SHOULD AMERICA TAKE IN RESEARCH? 155 the scale of research in physics, chemistry, biology and engineering will need to be stepped up, because it will take sustained effort to solve the problem of long-term global energy security.” 44 BOX 6-4 Energy and the Economy Capital, labor, and energy are three major factors that contribute to and influence economic growth in the United States. Capital is the equip- ment, machinery, manufacturing plants, and office buildings that are nec- essary to produce goods and services. Labor is the availability of the workforce to participate in the production of goods and services. Energy is the power necessary to produce goods and services and transport them to their destinations. These three components are used to compute a country’s gross domestic product (GDP), the total of all output pro- duced in the country. Without these three inputs, business and industry would not be able to transform raw materials into goods and services. Energy is the power that drives the world’s economy. In the industrial- ized nations, most of the equipment, machinery, manufacturing plants, and office buildings could not operate without an available supply of en- ergy resources such as oil, natural gas, coal, or electricity. In fact, energy is such an important component of manufacturing and production that its availability can have a direct impact on GDP and the overall economic health of the United States. Sometimes energy is not readily available because the supply of a particular resource is limited or because its price is too high. When this happens, companies often decrease their production of goods and ser- vices, at least temporarily. On the other hand, an increase in the avail- ability of energy—or lower energy prices—can lead to increased eco- nomic output by business and industry. Situations that cause energy prices to rise or fall rapidly and unex- pectedly, as the world’s oil prices have on several occasions in recent years, can have a significant impact on the economy. When these situa- tions occur, the economy experiences what economists call a “price shock.” Since 1970, the economy has experienced at least four such price shocks attributable to the supply of energy. Thus, the events of the last several decades demonstrate that the price and availability of a single important energy resource—such as oil—can significantly affect the world economy. SOURCE: Adapted from Dallas Federal Reserve Bank at www.dallasfed.org/educate/everyday/ ev2.html. 44 Ibid. Copyright © National Academy of Sciences. All rights reserved. Rising Above the Gathering Storm: Energizing and Employing America for a Brighter Economic Future http://www.nap.edu/catalog/11463.html 156 RISING ABOVE THE GATHERING STORM Although there are those who believe an organization like ARPA-E is not needed (Box 6-3), the committee concludes that it would play an impor- tant role in resolving the nation’s energy challenges; in advancing research in engineering, the physical sciences, and mathematics; and in developing the next generation of researchers. A recent report of the Secretary of En- ergy Advisory Board’s Task Force on the Future of Science Programs at the Department of Energy notes, “America can meet its energy needs only if we make a strong and sustained investment in research in physical science, engineering, and applicable areas of life science, and if we translate advanc- ing scientific knowledge into practice. The current mix of energy sources is not sustainable in the long run.” 45 Solutions will require coordinated ef- forts among industrial, academic, and government laboratories. Although industry owns most of the energy infrastructure and is actively developing new technologies in many fields, national economic and security concerns dictate that the government stimulate research to meet national needs (Box 6-4). These needs include neutralizing the provision of energy as a major driver of national security concerns. ARPA-E would invest in a broad port- folio of foundational research that is needed to invent transforming tech- nologies that in the past were often supplied by our great industrial labora- tories (see Box 6-5). Funding of research underpinning the provision of new energy sources is made particularly complex by the high-cost, high-risk, and long-term character of such work—all of which make it less suited to university or industry funding. Among its many missions, DOE promotes the energy security of the United States, but some of the department’s largest national laboratories were established in wartime and given clearly defense-oriented missions, primarily to develop nuclear weapons. Those weapons laboratories, and some of the government’s other large science laboratories, represent signifi- cant national investments in personnel, shared facilities, and knowledge. At the end of the Cold War, the nation’s defense needs shifted and urgent new agendas became clear—development of clean sources of energy, new forms of transportation, the provision of homeland security, technology to speed environmental remediation, and technology for commercial application. Numerous proposals over recent years have laid the foundation for more extensive redeployment of national laboratory talent toward basic and ap- plied research in areas of national priority. 46 45 Secretary of Energy’s Advisory Board, Task Force on the Future of Science Programs at the Department of Energy. Critical Choices: Science, Energy and Security. Final Report. Washing- ton, DC: US Department of Energy, October 13, 2003. P. 5. 46 Secretary of Energy Advisory Board. Task Force on Alternative Futures for the Depart- ment of Energy National Laboratories (the “Galvin Report”). Washington, DC: US Depart- ment of Energy, February 1995; President’s Council of Advisors on Science and Technology. Copyright © National Academy of Sciences. All rights reserved. Rising Above the Gathering Storm: Energizing and Employing America for a Brighter Economic Future http://www.nap.edu/catalog/11463.html WHAT ACTIONS SHOULD AMERICA TAKE IN RESEARCH? 157 Introducing a small, agile, DARPA-like organization could improve DOE’s pursuit of R&D much as DARPA did for the Department of Defense. Initially, DARPA was viewed as “threatening” by much of the department’s established research organization; however, over the years it has been widely accepted as successfully filling a very important role. ARPA-E would identify and support the science and technology critical to our nation’s energy infra- structure. It also could offer several important national benefits: • Promote research in the physical sciences, engineering, and mathematics. • Create a stream of human capital to bring innovative approaches to areas of national strategic importance. BOX 6-5 The Invention of the Transistor In the 1930s, the management of Bell Laboratories sought to develop a low-power, reliable, solid-state replacement for the vacuum tube used in telephone signal amplification and switching. Materials scientists had to invent methods to make highly pure germanium and silicon and to add controlled impurities with unprecedented precision. Theoretical and ex- perimental physicists had to develop a fundamental understanding of the conduction properties of this new material and the physics of the inter- faces and surfaces of different semiconductors. By investing in a large- scale assault on this problem, Bell announced the “invention” of the tran- sistor in 1948, less than a decade after the discovery that a junction of positively and negatively doped silicon would allow electric current to flow in only one direction. Fundamental understanding was recognized to be essential, but the goal of producing an economically successful electronic-state switch was kept front-and-center. Despite this focused approach, fundamental science did not suffer: a Nobel Prize was awarded for the invention of the transistor. During this and the following effort, the foundations of much of semiconductor-device physics of the 20th century were laid. Federal Energy Research and Development for the Challenges of the Twenty-first Century. Report on the Energy Research and Development Panel, the President’s Committee of Advi- sors on Science and Technology. Washington, DC, November 1997; Government Accounting Office. Best Practices: Elements Critical to Successfully Reducing Unneeded RDT&E Infra- structure. US GAO Report to Congressional Requesters. Washington, DC: US Government Accounting Office, January 8, 1998. Copyright © National Academy of Sciences. All rights reserved. Rising Above the Gathering Storm: Energizing and Employing America for a Brighter Economic Future http://www.nap.edu/catalog/11463.html 158 RISING ABOVE THE GATHERING STORM • Turn cutting-edge science and engineering into technology for en- ergy and environmental applications. • Accelerate innovation in both traditional and alternative energy sources and in energy-efficiency mechanisms. • Foster consortia of companies, colleges and universities, and labora- tories to work on critical research problems, such as the development of fuel cells. The agency’s basic administrative structure and goals would mirror those of DARPA, but there would be some important differences. DARPA exists mainly to provide a long-term “break-through” perspective for the armed forces. DOE already has some mechanisms for long-term research, but it sometimes lacks the mechanisms for transforming the results into technology that meets the government’s needs. DARPA also helps develop technology for purchase by the government for military use. By contrast, most energy technology is acquired and deployed in the private sector, al- though DOE does have specific procurement needs. Like DARPA, ARPA-E would have a very small staff, would perform no R&D itself, would turn over its staff every 3 to 4 years, and would have the same personnel and contracting freedoms now granted to DARPA. Box 6-6 illustrates some energy technologies identified by the National Commission on Energy Policy as areas of research where federal research investment is warranted that is in research areas in which industry is unlikely to invest. ACTION B-6: PRIZES AND AWARDS The White House Office of Science and Technology Policy (OSTP) should institute a Presidential Innovation Award to stimulate scientific and engineer- ing advances in the national interest. While existing Presidential awards ad- dress lifetime achievements or promising young scholars, the proposed awards would identify and recognize individuals who develop unique scientific and engineering innovations in the national interest at the time they occur. A number of organizations currently offer prizes and awards to stimu- late research, but an expanded system of recognition could push new scien- tific and engineering advances that are in the national interest. The current presidential honors for scientists and engineers are the National Medal of Science, 47 the National Medal of Technology, and the Presidential Early Career Awards for Scientists and Engineers. The National Medal of Science and the National Medal of Technology recognize career-long achievement. The Presidential Early Career Awards for Scientists and Engineers pro- 47 See http://www.nsf.gov/nsb/awards/nms/medal.htm. Copyright © National Academy of Sciences. All rights reserved. Rising Above the Gathering Storm: Energizing and Employing America for a Brighter Economic Future http://www.nap.edu/catalog/11463.html WHAT ACTIONS SHOULD AMERICA TAKE IN RESEARCH? 159 BOX 6-6 Illustration of Energy Technologies The National Commission on Energy Policy in its December 2004 report, Ending the Energy Stalemate: A Bipartisan Strategy to Meet America’s Energy Challenges, recommended doubling the nation’s an- nual direct federal expenditures on “energy research, development, and demonstration” (ERD&D) to identify better technologies for energy sup- ply and efficient end use. Improved technologies, the commission indi- cates, will make it easier to • Limit oil demand and reduce the fraction of it met from imports without incurring excessive economic or environmental costs. • Improve urban air quality while meeting growing demand for automobiles. • Use abundant US and world coal resources without intolerable im- pacts on regional air quality and acid rain. • Expand the use of nuclear energy while reducing related risks of accidents, sabotage, and proliferation. • Sustain and expand economic prosperity where it already exists— and achieve it elsewhere—without intolerable climatic disruption from greenhouse-gas emissions. The commission identified what it believes to be the most promising technological options where private sector research activities alone are not likely to bring them to that potential at the pace that society’s inter- ests warrant. They fall into the following principal clusters: • Clean and efficient automobile and truck technologies, includ- ing advanced diesels, conventional and plug-in hybrids, and fuel-cell vehicles • Integrated-gasification combined-cycle coal technologies for polygeneration of electricity, steam, chemicals, and fluid fuels • Other technologies that achieve, facilitate, or complete car- bon capture and sequestration, including the technologies for carbon capture in hydrogen production from natural gas, for sequestering car- bon in geologic formations, and for using the produced hydrogen effi- ciently • Technologies to efficiently produce biofuels for the transport sector • Advanced nuclear technologies to enable nuclear expansion by lowering cost and reducing risks from accidents, terrorist attacks, and proliferation • Technologies for increasing the efficiency of energy end use in buildings and industry. SOURCE: Chapter VI, Developing Better Energy Technologies for the Future. In National Commission on Energy Policy. 2004. Ending the Energy Stalemate: A Bipartisan Strategy to Meet America’s Energy Challenges. Available at: http://www.energycommission.org. [...]... Authorization Act for Fiscal Year 2006, Sec 1105 Science, Mathematics, and Research Transportation (SMART) Defense Education Program—National Defense Education Act (NDEA), Phase I Copyright © National Academy of Sciences All rights reserved 169 Rising Above the Gathering Storm: Energizing and Employing America for a Brighter Economic Future http://www.nap.edu/catalog/1 146 3.html 170 RISING ABOVE THE GATHERING. .. Foundation, 2005 7The National Academies Policy Implications of International Graduate Students and Postdoctoral Scholars in the United States Washington, DC: The National Academies Press, 2005 5National Copyright © National Academy of Sciences All rights reserved Rising Above the Gathering Storm: Energizing and Employing America for a Brighter Economic Future http://www.nap.edu/catalog/1 146 3.html 1 64. .. jobs And the pace of immigrant entrepreneurship has accelerated dramatically in the last decade Copyright © National Academy of Sciences All rights reserved Rising Above the Gathering Storm: Energizing and Employing America for a Brighter Economic Future http://www.nap.edu/catalog/1 146 3.html WHAT ACTIONS SHOULD AMERICA TAKE IN HIGHER EDUCATION? 177 Far beyond their role in Silicon Valley, the professional.. .Rising Above the Gathering Storm: Energizing and Employing America for a Brighter Economic Future http://www.nap.edu/catalog/1 146 3.html 160 RISING ABOVE THE GATHERING STORM gram, managed by the National Science and Technology Council, honors and supports the extraordinary achievements of young professionals for their independent research contributions .48 The White House, following recommendations... Power and Conflict Washington, DC: Center for Strategic and International Studies, 2005 Pp 9-16 Copyright © National Academy of Sciences All rights reserved Rising Above the Gathering Storm: Energizing and Employing America for a Brighter Economic Future http://www.nap.edu/catalog/1 146 3.html 1 84 RISING ABOVE THE GATHERING STORM BOX 8-1 Another Point of View: Innovation Incentives Some critics say the argument... solidified early in the educational process, before students graduate from high school The desirability of a career in S&E is determined largely by the Copyright © National Academy of Sciences All rights reserved Rising Above the Gathering Storm: Energizing and Employing America for a Brighter Economic Future http://www.nap.edu/catalog/1 146 3.html 172 RISING ABOVE THE GATHERING STORM prospect of attractive... of private companies with federal contracts to remain internationally competitive An unbalanced increase in security will erode the Copyright © National Academy of Sciences All rights reserved Rising Above the Gathering Storm: Energizing and Employing America for a Brighter Economic Future http://www.nap.edu/catalog/1 146 3.html 1 74 RISING ABOVE THE GATHERING STORM nation’s scientific and engineering... The National Academies Press, 2005 Copyright © National Academy of Sciences All rights reserved Rising Above the Gathering Storm: Energizing and Employing America for a Brighter Economic Future http://www.nap.edu/catalog/1 146 3.html WHAT ACTIONS SHOULD AMERICA TAKE IN HIGHER EDUCATION? 175 BOX 7-3 The 214b Provision of the Immigration and Nationality Act: Establishing the Intent to Return Home The Immigration... to realize And the infrastructure essential for discovery and for the creation of new technologies is deteriorating because of failure to provide the funds needed to maintain and upgrade it Copyright © National Academy of Sciences All rights reserved Rising Above the Gathering Storm: Energizing and Employing America for a Brighter Economic Future http://www.nap.edu/catalog/1 146 3.html 7 What Actions... program and Integrative Graduate Education and Research Traineeship Program (IGERT) or by the National Institutes of Health Ruth L Kirschstein National Research Service Award program The US Department of Education, through its Graduate Assistance in Areas of National Need program, also provides traineeships and has a mechanism for identifying areas for grantmaking to academic programs Those are important . reserved. Rising Above the Gathering Storm: Energizing and Employing America for a Brighter Economic Future http://www.nap.edu/catalog/1 146 3.html 160 RISING ABOVE THE GATHERING STORM gram, managed by the. Energizing and Employing America for a Brighter Economic Future http://www.nap.edu/catalog/1 146 3.html 156 RISING ABOVE THE GATHERING STORM Although there are those who believe an organization like ARPA-E. Sciences. All rights reserved. Rising Above the Gathering Storm: Energizing and Employing America for a Brighter Economic Future http://www.nap.edu/catalog/1 146 3.html WHAT ACTIONS SHOULD AMERICA TAKE