• The topic/subject is what the passage is about. • The main idea is the overall fact, feeling, or thought a writer wants to convey about his or her subject. Topic vs. Main Idea 73 c. Utilitarianism is flawed as a foundation for moral action. d. Utilitarianism is often used to determine social policy. The only answer that can be correct is c, because it is the only idea that is general enough to hold together all of the information in the paragraph. Choices a and b are both too specific to be the main idea; they are not broad enough to cover all of the ideas in the passage, which discusses three different problems with utilitarianism, including the problems cited in choices a and b. Choice d is a contrasting idea used to introduce the main idea of the sentence, and how utilitarianism is used to determine social policy is not even discussed in this paragraph, so the idea expressed in d certainly does not hold together the entire paragraph. Only choice c is general enough to cover every sentence in the paragraph. It makes a general statement that all of the sentences in the paragraph work to support. The kind of texts you will see on the GMAT exam — and, in fact, most of the texts you will read in grad- uate school — will follow this basic pattern of general idea → specific support. That is, the writer will state the main idea he or she wants to convey about the topic and then provide support for that idea, usually in the form of specific facts and details. This works on both the paragraph and essay level. That is, in an essay, each paragraph should work to support the overall main idea (thesis) of the text. But each paragraph should also have its own main idea (in support of the thesis), and each sentence within that paragraph should work to support that main idea. This can be outlined as follows: Thesis: overall main idea (general assertion about subject) Paragraph 1 Main idea (general assertion in support of thesis) Supporting sentence (specific fact or detail supporting main idea) Supporting sentence (specific fact or detail supporting main idea) Supporting sentence (specific fact or detail supporting main idea) Paragraph 2 Main idea (general assertion in support of thesis) Supporting sentence (specific fact or detail supporting main idea) Supporting sentence (specific fact or detail supporting main idea) Supporting sentence (specific fact or detail supporting main idea) Supporting sentence (specific fact or detail supporting main idea) Paragraph 3 Main idea (general assertion in support of thesis) Supporting sentence (specific fact or detail supporting main idea) Supporting sentence (specific fact or detail supporting main idea) Of course, not all texts will have such a clear-cut organization, but this is the basic underlying structure of most nonfiction writing. Distinguishing Main Ideas from Supporting Ideas When you are dealing with short passages like those you will find on the GMAT exam, you can often distin- guish between a main idea and a supporting idea by asking the following question: Is the sentence making a general statement, or is it providing specific information? In the following passage, for example, most of the sentences are too specific to be the main idea of the passage. Only one sentence — the second — is general enough to serve as an umbrella or net for the whole paragraph. A dyad is a face-to-face relationship between two people. Human beings are drawn to dyadic rela- tionships, and many social theorists believe that humans are incapable of having triadic relation- ships (relationships consisting of three equal partners). They believe that the introduction of a third individual to a dyad either (a) strengthens the original dyad, thereby excluding the new- comer, or (b) creates a new dyad between the new arrival and one of the original dyad members, thereby excluding the other original dyad member. It is this unique feature of human interaction that can create stress when a new baby is intro- duced into a relationship between two parents or caregivers. When the new baby arrives, the result is usually the creation of a new dyad between the baby and its primary caregiver. Establishing such a relationship is, of course, imperative to the baby’s development. However, the partner left out of this new, loving dyad may feel a sense of abandonment or even harbor a secret resentment. It is, therefore, important for the parents to carve out time alone together, so they can re-establish their original dyadic relationship—if only temporarily. Notice how the second sentence makes a general claim about dyads: that social theorists believe humans are incapable of having triadic relationships. Then the rest of the sentences in the passage provide details and specific facts that support the main idea. Indeed, the entire second paragraph, with its example of the mother- father-child triad, supports this assertion. Notice that the first sentence of the second paragraph is also the topic sentence of that paragraph: It is this unique feature of human interaction that can create stress when a new baby is introduced into a relationship between two parents or caregivers. All of the sentences in that paragraph support the idea that a baby creates stress in the original dyad. Locating the Main Idea When main ideas are stated in thesis statements or topic sentences, they are often located at the beginning of the passage or paragraph. However, thesis statements are sometimes found at the end of the introductory paragraph of an essay. Topic sentences are often the first sentence in a paragraph because writers often follow – READING COMPREHENSION– 74 Writers often provide clues that can help you distinguish between main ideas and their support. The following transitions are some of the most common words and phrases used to introduce specific examples: for example for instance in particular in addition furthermore some others specifically Look for these transitions to help distinguish between main and supporting ideas. Transitional Words 75 the general ( specific principle for organizing ideas and information, but this is certainly not always the case. Sometimes writers begin with specific supporting ideas and lead up to the main idea. In this case, the topic sentence would probably be at or near the end of the paragraph, as in the following revision of the second paragraph from the dyad passage: When a new baby is introduced into a relationship between two parents or caregivers, the result is usually the creation of a new dyad between the baby and its primary caregiver. Establishing such a relationship is, of course, imperative to the baby’s development. However, the partner left out of this new, loving dyad may feel a sense of abandonment or even harbor a secret resentment. This unique feature of human interaction can create stress between the members of the original dyad. It is therefore important for the parents to carve out time alone together so they can re-establish their original dyadic relationship — if only temporarily. Of course, sometimes a topic sentence is neither at the beginning of a paragraph nor at the end, but rather somewhere in the middle; other times, the passage does not have a topic sentence at all. But that does not mean the paragraph does not have a main idea; it just means that the author has chosen not to state that idea explicitly. Skilled writers know the power of suggestion, and they know they can get an idea across with- out directly saying it. Most questions about determining the main idea on the GMAT exam will probably ask you to identify the overall main idea of the passage, not just the main idea of a paragraph. Writers often state their overall main idea, but thesis statements (especially in test passages) are not quite as common as topic sentences in paragraphs. You will often have to look carefully at the answer options and decide which of those ideas best encompasses all of the ideas in the passage. You can ask yourself these questions to help determine the best answer for main idea questions: ■ Which option states an idea that sums up all of the ideas in the passage? ■ Which idea can serve as a net or umbrella for the passage, including all of the ideas that are discussed? ■ What do all of the sentences in the passage add up to? Vocabulary Words for the GMAT Exam As noted earlier, vocabulary is not tested directly on the GMAT exam, but your knowledge of vocabulary will be tested indirectly by your ability to understand passages on the exam. Because of the academic nature of the passages on the test, you can expect to find the following types of words: • words about ideas: for example, contention, extrapolate, fallacy, and substantiate • words about actions: for example, coalesce, levy, mediate, placate, sanction, and stipulate • words about attitudes: for example, belligerent, complaisant, impetuous, pedestrian, and wary • words about communication and expression: for example, aver, diatribe, euphemism, and mandate You will not be expected to know specific business-related terms beyond those in a general college-level vocab- ulary. For example, you should know what the term arbitrate means, but you will not be expected to know the meaning of arbitrage. To build your vocabulary for the GMAT exam, do the following: • Practice determining the meaning of unfamiliar words in context. • Maintain your own vocabulary list and review it regularly. • Study prefixes, suffixes, and word roots. Many GMAT-level words have Latin or Greek word roots, and knowing these word bases and common beginnings and endings can give you an edge in determining the meaning of unfamiliar words. Chapter 10 includes a list of some of the most common prefixes, suffixes, and word roots. 76 Distinguishing between Fact and Opinion Often, your ability to answer a reading comprehension question correctly will depend upon your ability to distinguish between fact and opinion.You may need to determine whether an author thinks something is true or whether the author knows something to be true to determine the main idea or draw logical conclusions about the text. First, here is a auick review of definitions. A fact is something known for certain to have happened, to be true, or to exist. An opinion, on the other hand, is something believed to have happened, to be true, or to exist. The key difference between fact and opinion lies in the difference between believing and knowing.Opin- ions may be based on facts, but they are still what people think and believe, not what they know. Opinions are debatable; facts are not. Two different people would have a hard time debating a fact, but they could debate forever about which opinion is more valid. Note that people can also debate about how to interpret facts, but they would have to agree on the facts themselves. A good test for whether something is fact or opinion is to ask yourself two questions: • Can this statement be debated? • Is this something known to be true? If you can answer yes to the first question, it is probably an opinion. If you can answer yes to the second question, it is probably a fact. In addition, consider the nature of the claim. If the statement is prescriptive—if it is describing what some- one should or ought to do—then the statement is an opinion, as in the following examples: • You should try advertising on the radio. •We ought to offer a better severance package. •I had better confirm this appointment before I book a flight. Words that show judgment or evaluation, like good, bad, interesting, and important, usually also signal an opin- ion. Here are some examples: • She is a great motivator. • This was the most significant development in the history of science. • The debate between the candidates was fascinating. Fact or Opinion? 77 Consider this example: Employee benefits should include coverage for “alternative medicines” such as acupuncture and mas- sage therapy. This statement is clearly debatable and could be argued either way. In an effective argument, this opin- ion would be supported by and based upon facts. For example, if you had chronic back pain that was not alle- viated by traditional medical approaches but that disappeared after three weeks of acupuncture, you could use this fact to support your opinion. In addition, you could cite the fact that the alleviation of pain saved your insurance company hundreds to thousands of dollars in additional visits to back pain specialists and other medical practitioners. You might also cite statistics, such as a recent survey that showed more than 60% of patients with chronic back pain reported relief after one month of acupuncture. These facts, which are non- debatable, would support your opinion, making it more reasonable and therefore more valid. It is easy to see how this information is relevant to the critical-reasoning questions (which ask you to evaluate arguments) and the AWA questions (which ask you to write your own argument). It is also relevant to reading comprehension questions because knowing the author’s opinion and how the author supports that opinion can help you draw appropriate conclusions from the text. You can then answer questions such as the following: The passage implies that the author a. has insurance that covers alternative treatments. b. believes alternative treatments are more effective than traditional medicine. c. has other medical problems besides back pain. d. believes alternative treatments are best for psychosomatic disorders. e. thinks covering alternative treatments could save insurers millions of dollars. The correct answer is e — an opinion based on the facts of her experience of relief after a few treatments, ending her medical costs for that ailment; the fact that so many others experienced the same kind of quick relief; and the simple fact of the exorbitant costs of specialty treatments and extended care. Identifying Specific Facts and Details On standardized tests, you will often be asked to identify specific facts and details from what you read. The idea behind this kind of question is not for you to memorize everything in the passage. Rather, these ques- tions test (1) how carefully you read and (2) your ability to know where to look for specific information within a passage. If you read carefully, you are more likely to draw logical conclusions from the text; and if you know where to look for specific information, you are more likely to have a good understanding of how the text is organized and the relationship between ideas in the text. Thus, although these questions may seem unso- phisticated, they lay the groundwork for more sophisticated reading skills. For example, take another look at the following paragraph and question from the pretest: Utilitarianism is an ethical theory based upon the belief that happiness is the ultimate good and that people should use happiness as the measure for determining right and wrong. For utilitari- ans, the right thing to do is that which will bring about the greatest amount of happiness for the greatest number of people. Furthermore, utilitarianism argues that the intention of people’s actions does not matter; only the consequences of their actions are morally relevant, because only the con- sequences determine how much happiness is produced. According to the passage, in utilitarianism a. only intentions have moral significance. b. consequences are important, but intentions are more important. c. intentions and consequences are equally important. d. intentions are important, but consequences are more important. e. only consequences have moral significance. – READING COMPREHENSION– 78 . the GMAT Exam As noted earlier, vocabulary is not tested directly on the GMAT exam, but your knowledge of vocabulary will be tested indirectly by your ability to understand passages on the exam. . words about ideas: for example, contention, extrapolate, fallacy, and substantiate • words about actions: for example, coalesce, levy, mediate, placate, sanction, and stipulate • words about. they can get an idea across with- out directly saying it. Most questions about determining the main idea on the GMAT exam will probably ask you to identify the overall main idea of the passage,