Rising Above the Gathering Storm Energizing and Employing America for a Brighter Economic Future phần 7 pdf

Copyright © National Academy of Sciences. All rights reserved. Rising Above the Gathering Storm: Energizing and Employing America for a Brighter Economic Future http://www.nap.edu/catalog/11463.html 324 RISING ABOVE THE GATHERING STORM • Launch a large-scale program of research, demonstration, and evalu- ation in K–12 science, mathematics, and technology education. 18 Such a program should include distinguished researchers working in partnership with practitioners and policy-makers and supported by a national coalition of public and private funding organizations and other stakeholders. • Help create a nongovernment Coordinating Council for Mathemat- ics and Science Teaching that would bring together groups with a stake in mathematics and science teaching and monitor progress on teacher recruit- ment, preparation, retention, and rewards. 19 • Support the creation of state councils of business leaders, higher- education representatives, and K–12 educators to achieve comprehensive, coordinated, system-level improvement in science, mathematics, and tech- nology education from prekindergarten through college. 20 The United States brings unique strengths to the challenge of reforming K–12 science, mathematics, and technology education, including the flex- ibility of its workforce and its unparalleled legacy of achievement in science and technology. The challenge facing policy-makers is to find ways of gen- erating meaningful change in an educational system that is large, complex, and pluralistic. 18 National Research Council, Committee on a Feasibility Study for a Strategic Education Research Program. Improving Student Learning: A Strategic Plan for Education Research and Its Utilization. Washington, DC: National Academy Press, 1999. 19 US Department of Education, The National Commission on Mathematics and Science Teaching for the 21st Century. Before It’s Too Late. Washington, DC: US Department of Education, 2000. 20 Business-Higher Education Forum. A Commitment to America’s Future: Responding to the Crisis in Mathematics and Science Education. Washington, DC: American Council on Education, 2005. Copyright © National Academy of Sciences. All rights reserved. Rising Above the Gathering Storm: Energizing and Employing America for a Brighter Economic Future http://www.nap.edu/catalog/11463.html 325 Attracting the Most Able US Students to Science and Engineering This paper summarizes findings and recommendations from a variety of recently published reports and papers as input to the deliberations of the Committee on Prospering in the Global Economy of the 21st Century. Statements in this paper should not be seen as the conclusions of the National Academies or the committee. SUMMARY The world economy is growing rapidly in fields that require science, engineering, and technologic skills. The United States can remain a leader in science and engineering (S&E) only with a well-educated and effectively trained population. The most innovative S&E work is done by a relatively small number of especially talented, knowledgeable, and accomplished in- dividuals. Because of the importance of S&E to our nation, attracting and retaining individuals capable of such achievements ought to be a goal of federal policy. It follows that a key component of national and economic security policy must be US S&E students. The United States has relied on drawing the best and brightest from an international talent pool. However, recent events have led some to be concerned that the United States cannot rely on a steady flow of international students. Furthermore, as other developed countries encourage international students to come to their countries and developing countries enhance their postsecondary educational capacity, there is increased competition for the best students, which could further reduce the flow of international students to the United States. Therefore, any policies aimed at encouraging student interest in S&E must have a significant component that focuses on domestic talent. Copyright © National Academy of Sciences. All rights reserved. Rising Above the Gathering Storm: Energizing and Employing America for a Brighter Economic Future http://www.nap.edu/catalog/11463.html 326 RISING ABOVE THE GATHERING STORM Fundamentally, policy levers designed to influence the number of US S&E workers fall into two categories: supply-side and demand-side. Among supply-side issues are K–12 science, mathematics and technology teaching, undergraduate S&E educational experience, graduate training experience, opportunity costs compared with those of other fields and professions, and length of postdoctoral training period. On the demand side are funding for research and availability of research jobs, both of which are powerfully influenced by public policies and by public and private expenditures on research and development. Past reports have identified a number of options the federal govern- ment could take to influence the education and career decisions of top US students, including the following: • Double the number of magnet high schools specializing in science, technology, engineering, and mathematics from approximately 100 to 200 over the next 10 years. • Support competitive undergraduate scholarships for students inter- ested in science, mathematics, and engineering. • Provide scholarships to all qualified students majoring in science or mathematics at a 4-year college who have an economic need and who main- tain high levels of academic achievement. • Provide at least 5,000 portable graduate fellowships, each with a duration of up to 5 years, for training in emerging fields, to encourage US students to pursue S&E graduate studies. • Provide graduate student stipends competitive with opportunities in other venues. • Support a significant number of selective research assistant profes- sorships in the natural sciences and engineering open to postdoctoral schol- ars who are US citizens or permanent residents. • Partner with industry to sponsor a series of public-service announce- ments exalting science and technology careers. GETTING AN EARLY START: K–12 S&E PROGRAMS One proven way of fostering students’ interest in science and technol- ogy is through magnet high schools that emphasize those subjects. There are approximately 100 such schools in the United States, and studies have shown that graduates from these schools are more likely to study science, mathematics, or engineering in college and enter those fields during their careers. 1 It is not known, however, whether these students would have had similar career trajectories even if they had not attended magnet schools. 1 K. Powell. “HothoUSe High,” Nature 435(2005):874-875. Copyright © National Academy of Sciences. All rights reserved. Rising Above the Gathering Storm: Energizing and Employing America for a Brighter Economic Future http://www.nap.edu/catalog/11463.html APPENDIX D 327 During the undergraduate years, involvement in research projects and the guidance of experienced mentors are powerful means of retaining stu- dents in S&E. 2 Mentors can provide advice, encouragement, and informa- tion about people and issues in a particular field. An early exposure to research can demonstrate to students the kinds of opportunities they will encounter if they pursue research careers. TRENDS IN UNDERGRADUATE AND GRADUATE STUDENT INTEREST IN S&E When one examines the issue, it becomes clear that there is a great deal of domestic student interest in undergraduate S&E programs. About 30% of students entering college in the United States (of whom over 95% are US citizens or permanent residents) intend to major in S&E fields. This propor- tion has remained fairly constant over the last 20 years. However, a consid- erable gap exists between freshman intentions and successful degree comple- tion. Undergraduate S&E programs report the lowest retention rate among all academic disciplines. A National Center for Educational Statistics (NCES) longitudinal study of first-year S&E students in 1990 found that fewer than 50% of undergraduate students entering college declaring a S&E major had completed S&E degrees within 5 years. 3 Indeed, approximately 50% of such undergraduate students changed their major field within the first 2 years. 4 Undergraduates who opt out of S&E programs are among the most highly qualified college entrants. 5 They are also disproportionately women and nonwhite students, indicating that many potential entrants are discouraged before they can join the S&E workforce. 6 2 R. F. Subotnik, K. M. Stone, and C. Steiner. “Lost Generation of Elite Talent in Science.” Journal of Secondary Gifted Education 13(2001):33-43. 3 L. K. Berkner, S. Cuccaro-Alamin, and A. C. McCormick. Descriptive Summary of 1989- 1990 Beginning Postsecondary Students: 5 Years Later with an Essay on Postsecondary Per- sistence and Attainment. NCES 96155. Washington, DC: National Center for Education Sta- tistics, 1996. 4 T. Smith. The Retention and Graduation Rates of 1993-1999 Entering Science, Mathemat- ics, Engineering, and Technology Majors in 175 Colleges and Universities. Norman, OK: Center for Institutional Data Exchange and Analysis (C-IDEA), University of Oklahamo, 2001. 5 S. Tobias. They’re Not Dumb, They’re Different. Stalking the Second Tier. Tucson, AZ: Research Corporation, 1990; E. Seymour and N. Hewitt. Talking About Leaving: Why Un- dergraduates Leave the Sciences. Boulder, CO: Westview Press, 1997; M. W. Ohland, G. Zhang, B. Thorndyke, and T. J. Anderson. “Grade-Point Average, Changes of Major, and Majors Selected by Students Leaving Engineering.” 34th ASEE/IEEE Frontiers in Education Conference, 2004. Session T1G:12-17. 6 M. F. Fox and P. Stephan. “Careers of Young Scientists: Preferences, Prospects, and Reality by Gender and Field.” Social Studies of Science 31(2001):109-122; D. L. Tan. Majors in Sci- ence, Technology, Engineering, and Mathematics: Gender and Ethnic Differences in Persis- Copyright © National Academy of Sciences. All rights reserved. Rising Above the Gathering Storm: Energizing and Employing America for a Brighter Economic Future http://www.nap.edu/catalog/11463.html 328 RISING ABOVE THE GATHERING STORM tence and Graduation. Norman, OK: University of Oklahoma, 2002. Available at: http:// www.ou.edu/education/csar/literature/tan_paper3.pdf; Building Engineering and Science Tal- ent (BEST). The Talent Imperative: Diversifying America’s S&E Workforce. San Diego: BEST, 2004; G. D. Heyman, B. Martyna, and S. Bhatia. “Gender and Achievement-Related Beliefs Among Engineering Students.” Journal of Women and Minorities in S&E 8(2002):33-45. 7 National Science Foundation. Graduate Enrollment Increases in S&E Fields, Especially in Engineering and Computer Sciences. NSF 03-315. Arlington, VA: National Science Founda- tion, 2003. 8 A. Venezia, M. W. Kirst, and A. L. Antonio. Betraying the College Dream: How Discon- nected K–12 and Postsecondary Education Systems Undermine Student Aspirations. Stanford, CA: The Bridge Project, Stanford University, 2003. Available at: http://www.stanford.edu/ group/bridgeproject/betrayingthecollegedream.pdf. 9 E. Babco. Trends in African American and Native American Participants in STEM Higher Education. Washington, DC: Commission on Professionals in Science and Technology, 2002. 10 C. T. Clotfeltner, R. G. Ehrenberg, M. Getz, and J. J. Siegfried. Economic Challenges in Higher Education. Chicago, IL: University of Chicago Press, 1991; M. S. Teitelbaum. “Do We Need More Scientists?” The Public Interest 153(2003):40-53. Graduate enrollment in S&E programs has been a relatively level 22- 26% of total enrollments since 1993 (see Figures TS-1A, B, C, and D and TS-2). Growth in the number of S&E doctorates awarded is due primarily to the increased numbers of international students but also to the increasing participation of women and underrepresented minority groups. 7 If the pri- mary objective of the US S&E enterprise is to maintain excellence, a major challenge is to determine how to continue to attract the best international students and at the same time encourage the best domestic students to enter S&E undergraduate and graduate programs. DECISION POINTS AND DISINCENTIVES There are inherent disincentives that push students away from S&E programs and careers. These disincentives fall into three broad categories: curriculum, economics, and environment. Undergraduate attrition may be due partly to a disconnect between the culture and curricula in high schools compared with those at colleges and universities. 8 For example, poor math- ematics preparation in high school may underlie attrition in undergraduate physics programs. Underrepresented groups such as Blacks and American Indians, who are educated disproportionately in underserved communities, are on the whole less well prepared for college. 9 These types of problems suggest transitional programs to bridge the gap between high school and college, but the value of such strategies has not been compared with those at other levels in the educational system. Higher education is costly, and employment opportunities fluctuate. Whether a student perceives that a degree will lead to a viable career is a major factor determining choice of field. 10 This is illustrated particularly Copyright © National Academy of Sciences. All rights reserved. Rising Above the Gathering Storm: Energizing and Employing America for a Brighter Economic Future http://www.nap.edu/catalog/11463.html APPENDIX D 329 0 50,000 100,000 150,000 200,000 250,000 300,000 350,000 400,000 450,000 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 Number of Students or Degrees Bachelor’s Degrees Conferred Master’s Degrees Conferred First-Year Graduate Students PhD Degrees Conferred FIGURE TS-1A Number of first-year graduate students and number of S&E degrees conferred, by degree type, 1992-2001. SOURCE: Data on first-year graduates are from National Science Foundation. Survey of Graduate Student and Postdoctorates in Science and Engineering. NSF 03-320. Arlington, VA: National Science Foundation, 2003. Degree data from National Science Foundation. Science and Engineering Degrees: 1966-2001. NSF 04-311. Arlington, VA: National Science Foundation, 2003. FIGURE TS-1B Number of S&E master’s degrees awarded, by field, 1985-2001. SOURCE: National Science Foundation. Science and Engineering Degrees: 1966- 2001. NSF 04-311. Arlington, VA: National Science Foundation, 2003. well in engineering: undergraduate student decisions to major in particular fields vary depending on business cycles. Research indicates that large schools, which often foster a competitive “weeding out” environment, have a much higher attrition rate than smaller schools. This environment can be compounded by the culture of specific 0 10,000 20,000 30,000 40,000 50,000 60,000 1985 1986 1987 1988 1989 1990 1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997 1998 2000 2001 Master’s Degrees Awarded Engineering Physical Sciences Mathematics and Computer Science Life Sciences Social and Behavioral Sciences Copyright © National Academy of Sciences. All rights reserved. Rising Above the Gathering Storm: Energizing and Employing America for a Brighter Economic Future http://www.nap.edu/catalog/11463.html 330 RISING ABOVE THE GATHERING STORM FIGURE TS-1C Number of first-year S&E graduate enrollments, by field, 1985- 2001. SOURCE: Data on first-year graduates are from National Science Foundation. Survey of Graduate Student and Postdoctorates in Science and Engineering. NSF 03-320. Arlington, VA: National Science Foundation, 2003. 0 5,000 10,000 15,000 20,000 25,000 30,000 35,000 1985 1987 1989 1991 1993 1995 1997 1999 2001 First-Year Graduate Enrollment Engineering Physical Sciences Math and Computer Science Life Sciences Social and Behavioral Sciences fields. Some researchers argue that a key factor in stemming attrition is feeling connected to the intellectual and social life of the college. 11 Another researcher writes of three types of university cultures—the elite (scientific excellence), the pluralist (research, teaching, and service), and the com- munitarian (citizenship)—each carrying its own set of values and signals, some of which are competing. 12 Departments, colleges and universities, and professional societies each have a role in providing a high-quality, engaging learning environment. After a student’s determination of an undergraduate major or concen- tration, another key transition point is a decision to enter and complete graduate training. 13 Major factors to consider include time to degree and economics. 14 Unclear job prospects and lost earning potential are major 11 V. Tinto. Leaving College: Rethinking the CaUSes and Curses of Student Attrition. Chi- cago, IL: University of Chicago Press, 1993; J. M. Braxton. Reworking the Student Departure Puzzle. Nashville, TN: Vanderbilt University Press, 2000. 12 M. F. Fox and P. Stephan. “Careers of Young Scientists: Preferences, Prospects, and Real- ity by Gender and Field.” Social Studies of Science 31(2001):109-122. 13 A. Lu. The Decision Cycle for People Going to Graduate School. Stamford, CT: Peterson’s Thomson Learning, 2002. 14 NAS/NAE/IOM. Reshaping the Graduate Education of Scientists and Engineers. Wash- ington, DC: National Academy Press, 1995. Copyright © National Academy of Sciences. All rights reserved. Rising Above the Gathering Storm: Energizing and Employing America for a Brighter Economic Future http://www.nap.edu/catalog/11463.html 331 FIGURE TS-1D Number of doctorates awarded, by field and citizenship, 1985-2003. US citizens and permanent residents earn on average about 60-70% of S&E doctoral degrees; about 80% in life sciences and social sciences, 60% in physical sciences, and 50% in engineering and mathematics and computer sciences. SOURCE: National Science Foundation. Survey of Earned Doctorates. Arlington, VA: National Science Foundation, 2005. All Science and Engineering 0 5,000 10,000 15,000 20,000 25,000 30,000 35,000 Doctorates Awarded Doctorates Awarded Doctorates Awarded Doctorates Awarded Doctorates Awarded Doctorates Awarded All S&E-Total All S&E-US Citizens and Permanent Residents Engineering 0 1,000 2,000 3,000 4,000 5,000 6,000 7,000 Engineering- Total Engineering- US Citizens and Permanent Residents Physical Sciences 0 1000 2000 3000 4000 5000 6000 Physical Sciences- Total Physical Sciences-US Citizens and Permanent Residents Mathematics and Computer Science 0 500 1000 1500 2000 2500 Math and CS- Total Math and CS- US Citizens and Permanent Residents Life Sciences 0 1,000 2,000 3,000 4,000 5,000 6,000 7,000 8,000 9,000 Life Sciences- Total Life Sciences- US Citizens and Permanent Residents Social Sciences 0 1,000 2,000 3,000 4,000 5,000 6,000 7,000 8,000 9,000 Social and Behavioral Sciences-Total Social and Behavioral Sciences-US Citizens and Permanent Residents 1985 1987 1989 1991 1993 1995 1997 1999 2001 2003 1985 1987 1989 1991 1993 1995 1997 1999 2001 2003 1985 1987 1989 1991 1993 1995 1997 1999 2001 2003 1985 1987 1989 1991 1993 1995 1997 1999 2001 2003 1985 1987 1989 1991 1993 1995 1997 1999 2001 2003 1985 1987 1989 1991 1993 1995 1997 1999 2001 2003 Copyright © National Academy of Sciences. All rights reserved. Rising Above the Gathering Storm: Energizing and Employing America for a Brighter Economic Future http://www.nap.edu/catalog/11463.html 332 RISING ABOVE THE GATHERING STORM 15 R. Freeman, E. Weinstein, E. Marincola, J. Rosenbaum, and F. Solomon. “CAREERS: Competition and Careers in Biosciences.” Science 294(5550)(2001):2293-2294; W. Butz, G. A. Bloom, M. E. Gross, T. K. Kelly, A. Kofner, and H. E. Rippen. Is There a Shortage of Scientists and Engineers?: How Would We Know? IP-241-OSTP. Santa Monica, CA: RAND Corporation, 2003. Available at: http://www.rand.org/publications/IP/IP241/IP241.pdf; M. S. Teitelbaum. “Do We Need More Scientists?” The Public Interest 153(2003):40-53. 16 C. M. Golde and T. M. Dore. At Cross Purposes: What the Experiences of Doctoral Students Reveal About Doctoral Education. Philadelphia, PA: A Report Prepared for The Pew Charitable Trusts, 2001. disincentives for many considering an advanced S&E degree. 15 An issue raised in several studies on doctoral education is that prospective students are underinformed. A large, cross-disciplinary, multi-institutional survey on the experiences of doctoral students indicated that students entering doctoral programs entered their programs “without having a good idea of the time, money, clarity of purpose, and perseverance that doctoral educa- tion entails.” 16 The burden of being informed does not rest solely on the prospective student. While professional schools make a point to inform prospective students of the salary and employment levels of graduates, it 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 1965 1970 1975 1980 1985 1990 1995 2000 2005 Percent of Total Degrees Awarded Bachelor’s Master’s PhD FIGURE TS-2 Percent of total degrees awarded which are S&E degrees, by degree type: 1966 to 2001. Most US doctorate degrees are awarded in S&E fields. SOURCE: Based on National Science Foundation. Science and Engineering Degrees: 1966-2001. NSF 04-311. Arlington, VA: National Science Foundation, 2003. Table 1. Data from National Center for Education Statistics, Integrated Postsecondary Education Data System. Completions Survey and National Science Foundation/ Division of Science Resources Statistics Survey of Earned Doctorates. Copyright © National Academy of Sciences. All rights reserved. Rising Above the Gathering Storm: Energizing and Employing America for a Brighter Economic Future http://www.nap.edu/catalog/11463.html APPENDIX D 333 appears that S&E graduate programs rarely make such information available. 17 Career Prospects in S&E Students considering research careers can face daunting prospects. Graduate and postdoctoral training may take over a decade, usually with low pay and few benefits. Most researchers do not become full-fledged mem- bers of the profession until their mid-30s or later—an especially onerous burden for those who are trying to balance the demands of work and family. Even at the end of this long training period, many do not find the jobs for which they have been trained. The stagnation of funding for the physi- cal sciences, mathematics, engineering, and the social sciences over the last decade has led to fewer academic faculty positions in these fields. Even in expanding fields, such as the biosciences, the number of permanent aca- demic research and teaching positions has not kept up with the growing number of students who are entering these fields. As a result, more and more researchers languish in temporary positions. 18 The fastest-growing employment category since the early 1980s has been “other academic ap- pointments,” which is currently increasing at about 4.9% annually. 19 These jobs are essentially holding positions filled by young researchers coming from postdoctoral positions who would like to join an academic faculty on a tenure track and are willing to wait. It is an increasingly long wait as institutions are decreasing the number of faculty appointments to decrease the long-term commitments that they entail. From 1993 to 2001, the num- ber of biomedical tenure-track appointments increased by 13.8%, while those for nontenure-track faculty increased by 45.1% and other appoint- ments by 38.9% (see Figures TS-3A and B). In fields outside the life sciences, most doctorates go on to careers in industry or government (see Figures TS-4A and B). Increasingly, these sec- tors are providing research opportunities for the best students. At the same time that biotechnology firms are gearing up their R&D operations, top industrial research laboratories, such as Bell Labs and Xerox PARC are 17 P. Romer. Should the Government Subsidize Supply or Demand in the Market for Scien- tists and Engineers? Working Paper 7723. Cambridge, MA: National Bureau for Economic Research, 2000. Available at: http://www.nber.org/papers/w7723/; National Research Coun- cil. Trends in the Early Careers of Life Scientists. Washington, DC: National Academy Press, 1998. 18 National Research Council. Trends in the Early Careers of Life Scientists. Washington, DC: National Academy Press, 1998. 19 National Research Council. Advancing the Nation’s Health Needs. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press, 2005. [...]... Rising Above the Gathering Storm: Energizing and Employing America for a Brighter Economic Future http://www.nap.edu/catalog/11463.html APPENDIX D 3 47 the elementary and secondary teachers who impart lifelong knowledge and attitudes about science and mathematics to their students For many, the undergraduate years are the last opportunity for rigorous academic study of these subjects Precollege education... encourage the dual benefits to research and education of having graduate students serve as research assistants.8 7Ibid 8Association of American Universities, Committee on Graduate Education Graduate Education Washington, DC: Association of American Universities, 1998 Copyright © National Academy of Sciences All rights reserved Rising Above the Gathering Storm: Energizing and Employing America for a Brighter. .. their sources of scientists and engineers 2 5The National Academies Policy Implications of International Graduate Students and Postdoctoral Scholars in the United States Washington, DC: The National Academies Press, 2005 Copyright © National Academy of Sciences All rights reserved Rising Above the Gathering Storm: Energizing and Employing America for a Brighter Economic Future http://www.nap.edu/catalog/11463.html... their graduate or postdoctoral studies SOURCE: National Science Foundation Survey of Earned Doctorates 2002 Arlington, VA: National Science Foundation, 2004 Copyright © National Academy of Sciences All rights reserved Rising Above the Gathering Storm: Energizing and Employing America for a Brighter Economic Future http://www.nap.edu/catalog/11463.html 356 RISING ABOVE THE GATHERING STORM Median Salaries... http://caspar.nsf.gov/; and US Bureau of the Census, Population Division TABLE HE-1 Ratio of Bachelor’s Degree to the 24-Year-Old Population, by Selected Fields, Sex, and Race/Ethnicity: 1990 and 2000 Rising Above the Gathering Storm: Energizing and Employing America for a Brighter Economic Future http://www.nap.edu/catalog/11463.html 344 Copyright © National Academy of Sciences All rights reserved Rising Above the Gathering. .. Rising Above the Gathering Storm: Energizing and Employing America for a Brighter Economic Future http://www.nap.edu/catalog/11463.html 338 RISING ABOVE THE GATHERING STORM TABLE TS- 1A Median PhD Salaries of Engineering and Science Graduates, by Occupation and Field of Doctorate in 19 97 Occupation All Sectors Economics Computer Science Engineering Physical Science Biological Sciences S&E PhDs in Management,... 1999 4National Science Foundation, National Science Board The Science and Engineering Workforce: Realizing America s Potential Arlington, VA: National Science Foundation, 2003 Copyright © National Academy of Sciences All rights reserved Rising Above the Gathering Storm: Energizing and Employing America for a Brighter Economic Future http://www.nap.edu/catalog/11463.html APPENDIX D 349 FIGURE HE-3 Master’s... According to available sources of data, accomplished US Copyright © National Academy of Sciences All rights reserved Rising Above the Gathering Storm: Energizing and Employing America for a Brighter Economic Future http://www.nap.edu/catalog/11463.html 336 RISING ABOVE THE GATHERING STORM 70 60 Percent 50 Academia 40 Industry 30 Government 20 10 So ci al Sc i en ce s M at he m at H ic ea s lth Sc ie... jobs, by tenure-track status, 1 973 2001 SOURCE: National Research Council Advancing the Nation’s Health Needs Washington, DC: The National Academies Press, 2005 Appendix E Copyright © National Academy of Sciences All rights reserved Rising Above the Gathering Storm: Energizing and Employing America for a Brighter Economic Future http://www.nap.edu/catalog/11463.html 335 APPENDIX D Doctorates Employed in... 33National Academy of Engineering Concerning Federally Sponsored Inducement Prizes in Engineering and Science Washington, DC: National Academy Press, 1999 31Building Copyright © National Academy of Sciences All rights reserved Rising Above the Gathering Storm: Energizing and Employing America for a Brighter Economic Future http://www.nap.edu/catalog/11463.html Undergraduate, Graduate, and Postgraduate . Sciences. All rights reserved. Rising Above the Gathering Storm: Energizing and Employing America for a Brighter Economic Future http://www.nap.edu/catalog/11463.html 330 RISING ABOVE THE GATHERING STORM FIGURE. Sciences. All rights reserved. Rising Above the Gathering Storm: Energizing and Employing America for a Brighter Economic Future http://www.nap.edu/catalog/11463.html 338 RISING ABOVE THE GATHERING STORM TABLE. rights reserved. Rising Above the Gathering Storm: Energizing and Employing America for a Brighter Economic Future http://www.nap.edu/catalog/11463.html 334 RISING ABOVE THE GATHERING STORM FIGURE