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748 PART X. THE FUTURE OF THE FIELD rations to act. Through emotional and symbolic processes, we actively “project” our past onto our future. In the process of such anticipatory projection, we shape every present moment. The practical significance of this can be seen daily in mental health clinics. Clients have dif- ficulty imagining—let alone hoping for and working toward—patterns of experiencing that might be healthy and satisfying. If they have never felt safe or loved or capable, it is very difficult for them to explore or maintain activity patterns that might foster these experiences. Combined with responsible action, the processes of hope, fantasy, and imagination figure prom- inently in constructive and positive approaches to life counseling. But there is more to constructivism than self- organizing activity. Disorder—the conceptual opposite of order—is a necessary element in the development of all complex systems. Disorder and order are defined by and relative to one an- other, of course. One of the more promising of the tenets of constructivism is that processes of disorder are not pathologized as enemies of health. Rather, as Herbart and Piaget antici- pated, disordering processes are natural and necessary expressions of a complex system’s at- tempts to reorganize its life. New life patterns emerge out of the chaos and dysfunction that ensue when old patterns are no longer viable (Mahoney, 1991, 2000). Similar to positive psy- chology, constructivism cautions against judg- mental and pejorative portrayals of disorder and dysfunction. The third theme of constructivism pays hom- age to the complex dynamics of the system we call a self. We humans actively order our own experiencing, and our self-organizing processes tend to orbit around distinctions based in our embodiment and the contrast between “self” and “other.” The boundaries of the individual system serve to define that system as a funda- mentally personal and phenomenological un- dertaking. It is more than coincidental that Al- fred Adler called his approach “individual psychology,” that Albert Bandura has champi- oned “self-efficacy,” that Vittorio Guidano fo- cused on the “complexity of self” and “the self in process,” or that George Kelly focused on “personal constructs.” From a constructive per- spective, all psychotherapy is psychotherapy of the self (Guidano, 1987, 1991). But constructiv- ism is far from a narcissistic, self-absorbed, or solipsistic philosophy. It honors the mysteries of selfhood as emergent expressions of social consciousness. Constructivism does not view the self as an entity, a possession, or an endur- ing collection of personality traits. Rather, the self is considered to be an embodied and emerg- ing process—indeed, a complex system of active and interactive self-organizing processes. As such, the self exhibits a rich fabric of simulta- neous unity (consistency) and diversity. The complexity of the idea of a simultaneously changing and changeless self is daunting. It seems increasingly clear that individual selves exhibit multiple facets, levels, and capacities (Anderson, 1998). We are only now beginning to explore language forms that may allow us to better understand this complexity and the mys- teries of a self seeking to understand itself. It is, as Allen Wheelis (1971) says, “like a man before a mirror asking the man he sees what the man in the mirror is asking” (p. 57). The fourth theme of constructivism reflects a strong convergence with cultural studies, eco- logical ethics, feminist theory, linguistics, and the human rights movements in their recogni- tion that everyone and everything is connected. Constructivism maintains that human self- organizing activities are embedded in social and symbolic contexts. Symbol systems—such as languages and mathematics—are expressions of the social fabric of experiencing. If we artifi- cially separate these two for the sake of closer examination, we quickly see that the social or “intersubjective” dimension of human experi- ence is fundamental. We live in and from re- lationships with other human beings. The self— although uniquely personal and largely “self- centered”—is always socially embedded. Per- sonal identities—the experience of who one is, what one is capable of, and personal worth— develop within human relationships. Changes in the sense of self also develop within such re- lationships: relationships with parents, family, friends, teachers, and, sometimes, therapists. Symbolic processes allow us to transcend space and time. How they do this is still mostly a mystery, and this is reflected by the diversity of views in cognitive science, communications studies, linguistics, philosophy, and semiotics (theory of signs). It is clear, however, that our symbolic capacities allow us to “play with re- ality” and to dream, fantasize, hope, imagine, pretend, and remember. Much of positive psy- chology invokes such processes as promising paths toward health and well-being. Our un- CHAPTER 54. CONSTRUCTIVISM AND POSITIVE PSYCHOLOGY 749 derstanding in these dimensions is still barely rudimentary, but it is clear that communication, in all its diversity, is an expression of our fun- damental connection to one another. The fifth working principle of constructivism is that human development is a lifelong process that is dynamic (always changing) and dialect- ical (generated by contrasts). This theme envel- ops the first four principles and also elaborates them into metaphors that may help us to un- derstand the complexities of an open, active sys- tem that is both changing and self-stabilizing over time. Our development—both as a species and as individuals—reflects complexly interac- tive and distributed processes. We are always changing, if only to stay the same. We are ac- tively participating in the ordering—the struc- turing and, therefore, the construction—of our own continuing existence. And we are rarely (and even then only barely) aware of what we are doing and how we do it. Another way to convey the spirit of the de- velopmental principle in constructivism is to say that it reflects the lifelong quest to achieve a delicate balance between ordering and disorder- ing processes. Ordering processes literally allow us to maintain life support and our coherence as a life-form. Disordering processes present challenges to our overall balance. They disrupt our familiar ways of being in the world. In so doing, they challenge us to learn—to revise our ordering patterns. When they challenge us too much, however, disordering processes may threaten our viability as a living system. Dis- order does not guarantee development. When we do survive, however—when we learn new skills and elaborate our systems of meanings— we are said to “develop.” Such development is called “dialectical” because it emerges out of the interaction of contrasts. The cardinal dialectical contrast in human development is between the “old” (familiar, order) and the “new” (novel, chaos), but it can be experienced and expressed in a variety of ways (good/bad, me/not-me, true/false, right/wrong, real/illusory, etc.). Constructivist views of life span human de- velopment are fundamentally complex and dy- namic. That is to say, they are generally organic portrayals that acknowledge that human devel- opment can be meaningfully glimpsed at the level of abstract principles, but that it can never be completely predicted or engineered. Such views are noteworthy in their assertion that cy- cles (oscillations) are natural and common as- pects of human experiencing. Variability in ex- perience and action are critical to the selection processes that both protect old patterns and pro- mote novel possibilities. This is why disorder is an essential aspect of development (Neimeyer & Raskin, 2000). But ordering processes are the favored children of biological life. Like all other life forms, we humans are fundamentally con- servative. We often resist change more vigor- ously than we seek it (although both processes coexist in all of us, all the time). Positive Psychology, Human Potential, and Spirituality In the larger scheme of postmodern thought, constructivism emphasizes agency, choice, pos- sibility, and complex dynamics. Like the posi- tive psychology that it reflects, constructivism recognizes the central importance of meaning in the quality and continuing emergence of human life. Meaning reflects a basic human need for order, relationship, and hope. These needs are not satisfied without being actively sought, co- created, and nurtured. Contrary to Alexander Pope’s assurance that “hope springs eternal in the human breast,” it is only the seeds of such hope that remain perennial. To flower and bear fruit, they must be carefully tended. I believe that this is where constructivism and positive psychology embrace the promise offered by the world’s spiritual and wisdom traditions. This is not the place to trace the indebtedness of positive or constructivist psychology to Re- naissance humanism, the “mind cure” or “healthy-mindedness” that so fascinated Wil- liam James, the popularity of “positive thinking” (and its contemporary cognitive ex- pressions), or the contributions of humanistic psychology and the human potential move- ment. What does warrant at least brief mention in these closing remarks, however, is the fun- damental resonance among constructivism, pos- itive psychology, and contemporary inquiries into the spiritual dimensions of human experi- ence and meaning-making. Until recently, spir- ituality was an unwelcome topic of discussion in mainstream psychological writing. This has changed dramatically in the past quarter cen- tury. Also changing are the meanings and cor- relates of the term spiritual (Mahoney & Graci, 1999). Where it was once a synonym for reli- gious, the word spiritual has taken on meanings 750 PART X. THE FUTURE OF THE FIELD that echo many of the themes emphasized in positive psychology (e.g., caring, compassion, forgiveness, generosity, hope, love, meaning, nonviolence [peace], responsibility, and wis- dom). Constructivism and positive psychology are not Pollyannaish perspectives. They do not ar- gue that all life stories can end happily or that all life circumstances can be reframed in positive hues. They do, however, encourage an authentic engagement with the living moment, and in this encouragement they share important themes with existential humanism and transpersonal spirituality. A large part of their promise may therefore stem from their openness to a more holistic conceptualization of what it means to be human and to be partially and developmentally conscious. References Anderson, W. T. (1997). The future of the self: In- venting the postmodern person. New York: Tarcher and Putnam. Bartlett, F. C. (1932). Remembering. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Carlson, J., & Sperry, L. (1998). Adlerian psycho- therapy as a constructivist psychotherapy. In M. F. Hoyt (Ed.), The handbook of constructivist therapies (pp. 68–82). San Francisco: Jossey- Bass. Durant, W. (1926). The story of philosophy. Gar- den City, NY: Garden City Publishing. Guidano, V. F. (1987). Complexity of the self. New York: Guilford. Guidano, V. F. (1991). The self in process. New York: Guilford. Hayek, F. A. (1952). The sensory order. Chicago: University of Chicago Press. Hilgard, E. R. (1987). Psychology in America: A historical survey. San Diego, CA: Harcourt Brace Jovanovich. Kelly, G. A. (1955). The psychology of personal constructs. New York: Norton. Mahoney, M. J. (1991). Human change processes. New York: Basic Books. Mahoney, M. J. (2000). Constructive psychother- apy: The heart of positive practice. New York: Guilford. Mahoney, M. J., & Albert, C. J. (1996). Worlds of words: The changing vocabulary of psychology. Constructivism in the Human Sciences, 1(3–4), 22–26. Mahoney, M. J., & Graci, G. M. (1999). The mean- ings and correlates of spirituality: Suggestions from an exploratory survey of experts. Death Studies, 23, 521–528. Mahoney, M. J., & Weimer. W. B. (1994). Fried- rich A. Hayek 1899–1992. American Psycholo- gist, 49, 63. Neimeyer, R. A., & Raskin, J. D. (Eds.). Construc- tions of disorder. Washington, DC: American Psychological Association. Oberst, U. E. (1998). Alfred Adler’s Individual Psychology in the context of constructivism. Constructivism in the Human Sciences, 3, 153– 176. Vaihinger, H. (1911). The philosophy of “as if.” Berlin: Reuther and Reichard. Walsh, R. N. (1999). Essential spirituality. New York: Wiley. Wheelis, A. (1971). The end of the modern age. New York: Harper. 751 55 The Future of Positive Psychology A Declaration of Independence C. R. Snyder & Shane J. Lopez With contributions from Lisa Aspinwall, Barbara L. Fredrickson, Jon Haidt, Dacher Keltner, Christine Robitschek, Michael Wehmeyer, and Amy Wrzesniewski In thinking about preparing this handbook, we were driven by a basic question. What has psy- chology previously contributed to our under- standing of human strengths such as forgive- ness, love, kindness, courage, hope, sharing, caring, cooperation, sacrifice, spirituality, friendship, and so on? The answer, regrettably, is not very much. Although we can debate the underlying causes for the attraction to the “dark side” of human experience, that strikes us as an unproductive exercise. Our focus, we would ar- gue, should be looking into the future of posi- tive psychology. So, what does lie ahead for positive psychol- ogy? That is the question that sparks excitement in both of us because the positive psychology perspective presents opportunities to address philosophical issues (e.g., What is the good life?) and practical questions (e.g., “How do pos- itive emotions affect us over time?”). Positive psychological science could guide us in our pur- suit of mental health at the personal and com- munity levels. Toward this end, over 100 con- tributing scholars in this volume offer their visions of how human strengths can foster health, well-being, and a sense of community. In this chapter, we describe the declaration of independence that has been made from the weakness model in psychology. We have par- titioned this declaration of independence into four parts. The first involves a brief review of what has transpired and its significance; the sec- ond, third, and fourth sections explore issues pertaining to the science, application, and train- ing in positive psychology. Additionally, we have interspersed the views of some emerging leaders in positive psychology at various points in the chapter. On Breaking Away Some have characterized the positive psychol- ogy perspective as a recent phenomenon. Oth- ers see it as a slow accretion of work that has been building for years. In this section, we will 752 PART X. THE FUTURE OF THE FIELD argue that it is probably most accurate to de- scribe the emergence as involving both of these forces. Additionally, we will comment on the practical implications of the growth of positive psychology. The Positive Psychology Movement Positive psychology will not supplant the weak- ness model, but it will grow as a necessary and complementary scientific quest. The study of mental illness and its treatment will continue as researchers delve into the etiology of disorders, the nature of suffering, and the remediation of psychological illness with psychotherapeutic and pharmacological treatments. But should we look only to the weaknesses of people? Con- cerning this lack of balance in our foci, Bandura (1998) observes that we have been “more heav- ily invested in intricate theories of failure than in theories of success” (p. 3). But increasing numbers of social scientists in general, and psy- chologists in particular, agree that the sole focus on human problems is not sufficient (Seligman & Csikszentmihalyi, 2000). There is no need, however, for battles over the superiority of ei- ther the pathology or the strength approach. In- deed, at this juncture of living history, what positive psychology seeks is not so much a con- frontation but rather recognition as a viable, new paradigm—a rigorous science on the posi- tive side of what it means to be human. We would hasten to emphasize that this pos- itive psychology perspective is not a brand-new one (Snyder & McCullough, 2000). Indeed, pi- oneering thinkers over the past several decades have provided compelling exemplars of positive psychology in their theories and research en- deavors. Therefore, what appears to be a phe- nomenon that suddenly jumped into our aware- ness actually has been growing steadily through the efforts of these theorists and bench scien- tists. Consider the names of the authors in this volume. They are recognized, first and fore- most, as being outstanding psychological sci- entists. Although these scientists previously were not called “positive psychologists,” their efforts over the last two decades have laid a strong foundation for the building of this per- spective. It was Martin Seligman who provided a nec- essary spark for positive psychology. From the bully pulpit of his 1998 presidency of the American Psychological Association, he trum- peted the essential principle of positive psy- chology—the need to recognize and study the very best in people (see Seligman, this volume). He did this not once but time and again, in one forum and another, spreading the word about positive psychology. Since that watershed year of 1998, what has happened in regard to the progressive spread of attention to and knowledge about positive psy- chology? Certainly, there have been recent no- table gains. One network television special, ex- changes on National Public Radio, countless articles in magazines and newspapers, two na- tional summits, small gatherings of prominent scholars, and $37 million of funding (Seligman, 2000) (and $300 million being recommended by the surgeon general for mental health research) have attracted attention inside and outside of psychology. It is our view, therefore, that the first stage of a scientific movement—one that we would characterize as a declaration of independence from the pathology model—has been com- pleted. The broader field now realizes that the positive psychology perspective exists. This handbook, which is built on our belief that a vital science and practice of positive psychology should grow alongside the science and practice of the pathology model, is yet another marker of this declaration of independence. The Significance of Adding the Positive Psychology Perspective The pathology model delimits the search for knowledge on at least two levels. First, suppose the psychologist begins the study of a given person or phenomenon within the pathology model, and the evidence begins to point to a human strength issue. With the dominance of the pathology model, the investigator does not pursue the strength. We are reminded here of a common scene in American cowboy movies where the posse is in hot pursuit but must pull up when the suspect rides across the border. With the acceptance of the positive psychology approach, it would be more likely that such boundaries would not halt the pursuit of knowl- edge. Second, even when a psychologist is operat- ing from a strength model and the data clearly point to the scholarly search of human strength, the pathology focus may prevail. Consider the example of the positive psychology researcher who was explaining his struggle to apply his talents and scientific skill to developing an un- CHAPTER 55. THE FUTURE OF POSITIVE PSYCHOLOGY 753 derstanding of optimal health. After sharing a synopsis of two decades of his research, he took questions from the audience. One question is of particular importance in the present context. Namely, this researcher was asked why most of his studies had examined the relationships be- tween “his” positive psychology construct and mental illness. The questioner continued, “Why haven’t you examined the connection to mental health?” First our researcher was puzzled, and then he candidly replied, “I don’t know how to measure health!” The positive psychology perspective also may aid in the discovery of aspects of human nature that previously have been undetected by social scientists. For example, Jon Haidt, who once fo- cused his efforts on researching moral disgust, has become captivated by moral beauty and its effects. His ideas about awe and elevation in particular and about positive emotions more generally exemplify the emergence of positive psychology. The Positive Emotion of Elevation— Jon Haidt The emotions have generally been thought of as self-interest monitors. Emotions force our minds and bodies to care about what’s good for us. Yet it is a curious, beautiful, and under- studied fact about human nature that we can be deeply moved by the sight of a stranger do- ing a good deed for another stranger. I have been studying this emotional response for the past few years, and I find enough similarities in the way people talk about it that I have given it a name: “elevation.” Elevation has most of the hallmarks of a basic emotion: It has an elic- iting condition (acts of moral beauty), a phys- iological effect (something in the chest, proba- bly involving the vagus nerve, which gives a warm, open, and pleasant feeling), and an ac- tion tendency (the desire to be a better person oneself—to be more loving or helpful toward others). Elevation can be best thought of as the opposite of social disgust. Elevation lacks a spe- cific facial expression (which may be why it has not previously been studied), and it is not as discrete as the negative emotions (it appears to overlap with awe, love, and gratitude). So ele- vation is harder to study than emotions such as anger and fear. But it can be studied. On- going research with Sara Algoe and Dacher Keltner finds that this emotional responsiveness to moral beauty can be clearly identified in American sixth graders and in members of non-Western cultures. The exploration of pos- itive emotions such as elevation, awe, and grat- itude is an important area in which positive psychology can reshape and brighten the pic- ture of human nature. In our estimation, the positive psychology per- spective unfetters the search for understanding all aspects of human nature, it opens the eyes of skilled researchers to new questions concern- ing health and well-being, and it sets the stage for future scientific discovery. Breaking Away: Issues for the Science of Positive Psychology In this section, we explore some of the major issues that will be involved in the science of positive psychology in the coming years. Al- though these issues would apply to any rigor- ous new branch of psychological science as it establishes its identity, it is important to discuss these as they apply to positive psychology. Building on Science, Peer Review, and Prudent Claims What is obvious in the previous pages of this volume is that the scholars want to construct a positive psychology on a foundation of scientific principles and methods. All of the advances that have been made in experimental design and so- phisticated statistical analyses within the pa- thology paradigm can be used in the service of positive psychology science. A viable and en- during positive psychology will be founded not on armchair philosophical speculations but rather on carefully crafted hypotheses that can be tested empirically and analyzed with the lat- est statistical procedures. With the spread of positive psychology ex- perimentation, the gatekeepers—the journal ed- itors—will be seeing more studies that explore the strengths of people. When this happens, however, the authors of positive psychology manuscripts should be prepared to have their writing undergo extra scrutiny. Namely, jour- nal editors may well ask that results cast within a positive psychology framework be compared and contrasted with various pathology expla- nations. On this point, Snyder and McCullough (2000) have written about the activities at many 754 PART X. THE FUTURE OF THE FIELD psychology journals in the 1980s that “authors who submitted manuscripts often were forced to prove that their results were not explicable in terms of negative affectivity counter explana- tions [the] prevailing lens through which reality was seen was strongly ruled by the neg- ative affectivity construct to the exclusion of other tenable and more positive constructions” (p. 154). As a new paradigm becomes more successful and gathers proponents, it usually is the case in science that it no longer must be tested rou- tinely in relation to the old paradigm (Kuhn, 1970). We have yet to reach this stage in posi- tive psychology. Thus, in the near future, we must be prepared to have our ideas met with skepticism. There are those who will try to cast positive psychology ideas as being whimsical and lacking in merit. Consider Lisa Aspinwall’s retort to such views. Happier and Wiser: Optimism and Positive Affect Promote Careful Realistic Thinking and Behavior—Lisa Aspinwall Perhaps one of the most important advances that could be made in positive psychology is to incorporate into the field’s thinking the wealth of evidence suggesting that positive beliefs and states foster careful realistic thinking and con- structive behavior (Armor & Taylor, 1998; Ashby, Isen, & Turken, 1999; Aspinwall, 1998, in press; Aspinwall, Richter, & Hoffman, 2000; Isen, 1993). Characterizations of positive think- ing as empty-headed, delusional, wishful, or Pollyannish are at odds with a great deal of evidence suggesting considerable benefits of op- timism and positive affect, including (a) more thorough, efficient, and flexible decision mak- ing, (b) careful attention to negative informa- tion that suggests the possibility of harm or loss, and (c) consistent relations to adaptive coping efforts and good outcomes in a wide range of settings. People can be—and frequently are—both happier and wiser. What are the implications of this assertion for research and application in positive psychology? I believe there are several. First, in our efforts to send Pollyanna home, we should not oversimplify the study of posi- tive beliefs and states. It would be premature— and likely incorrect—to say that all positive be- liefs and states are salutary. Instead, it may be more reasonable to say that one should no longer assume that positive beliefs and states are harmful. Understanding how and when such beliefs are linked to constructive future- oriented behaviors—as well as when they are not—will yield a more nuanced and accurate view (see, e.g., Armor & Taylor, 1998). What is needed in future research are studies in which the nature and consequences of dif- ferent positive states and beliefs are evaluated in diverse and meaningful contexts, such as achievement, development, close relationships, intergroup processes, coping, work, and health (see Aspinwall & Staudinger, in press). An es- sential element of such efforts will be to jettison widespread assumptions regarding the sym- metrical effects of positive and negative affect on cognition and behavior (see Isen, 1993, for discussion). In its strong form, this assumption may yield misleading conclusions—for exam- ple, if depression leads people to think carefully, then happiness must promote careless thinking; or if people in a negative mood are sensitive to risk information in the environment, then peo- ple in a positive mood must be insensitive to it. Again, such conclusions are at odds with a great deal of evidence, yet they frequently in- fluence the design and interpretation of re- search. Across the exciting spectrum of “positive” topics that will be examined in the coming years, efforts to take positive beliefs, feelings, and attributes seriously—and to elucidate their neurological, cognitive, developmental, social, and therapeutic functions in their own right— are likely to yield many findings with impor- tant implications for human health and well- being. In the excitement that may be associated with this new and invigorating approach, it may be tempting to overextrapolate so as to convey a sense of the progress that is being made. This can be even more possible when a person from the news media is almost putting words in our mouths about the supposed discoveries and ad- vances that already have occurred. Contrary to this “breakthrough” mentality, however, sci- ence typically advances in the context of slow, incremental increases in knowledge. Therefore, in the processes of conducting positive psychol- ogy research, getting it published, and describ- ing such work in public forums, researchers must be very careful to make appropriate infer- ences from their data. Claims that go beyond CHAPTER 55. THE FUTURE OF POSITIVE PSYCHOLOGY 755 the data never are appropriate, and they can be especially damaging to the credibility of a new field. When one positive psychologist makes an unwarranted claim, this undermines the trust- worthiness of all positive psychologists and the “movement” more generally. Accordingly, we must carefully monitor both our colleagues and ourselves. The Need for a Classification of Human Strengths Positive psychology needs to have a classifica- tion of human strengths and civic virtues. To be able to measure human strengths not only will facilitate our understanding of those strengths but also will help in our efforts to in- crease these strengths. Classification is abso- lutely crucial to scientific ventures, and, as such, positive psychology must be careful and thor- ough in fulfilling this need. We turn to this and related issues in this section. Classification Systems as Foundations of Science Classifications exist in every scientific disci- pline (recall the periodic table of elements learned in high school chemistry class), and it could be argued that it would be difficult to have a science without a system for categoriz- ing the phenomena being examined. For psy- chology, a classification system is needed to build a greater understanding of psychological strengths, to promote research, and to foster positive psychology practice focused on incul- cating strengths. Though we do not view the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (known as the DSM; American Psy- chiatric Association, 1952, 1968, 1980, 1987, 1994, 2000) system as a good example of a classification system (see Maddux, this vol- ume), it has served as a profoundly influential framework for the research and practice arms of psychology. The new system in positive psychology will have to gain widespread accep- tance of the same level as that exhibited by the DSM. A Classification System in Development Developing a classification system is a daunting task that involves the collaboration of experts, along with field testing in practice communities. The skills of psychologists are being put to good use as Christopher Peterson, Martin Seligman, and a team of consultants develop a classifica- tion system for strengths. In an early draft of this taxonomy, Peterson and Seligman (2000) wrote: “Psychology is not the only field now concerned with the striving and thriving end of the human continuum psychology has come late to this perspective. The unique con- tribution of psychology to the study of positive traits, we believe, is its century-old concern with the measurement of individual differ- ences” (p. 3). By the time this handbook is published, this classification system may be completed; more- over, it may serve positive psychology in a manner akin to how the DSM has served the pathology model. In the interim, however, it is not as if we are lacking in theory-based, indi- vidual differences measures that tap the most visible constructs in the field. Indeed, we al- ready have several such measures. We turn next to the role of individual differences in positive psychology. Individual Differences Brief Measures of Positive Psychological Constructs Based on the chapters in this handbook, it ap- pears that there already have been strides made in the measurement of individual differences in various positive psychology constructs. Even at this early stage in the positive psychology movement, scholars have established sophisti- cated and well-articulated theories, along with the accompanying reliable and valid self-report indices. Personal Growth Initiative— Christine Robitschek Personal Growth Initiative (PGI; Robitschek, 1998, 1999) is defined as active, intentional involvement in changing and developing as a person. Not only must the growth or change be in the person’s awareness; it also must be an intentional process. People who have high levels of PGI recognize and capitalize on opportunities for personal growth. They also seek out and create situations that will fa- cilitate their growth. In contrast, people with low levels of PGI have little or no awareness that they are changing and might actively 756 PART X. THE FUTURE OF THE FIELD avoid situations that might challenge them to grow. The Personal Growth Initiative Scale (PGIS; Robitschek, 1998, 1999) measures this con- struct. Research to date has supported a unitary factor structure and strong internal consistency and construct validity. No significant differ- ences have been found on mean scores for the PGIS between women and men or between eth- nic minority and majority groups. Scores on the PGIS are positively related to assertiveness, internal locus of control, instrumentality, and growth that is in awareness and intentional. Also, PGI appears to be related to environmen- tal career exploration and vocational identity (Robitschek & Cook, 1999). When PGI was combined with another measure of personal growth (Ryff, 1989), the latent construct of per- sonal growth orientation fully mediated the re- lation of family functioning to psychological distress (Robitschek & Kashubeck, 1999). We have hypothesized that PGI (i.e., including a willingness to change and grow) might protect against psychological distress when stressful events occur and might lead people to seek help earlier in the process of experiencing psycho- logical distress, thus reducing the extent and ef- fects of distress. Research is under way to ex- amine these hypotheses. Additional current research is testing the validity of the PGI con- struct with an ethnic minority population and is distinguishing between PGI, openness to ex- perience, and risk-taking attitudes. PGI appears to be an important construct that is related to many aspects of human behavior. Having such instruments available should help to bring further attention to the positive psy- chology approach as researchers increasingly use these measures of strength, health, and well-being in their studies. Indeed, because of the ease of giving these questionnaires, we pre- dict an outpouring of instrument-driven re- search (Snyder, 1997). Although considerable research has been conducted on the moderation and mediation roles of weakness-oriented individual differ- ences measures such as depression, neuroti- cism, and hostility, there has been relatively little work on strength-oriented variables as moderators (Snyder & Pulvers, 2001). Accord- ingly, the role of positive psychology individ- ual differences as moderators and mediators should receive increasing attention as the 21st century unfolds. The “Other” Positive Psychology Variables Just as there have been psychological variables wherein the associated individual differences variable have been examined, there also are in- dividual differences in nonpsychological “re- sources” that warrant our positive psychology attention. These “other” variables often are tapped in the demographics portion of various questionnaires. In this list of beneficial individ- ual differences, we would call the reader’s at- tention to higher income and education (Diener, 1984; Veroff, Douvan, & Kulka, 1981), higher socioeconomic status (Dohrenwend, 1998; Pear- lin, 1989; Wills & DePaulo, 1991), and better physical health (Williamson, Parmelee, & Shaf- fer, 2000). Positive psychology would be well advised to embrace these concepts, as well as environmental variables (see Wright and Lopez, this volume), as being part of our territory in plotting the strengths of people. Of interest would be research on the predictive powers of these variables for important life outcomes, as well as how these variables moderate or mediate other relationships of interest. Unique Aspects of Optimal Functioning In advancing positive psychology constructs and their associated individual differences instru- ments, it will be important to learn a lesson from problems that emerged in the pathology model. In particular, there has been a prolifer- ation of pathology concepts without the appro- priate attention to how those concepts are sim- ilar to, and different from, existing ones. Positive psychology researchers must constrain their natural tendencies to see their constructs as unique (Snyder & Fromkin, 1980). What this means is that greater attention needs to be paid to the overlap of constructs so as to ascertain shared operative processes and the shared vari- ance in optimal functioning. Furthermore, pos- itive psychology researchers must document the discriminant validity of their measures. Thus, the proliferation of positive psychology ideas and measures should proceed with careful at- tention to what is common or shared, as well as what is unique. Sampling Issues At the risk of oversimplification, the positive psychology research to date may be falling into [...]... devoted to positive psychology perspectives Likewise, as with the scholarly and educational evolution of any area, there will need to be books that give voice to the key ideas in positive psychology, as well as journals that serve as outlets for research All of these matters, and more, are necessary for the proper education in positive psychology The Future of Positive Psychology Barbara Fredrickson Positive. .. crucial arena for fostering the tenets of positive psychology For these reasons, and countless others, the family should capture the attentions of positive psychology researchers Positive psychology also should open its doors to child psychology and any other discipline that focuses on research aimed at understanding and promoting the welfare of children The training of clinical child psychologists, for... that positive psychology can and should embrace Breaking Away: Issues for Training in Positive Psychology For decades, psychology students have been taught about human foibles, and the pathology model spread across generations of young, malleable minds In turn, those students took academic and applied jobs and imparted the same psychology of the negative to their intellectual offspring The positive psychology. .. the science and applications of positive psychology principles Obviously, there will be an ongoing need for streams of funding related to positive psychology research and action programs Similarly, it will be crucial to keep policy makers and the general public apprised of the usefulness of positive psychology research and applications Broadening the Philosophy and Scope of Practice There is a saying... October) Positive psychology: A progress report Presented at the Second Positive Psychology Summit, Washington, DC Seligman, M E P., & Csikszentmihalyi, M (2000) Positive psychology: An introduction American Psychologist, 55, 5–14 Snyder, C R (1977) “A patient by any other name” revisited: Maladjustment or attributional locus of problem? Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 45, 101 103 Snyder,...CHAPTER 55 THE FUTURE OF POSITIVE PSYCHOLOGY a sampling pattern of emphasizing Caucasian college students as research participants In a recent survey that we (Snyder, Tennen, Affleck, & Cheavens, 2000) conducted of 100 articles taken from the 1998 issues of six journals that provide major outlets for positive psychology research, the percentages of research participants recruited for... THE FUTURE OF POSITIVE PSYCHOLOGY utilitarian approaches that have shaped social psychology, humans were rational seekers of outcomes that maximize self-interest—an assumption that is echoed in certain versions of evolutionary psychology Other branches of psychology have placed greater emphasis on the negative: We study aggression and not peace-making; we study negative emotion and not positive emotion;... dissatisfaction and dissolution rather than satisfaction These, of course, are just assumptions about human nature Positive psychology offers an alternative, scientific approach to human nature In many ways it has the power of the cognitive revolution in psychology, which simply raised the question of how thought guides behavior Positive psychology asks about positive human nature This emphasis is already producing... same will be necessary for internships in positive psychology Clinical, counseling, personality, and social psychology programs, or interfaces of scholars from two or more such programs, offer possible arenas for the teaching of positive psychology at the graduate level To further awareness, however, there will need to be undergraduate courses in positive psychology At the organizational level, there... weakness model of psychology can foster a passive, avoidant approach to life Positive psychology, on the other hand, starts with the premise that human beings have an immense storehouse of remarkable talents and skills Many of these strengths, however, have lain fallow as we implicitly accept a passive view about human capabilities What positive psychology offers is a more comprehensive view of humankind . as involving both of these forces. Additionally, we will comment on the practical implications of the growth of positive psychology. The Positive Psychology Movement Positive psychology will not. fostering the tenets of positive psychology. For these reasons, and countless others, the family should capture the attentions of positive psychology researchers. Positive psychology also should. for the proper education in positive psychology. The Future of Positive Psychology Barbara Fredrickson Positive psychology shows tremendous prom- ise. Although many of the ideas central to the field