Unit Quantity Symbol Equivalents Rod, square Area rd 2 25.293 square meters 30.25 square yards 0.00625 acre Second Time s or sec 1 ⁄60 minute 1 ⁄3600 hour Tablespoon Volume/capacity T or tb 3 teaspoons 4 fluid drams Teaspoon Volume/capacity t or tsp 0.33 tablespoon 1.33 fluid drams Ton (gross or long) Mass/weight t 2,240 pounds 1.12 net tons 1.016 metric tons Ton (metric) Mass/weight t 1,000 kilograms 2,204.62 pounds 0.984 gross ton 1.102 net tons Ton (net or short) Mass/weight t 2,000 pounds 0.893 gross ton 0.907 metric ton Volt Electric potential V 1 joule per coulomb Watt Power W 1 joule per second 0.001 kilowatt 2.84345136093995 × 10 –4 ton of refrigeration Yard Length yd 0.9144 meter Yard, cubic Volume/capacity yd 3 0.765 cubic meter Yard, square Area yd 2 0.836 square meter lxiv Global Resources Complete List of Contents Volume 1 Publisher’s Note . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . v Contributors. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ix Contents . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . xiii Common Units of Measure . . . . . . . . . . . . xv Complete List of Contents . . . . . . . . . . . . xxi Abrasives . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 Acid precipitation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3 Aerial photography . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5 Agenda 21 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7 Aggregates . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8 Agricultural products . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13 Agriculture industry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16 Agronomy. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21 Air pollution and air pollution control . . . . . . 22 Alaska pipeline . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27 Alloys . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28 Aluminum . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30 American Chemistry Council . . . . . . . . . . . 35 American Farm Bureau Federation . . . . . . . . 36 American Forest and Paper Association. . . . . . 37 American Gas Association . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37 American Mining Congress . . . . . . . . . . . . 38 American Petroleum Institute . . . . . . . . . . . 39 Animal breeding . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39 Animal domestication . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42 Animal power. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47 Animals as a medical resource. . . . . . . . . . . 50 Antarctic treaties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 52 Antimony . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 54 Antiquities Act . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 56 Aquifers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 57 Argentina . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 59 Army Corps of Engineers, U.S. . . . . . . . . . . 65 Arsenic . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 66 Asbestos. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 68 Asphalt . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 73 Aspinall, Wayne. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 75 Astor, John Jacob . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 76 Athabasca oil sands. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 77 Atmosphere. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 79 Atomic Energy Acts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 83 Atomic Energy Commission . . . . . . . . . . . . 84 Australia . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 85 Austria . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 90 Barite . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 96 Belgium . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 97 Beryllium . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 101 Bessemer process . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 103 Biodiversity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 104 Biofuels . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 108 Biological invasions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 112 Biomes. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 114 Biopyriboles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 117 Biosphere . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 119 Biosphere reserves . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 121 Biotechnology. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 124 Bismuth . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 129 Borax . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 130 Boron . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 133 Botany . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 135 Brass . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 136 Brazil. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 136 Brick . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 142 Bromine . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 142 Bronze . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 145 Buildings and appliances, energy-efficient . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 146 Bureau of Land Management, U.S. . . . . . . . 152 Bureau of Mines, U.S . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 153 Bureau of Reclamation, U.S. . . . . . . . . . . . 155 Cadmium . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 157 Calcium compounds . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 160 Canada. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 162 Canadian Environmental Protection Act . . . . 167 Canning and refrigeration of food. . . . . . . . 168 Capitalism and resource exploitation . . . . . . 169 Carbon. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 172 Carbon cycle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 174 Carbon fiber and carbon nanotubes. . . . . . . 176 Carbonate minerals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 179 Carnegie, Andrew. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 181 Carson, Rachel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 182 Carter, Jimmy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 182 Carver, George Washington . . . . . . . . . . . 183 Cement and concrete. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 184 Central Arizona Project. . . . . . . . . . . . . . 187 Ceramics. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 188 Cesium. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 190 lxv Chernobyl nuclear accident . . . . . . . . . . . 191 Chile . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 192 China . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 197 Chlorites. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 202 Chromium. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 202 Civilian Conservation Corps . . . . . . . . . . . 205 Clays . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 207 Clean Air Act . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 210 Clean Water Act. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 211 Clear-cutting. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 212 Climate and resources . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 213 Climate Change and Sustainable Energy Act . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 216 Coal . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 217 Coal gasification and liquefaction . . . . . . . . 224 Coast and Geodetic Survey, U.S. . . . . . . . . . 226 Coastal engineering. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 227 Coastal Zone Management Act. . . . . . . . . . 229 Cobalt . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 230 Cogeneration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 232 Commoner, Barry. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 232 Composting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 233 Congo, Democratic Republic of the . . . . . . . 235 Conservation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 239 Conservation biology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 246 Conservation International . . . . . . . . . . . 248 Consultative Group on International Agricultural Research . . . . . . . . . . . . . 249 Copper. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 250 Coral reefs. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 255 Corn . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 258 Corundum and emery . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 261 Cotton . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 262 Council of Energy Resource Tribes . . . . . . . 264 Crystals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 265 Daly, Marcus. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 269 Dams. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 269 Deep drilling projects. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 273 Deep ecology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 276 Deforestation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 277 Deltas . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 282 Denmark . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 283 Department of Agriculture, U.S. . . . . . . . . . 287 Department of Energy, U.S. . . . . . . . . . . . 289 Department of the Interior, U.S . . . . . . . . 291 Department of Transportation, U.S. . . . . . . . 293 Desalination plants and technology . . . . . . . 294 Desertification. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 295 Deserts. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 299 Developing countries . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 301 Diamond . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 305 Diatomite . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 309 Dimension stone . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 313 Dow, Herbert H. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 315 Drought . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 316 Dust Bowl . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 318 Dynamite . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 320 Earth First! . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 321 Earth Summit . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 321 Earthquakes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 323 Earth’s crust. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 324 Earthwatch Institute . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 326 Ecology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 327 Ecosystem services . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 331 Ecosystems. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 334 Ecozones and biogeographic realms. . . . . . . 338 Edison, Thomas . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 340 Edison Electric Institute . . . . . . . . . . . . . 341 El Niño and La Niña . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 342 Electrical power . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 343 Endangered species. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 348 Endangered Species Act . . . . . . . . . . . . . 353 Energy economics. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 357 Energy Policy Act . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 361 Energy politics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 362 Energy storage . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 367 Volume 2 Contents . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . xxxv Common Units of Measure . . . . . . . . . . xxxvii Complete List of Contents . . . . . . . . . . . . xliii Environment and Natural Resources Division. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 371 Environmental biotechnology . . . . . . . . . . 372 Environmental degradation, resource exploitation and . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 375 Environmental engineering . . . . . . . . . . . 379 Environmental ethics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 381 Environmental impact statement . . . . . . . . 384 Environmental law in the United States . . . . . 384 Environmental movement . . . . . . . . . . . . 390 lxvi Global Resources Environmental Protection Agency . . . . . . . . 394 Erosion and erosion control . . . . . . . . . . . 398 Ethanol . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 400 European Union Natura 2000 . . . . . . . . . . 404 Eutrophication . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 406 Evaporites . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 406 Exclusive economic zones . . . . . . . . . . . . 407 Exxon Valdez oil spill . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 408 Farmland . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 410 Federal Energy Regulatory Commission. . . . . 413 Federalism and resource management . . . . . 414 Feldspars. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 417 Fermi, Enrico . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 420 Ferroalloys. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 421 Fertilizers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 423 Fiberglass . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 425 Fires . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 426 Fish and Wildlife Service, U.S. . . . . . . . . . . 429 Fisheries . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 430 Flax . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 438 Floods and flood control . . . . . . . . . . . . . 441 Fluorite . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 446 Food chain . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 447 Food shortages . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 449 Ford, Henry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 453 Forest fires. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 454 Forest management. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 456 Forest Service, U.S. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 458 Forestry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 461 Forests . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 464 France . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 467 Freeze-drying of food . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 471 Friends of the Earth International. . . . . . . . 472 Fuel cells. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 472 Gallium . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 475 Garnet . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 476 Gases, inert or noble . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 477 Gasoline and other petroleum fuels . . . . . . . 480 Gems. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 482 General Mining Law . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 487 Genetic diversity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 488 Genetic prospecting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 490 Genetic resources . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 490 Geochemical cycles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 494 Geodes. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 497 Geographic information systems. . . . . . . . . 498 Geology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 500 Geothermal and hydrothermal energy . . . . . 503 Germanium . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 510 Germany. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 511 Getty, J. Paul. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 516 Geysers and hot springs. . . . . . . . . . . . . . 516 Glaciation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 518 Glass . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 520 Global Strategy for Plant Conservation . . . . . 523 Global 200. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 524 Gneiss . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 524 Gold . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 525 Gore, Al . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 530 Granite . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 531 Graphite . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 532 Grasslands . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 535 Greece . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 538 Green Revolution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 542 Greenhouse gases and global climate change . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 544 Greenpeace . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 548 Groundwater . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 548 Guano . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 550 Guggenheim family . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 552 Gypsum . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 553 Haber-Bosch process . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 556 Hall, Charles Martin . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 557 Hall-Héroult process . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 558 Hazardous waste disposal. . . . . . . . . . . . . 558 Health, resource exploitation and . . . . . . . . 563 Helium . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 568 Hemp . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 570 Herbicides. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 573 Hill, James Jerome . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 575 Horticulture. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 576 Hydroenergy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 579 Hydrogen . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 583 Hydrology and the hydrologic cycle . . . . . . . 585 Hydroponics. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 588 Hydrothermal solutions and mineralization . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 590 Ickes, Harold . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 592 Igneous processes, rocks, and mineral deposits. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 592 Incineration of wastes. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 597 India . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 600 Indium. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 605 Indonesia . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 606 Industrial Revolution and industrialization . . . 610 Integrated Ocean Drilling Program . . . . . . . 615 lxvii Complete List of Contents Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change. . . 615 Internal combustion engine . . . . . . . . . . . 617 International Association for Impact Assessment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 619 International Atomic Energy Agency . . . . . . 620 International Union for Conservation of Nature . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 621 Iodine . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 621 Iran . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 623 Iron . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 628 Irrigation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 634 Isotopes, radioactive . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 636 Isotopes, stable . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 639 Italy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 641 Ivory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 645 Izaak Walton League of America. . . . . . . . . 648 Jackson, Wes. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 649 Japan. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 650 Kaiser, Henry J. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 655 Kazakhstan . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 655 Kyanite. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 660 Kyoto Protocol . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 662 Lakes. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 664 Land ethic . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 667 Land Institute . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 668 Land management . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 670 Land-use planning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 673 Land-use regulation and control. . . . . . . . . 675 Landfills . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 677 Landsat satellites and satellite technologies . . . 680 Law of the sea . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 685 Leaching. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 686 Lead . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 688 Leopold, Aldo. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 692 Lime . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 693 Limestone . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 695 Lithium . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 697 Lithosphere . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 698 Livestock and animal husbandry. . . . . . . . . 699 Los Angeles Aqueduct . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 702 Maathai, Wangari . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 704 McCormick, Cyrus Hall. . . . . . . . . . . . . . 705 Magma crystallization. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 706 Magnesium . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 708 Magnetic materials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 712 Manganese . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 713 Manhattan Project . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 716 Manufacturing, energy use in . . . . . . . . . . 717 Marble . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 720 Marine mining . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 722 Marine vents. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 724 Mercury . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 725 Metals and metallurgy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 728 Metamictization . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 731 Metamorphic processes, rocks, and mineral deposits . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 732 Methane . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 738 Methanol . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 739 Mexico. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 741 Mica . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 745 Volume 3 Contents . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . lvii Common Units of Measure . . . . . . . . . . . . lix Mineral Leasing Act. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 747 Mineral resource ownership . . . . . . . . . . . 747 Mineral resource use, early history of . . . . . . 752 Minerals, structure and physical properties of . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 756 Minerals Management Service . . . . . . . . . . 762 Mining safety and health issues . . . . . . . . . 763 Mining wastes and mine reclamation . . . . . . 767 Mittal, Lakshmi . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 770 Mohs hardness scale . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 771 Molybdenum . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 772 Monoculture agriculture . . . . . . . . . . . . . 775 Monsoons . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 777 Montreal Protocol . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 780 Muir, John. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 783 Multiple-use approach . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 785 National Audubon Society . . . . . . . . . . . . 788 National Biological Service. . . . . . . . . . . . 788 National Environmental Policy Act . . . . . . . 790 National Mining Association . . . . . . . . . . . 791 National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 791 National Park Service. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 793 National Parks Act, Canadian . . . . . . . . . . 795 National parks and nature reserves . . . . . . . 796 National Wildlife Federation . . . . . . . . . . . 801 Global Resources lxviii Native elements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 801 Natural capital . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 802 Natural Resources Canada . . . . . . . . . . . . 803 Natural Resources Conservation Service . . . . 804 Natural Resources Defense Council . . . . . . . 806 Nature Conservancy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 806 The Netherlands . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 807 Nickel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 813 Niobium . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 816 Nitrogen and ammonia. . . . . . . . . . . . . . 818 Nitrogen cycle. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 821 Nobel, Alfred . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 823 Norris, George W . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 825 Norway . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 826 Nuclear energy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 830 Nuclear Energy Institute . . . . . . . . . . . . . 836 Nuclear Regulatory Commission. . . . . . . . . 837 Nuclear waste and its disposal . . . . . . . . . . 838 Ocean current energy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 843 Ocean thermal energy conversion . . . . . . . . 844 Ocean wave energy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 846 Oceanography. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 848 Oceans. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 849 Oil and natural gas chemistry . . . . . . . . . . 856 Oil and natural gas distribution . . . . . . . . . 858 Oil and natural gas drilling and wells . . . . . . 861 Oil and natural gas exploration . . . . . . . . . 864 Oil and natural gas formation . . . . . . . . . . 867 Oil and natural gas reservoirs . . . . . . . . . . 869 Oil embargo and energy crises of 1973 and 1979 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 872 Oil industry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 875 Oil shale and tar sands . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 879 Oil spills . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 881 Olivine. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 883 Open-pit mining . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 884 Ophiolites . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 887 Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 888 Organization of Arab Petroleum Exporting Countries . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 890 Organization of Petroleum Exporting Countries . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 890 Orthosilicate minerals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 893 Overgrazing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 894 Oxides . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 897 Oxygen . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 898 Ozone layer and ozone hole debate . . . . . . . 900 Paper . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 904 Paper, alternative sources of . . . . . . . . . . . 909 Peak oil . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 911 Peat . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 913 Pegmatites. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 916 Perlite . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 917 Peru . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 918 Pesticides and pest control . . . . . . . . . . . . 923 Petrochemical products . . . . . . . . . . . . . 925 Petroleum refining and processing . . . . . . . 928 Phosphate . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 931 Phosphorus cycle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 932 Photovoltaic cells . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 934 Pinchot, Gifford. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 937 Placer deposits . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 938 Plant domestication and breeding . . . . . . . . 941 Plant fibers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 943 Plants as a medical resource . . . . . . . . . . . 945 Plate tectonics. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 948 Platinum and the platinum group metals . . . . 951 Plutonic rocks and mineral deposits . . . . . . . 954 Plutonium . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 956 Poland . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 958 Population growth . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 963 Portugal . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 965 Potash . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 969 Powell, John Wesley. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 971 Primary production. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 972 Primary sector. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 974 Propane . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 977 Public lands . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 978 Public trust doctrine . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 983 Pumice. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 984 Quarrying . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 986 Quartz . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 987 Radium . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 990 Rain forests . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 992 Ramsar Convention. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 996 Rangeland . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 997 Rare earth elements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 999 Reclamation Act . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1000 Recycling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1001 Reforestation. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1005 Remote sensing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1007 Renewable and nonrenewable resources. . . . 1010 Reserve Mining controversy. . . . . . . . . . . 1012 Residual mineral deposits . . . . . . . . . . . . 1013 lxix Complete List of Contents Resource accounting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1015 Resource Conservation and Recovery Act . . . 1017 Resource curse. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1019 Resources as a medium of economic exchange . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1020 Resources as a source of international conflict . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1023 Resources for the Future . . . . . . . . . . . . 1027 Rhenium . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1028 Rhodes, Cecil . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1029 Rice. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1030 Risk assessment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1031 Rockefeller, John D. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1034 Roosevelt, Franklin D. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1035 Roosevelt, Theodore . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1036 Rubber, natural . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1036 Rubber, synthetic . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1041 Rubidium . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1042 Russia. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1043 Sagebrush Rebellion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1049 Salt . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1049 Salt domes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1053 Sand and gravel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1054 Sandstone . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1057 Saudi Arabia . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1058 Scandium . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1063 Sea Shepherd Conservation Society . . . . . . 1065 Seafloor spreading. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1066 Secondary enrichment of mineral deposits . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1067 Sedimentary processes, rocks, and mineral deposits . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1068 Seed Savers Exchange . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1072 Seismographic technology and resource exploitation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1073 Selenium . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1076 Semiconductors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1079 Shale . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1082 Siemens, William . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1083 Sierra Club. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1084 Silicates. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1084 Silicon . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1085 Silver . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1088 Slash-and-burn agriculture . . . . . . . . . . . 1092 Slate . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1094 Smelting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1095 Soda ash . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1096 Soil . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1098 Soil degradation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1103 Soil management . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1106 Soil testing and analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1107 Solar chimneys. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1109 Solar energy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1112 Solid waste management . . . . . . . . . . . . 1119 South Africa . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1121 Volume 4 Contents . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . lxxvii Common Units of Measure . . . . . . . . . . . lxxix Complete List of Contents . . . . . . . . . . . lxxxv South Korea . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1127 Space resources . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1132 Spain . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1136 Species loss. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1141 Steam and steam turbines. . . . . . . . . . . . 1143 Steam engine . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1145 Steel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1147 Steel industry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1150 Stephenson, George. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1154 Stockholm Conference . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1155 Straddling Fish Stocks and Highly Migratory Fish Stocks Agreement . . . . . . 1156 Strategic resources. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1158 Streams and rivers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1161 Strip mining . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1167 Strontium . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1170 Sugars . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1171 Sulfur. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1173 Sulfur cycle. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1177 Superfund legislation and cleanup activities . . . 1177 Surface Mining Control and Reclamation Act . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1182 Sustainable development . . . . . . . . . . . . 1183 Svalbard Global Seed Vault . . . . . . . . . . . 1185 Sweden . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1186 Switzerland. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1191 Synthetic Fuels Corporation . . . . . . . . . . 1195 Taiwan . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1197 Takings law and eminent domain. . . . . . . . 1201 Talc . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1205 Tantalum. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1207 Taylor Grazing Act. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1208 Tellurium . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1209 lxx Global Resources Tennessee Valley Authority . . . . . . . . . . . 1210 Textiles and fabrics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1211 Thailand . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1215 Thallium . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1220 Thermal pollution and thermal pollution control . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1221 Thorium . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1222 Three Gorges Dam . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1223 Three Mile Island nuclear accident . . . . . . 1224 Tidal energy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1225 Timber industry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1229 Tin . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1232 Titanium . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1236 Transportation, energy use in. . . . . . . . . . 1238 Tungsten . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1243 Turkey . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1246 Ukraine. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1251 Underground mining . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1255 United Kingdom. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1258 United Nations climate change conferences . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1262 United Nations Convention on Biological Diversity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1266 United Nations Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora. . . . . . . 1267 United Nations Convention on Long-Range Transboundary Air Pollution . . . . . . . . 1268 United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1269 United Nations Convention to Combat Desertification . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1271 United Nations Environment Programme . . . 1272 United Nations Food and Agriculture Organization . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1274 United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change. . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1275 United States. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1278 Uranium . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1283 U.S. Geological Survey . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1286 Vanadium . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1289 Venezuela . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1292 Vermiculite. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1296 Volcanoes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1300 Waste management and sewage disposal . . . . 1304 Water . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1307 Water pollution and water pollution control. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1312 Water rights . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1315 Water supply systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1318 Watt, James. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1321 Weather and resources . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1321 Weathering. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1324 Western Wood Products Association . . . . . . 1327 Wetlands . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1327 Weyerhäuser, Friedrich . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1330 Whales and whaling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1331 Wheat . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1334 Wilderness . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1336 Wilderness Act . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1341 Wilderness Society. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1342 Wildlife. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1342 Wildlife biology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1344 Wind energy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1345 Wise use movement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1350 Wollastonite . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1350 Wood and charcoal as fuel resources . . . . . . 1353 Wood and timber . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1355 World Bank . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1359 World Commission on Environment and Development . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1360 World Resources Institute. . . . . . . . . . . . 1361 World Wide Fund for Nature . . . . . . . . . . 1362 Zeolites . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1364 Zimbabwe . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1366 Zinc. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1371 Zirconium . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1374 Alphabetical Table of Elements. . . . . . . . . 1379 Periodic Table of the Elements . . . . . . . . . 1381 Major U.S. Mineral Resources, 2006 . . . . . . 1382 Major U.S. Mineral Resources by State . . . . . 1384 Major Canadian Mineral Resource Production and Values . . . . . . . . . . . . 1387 Major Worldwide Mineral Resources and Producers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1391 Major Worldwide Resources by Country . . . . 1402 Time Line . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1415 Glossary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1425 Bibliography . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1433 Web Sites . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1452 Category Index . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1463 Subject Index . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1470 lxxi Complete List of Contents Mineral Leasing Act Category: Government and resources Date: Took effect February 25, 1920; subsequently amended many times The purposes of the U.S. Mineral Leasing Act were to expand the government’s control over public mineral lands, to promote the developmentof oil and gas depos- its on public lands by private enterprise, and to promote the wise use of selected minerals with a reasonable financial return. Background Nearly one-third of the land in the United States is owned bythe federal government.These public lands are concentrated in the West and Alaska and are important sites for mineral resources. The Mineral Leasing Act of 1920 was enacted to establish a system for developing energy minerals (coal, oil shale, oil, and gas) and certain soft-rock minerals (phosphate, potassium, sodium, sulfur, and native asphalt) on onshore public lands. The goals of the act were to ex- pand the secretary of the interior’s control over spe- cific minerals on public lands, to promote the devel- opment of oil and gas deposits on public lands by private companies, and to promote the wise use of natural resources while receiving a reasonable finan- cial return for the public. Provisions The primary system for mineraldevelopment on pub- lic lands is based on the Mining Act of 1872. This loca- tion system cedes government ownership of commer- cial mineral deposits to private parties who are able to find them; no royalty (share of the revenue) is paid to the government. This system did not work for oil and gas deposits orfor a mineral of strategic concern such as coal (essential for the steam-powered Navy of the early 1900’s). Problems withdeveloping thesetypes of minerals forced several presidents to withdraw sections of public lands from potential mineral development, seeing this as the only alternative to the existing sys- tem. The Mineral Leasing Actcreated a leasingsystem as the methodfordeveloping these typesofminerals. Impact on Resource Use The core of any leasing system is the allocation of leases. With a lease, the government maintains own - ership of the mineral deposit but grants the right to exploit the mineral values to a private party for a set period of time. The government receives a royalty on any production that occurs. The government is able to control what properties are developed, who devel- ops them, and what financial return is received. The method for allocating leases and the amount of roy- alty to be paid varies. Coal and oil and gas leases for known deposits are granted under a competitive bid- ding scheme. The producers must pay at least a 12.5 percent royalty. In addition, sealed bonus bids are made. A bonus bid is an up-front cash payment. The highest bidder receives the lease if the bid is consid- ered adequate. For other properties, a noncompeti- tive bidding system is used; this may be a lottery or a first-come, first-served system. A royalty still must be paid on production. Typically,this royalty is 12.5 to 16 percent. Sometimes the royalty is much less if the gov- ernment wishes to encourage production. Gary A. Campbell See also: Department of the Interior, U.S.; Land-use regulation and control; General Mining Law; Public lands; Sagebrush Rebellion. Mineral resource ownership Categories: Government and resources; social, economic, and political issues Individual ownership of minerals, as occurs in the United States, isrelatively unusual.In most countries, most or all mineral wealth is controlled by the govern- ment. Although the United States government owns vast areas of mineral property, there is also a tremen- dous amount of privately owned mineral wealth. Background The identification of property, which includes both public and privately owned tracts, is made by several methods of land surveying and land notation. The history of an area frequently determines the method of measurement and mapping techniques. In Texas, for example, there is an entirely different method of land identification from that used in Alabama or Ohio. As far as mineral ownership is concerned, a number of additional complications are involved that do not exist regarding surface ownership. Global Resources Mineral resource ownership • 747 . . . . . 282 Denmark . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 283 Department of Agriculture, U.S. . . . . . . . . . 287 Department of Energy, U.S. . . . . . . . . . . . 289 Department of the Interior,. . 1019 Resources as a medium of economic exchange . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1020 Resources as a source of international conflict . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1023 Resources. 1374 Alphabetical Table of Elements. . . . . . . . . 1379 Periodic Table of the Elements . . . . . . . . . 1381 Major U.S. Mineral Resources, 2006 . . . . . . 1 382 Major U.S. Mineral Resources by State