Background The planet Earth may be unable to support future in- creases in population unless, on a worldwide scale, humans begin to conserve and reduce their rates of consumption and increase effortstorecycleresources for new uses. Moreover, the current global economy is no longer sustainable and is destroying the environ- ment and providing little to support the globally im- poverished. Internationally, governments and social activists have begun to work together to establish poli- cies that protect the environment and the sustain- ability of life while concomitantly fostering harmoni- ous economic growth. “Conservation” generally refers to the use of re- sources found in the natural environment in such a way that the resources will serve humans effectively and will be available to humans for as long as possible. Therefore, it does not refer to the indefinite “preser- vation” of resources in their natural state. Quantita- tively, effective conservation could be said to involve obtaining the maximum use for the maximum num- ber of people. The Earth can be viewed as a life-support system composed of four major subsystems through which energy flows and matter cycles. The subsystems are the atmosphere, biosphere, lithosphere, and hydro- sphere, referring to gases, life systems, rock and min- eral materials, and water, respectively. As energy flows and matter cycles within and among these subsystems, they interact as component parts to compose the Earth’s ecosystem (an ecosystem may be defined as a community of plants, animals, and other organisms interacting in an environment). Humans alter the natural cycling of energy and flow of matter in the Earth’s ecosystem. We extract things from natural systems, convert them into what we perceive as more useful products, and then return them to the natural environment in different forms and physical states. In order to achieve more desirable energy conver- sions, we also use energy from the environment. Natu- ral resources are all of the things that humans take from the environment to help satisfy their needs and wants. Resources and Reserves All the matter and energy on Earth make up its “stock.” Natural resources aresubsetsofthisstockthat help humans meet their energy and material needs. Those natural resources that are available in a usable form and at an affordable price under prevailingtech - nology and socioeconomic conditions make up “re - serves.” For example, uranium was not a part of hu- man energy reserves until the technology to capture and control the flow of nuclearenergy was developed. Agrofuels produced from plant resources and biofuels developed from recentlylifelessplantandan- imal materials are other examples of the marriage be- tween natural resources and technology to meet en- ergy demands for such uses as powering vehicles and heating buildings. Natural resources may be classified as renewable, nonrenewable, and perpetual. Renewable resources are those that can be reproduced at a rate equal to or greater than the rate of consumption. Renewable re- sources are replenished through natural, physical, and biogeochemical cycles. Examples of renewable resources are forest and soil. They are conserved when they are used and reused at a rate, and in such a way, that does not destroy their sustainability. This does not mean that they cannot be depleted; it means that the rate of consumption does not exceed the rate at which they are replenished over an extended period. Nonrenewable resources, on the other hand, are those for which the rate of consumption exceeds the rate of renewal. They are exhaustible, cannot be re- plenished, and exist in fixed amounts. Nonrenewable resources, such as minerals and fossil fuels, are con- served by more thorough exploitation of their depos- its and more efficient use. Some can be recycled or reused. Recycling involves collecting and reprocess- ing a resource, while reuse involves using a resource again in the same form. The reprocessing of used alu- minum cans into new cans is an example of recycling. Washing beverage bottles before using them again is an example of reuse. Other nonrenewable resources, such as coal and oil, are gone forever once they are used. Perpetual resources, such as water, wind, tides, and solar energy, continue to flow throughout the Earth’s ecosystem whether humans use them or not. There- fore, they are sometimes called flow resources. Even when their quality is altered they generally continue to flow within the Earth’s ecosystem, making them in- exhaustible. However, man is affecting the flow of some of these resources, such as water, and the recent harnessing of wind resources to produce energy is leading some scientists to suggest that altering the flow of wind with multiple, large turbines may lead to climate change. 240 • Conservation Global Resources Conservation vs. Preservation “Conservation” of natural resources means using things found in the natural environment wisely. In a morequantitative sense, it means sustainability of the natural resources by obtaining the maximum use for the maximum number of people with- out compromising future needs. It does not imply thatresources should be entirely preserved for use later; rather, it means that they should be employed in a way that serves humans as well and as long as possi- ble. Although preservation is closely asso- ciated with some aspects of conservation, the two approaches are different, as “pres- ervation” means the complete protection of natural resources from human distur- bance. It is true that to conserve some re- sources is to preserve them: We conserve natural resources such as ecosystems, for example, by restricting their use and pro- tecting them from being altered, because their value is diminished if they are not re- tained in their original state. However, we conserve most resources when we use them in a certain way, not when we leave them idle. Historical Perspective Not until technology developed signifi- cantly, and the world’s human population reached a certain size, did human exploi- tation of the environment begin to have significant effects. Until that time, conser- vation of resources was simply not an issue. For most of humankind’s existence, peo- ple lived a simple hunter-gatherer exis- tence, obtaining just enough food to survive. Most people lived in small groups—fifty or fewer people—that had little effect on resources or the environment. They made simple tools and weap- ons. Many groups were nomadic, migrating with the seasons and following game animals. The shift from a hunting-and-gathering society to a sedentary one be- gan about ten thousand years ago. People began breeding animals and cultivating wild plants, thereby having a greater impact on the environment. Slash- and-burn cultivation involved cutting down trees and other vegetation, leaving the cut vegetation on the ground to dry, and then burning it to enrich the soil. Farmers were “subsistence farmers,” producing only enough to feed their families. With the invention of the metal plow about seven thousand years ago, agriculture could be practicedon a larger scale. Animals were used to pull the plows, in- creasing crop productivity and making the cultivation of new soils possible. Forests were cut and grasslands were plowed—soil erosion and degradation of wild- life habitats inevitably began to follow onasmallscale. Occasional food surpluses were produced for sale or storage. Surpluses allowed the development of urban cultures by releasing people from the farm. By the Global Resources Conservation • 241 A primary concern of the modern environmental movement is the abandonmentof polluting fuels. In 2009, these protesters called for the plant that provides power to the U.S. Capitol to cease its practice of burning coal for electricity. (Roger L. Wollenberg/UPI/Landov) nineteenth century, urbanization and the Industrial Revolution were having profound impacts on the en- vironment and the rate of resource consumption. History of the Conservation Movement In 1864, George Perkins Marsh published Man and Nature: Or, Physical Geography as Modified by Human Ac- tions. Marsh’s book, which claimed that humanity could no longer afford to continue wastefully exploit- ing natural resources, is thought by some to mark the beginning of the conservation movement. However, American Indians must also be given credit as one of the first peoples to practice sustainable natural re- source use. In 1878, John Wesley Powell completed A Report on the Lands of the Arid Region of the United States. Powell’s study of the geomorphology and arid land- scape transformations in the Colorado River basin was grounded in scientific methodology and called for the creation of a federal agency to survey and map all U.S. lands. In 1879, the United States Geological Survey was created for this purpose. At the beginning of the twentieth century there was growing concern that resource mismanagement could have tragic fu- ture consequences.Theseconcerns werebasedonsci- entific findings associated with the exploitation and depletion of timber. In 1907, the Inland Waterways Commission, headed by U.S. Forest Service chief Gifford Pinchot, reported that the use and control of water would have an impact on other resources, in- cluding timber, soil, wildlife, and minerals. Pinchot’s views on resource management greatly influenced forest and water management policies in the United States. During the Great Depression of the 1930’s, the Franklin Delano Roosevelt administration instituted a number of programs in the United States that ad- dressed natural resource problems and helped create employment. In the wake of the severe drought and wind erosion in the Dust Bowl, the Public Works Ad- ministration initiated the Prairie States Forestry Proj- ect. Its goal was to establish a shelter belt of trees and shrubs from the Texas panhandle to the Canadian border in North Dakota. This project was designed to reduce wind erosion on rangeland and cropland. Other efforts included the creation of the Tennessee Valley Authority (TVA) and the Civilian Conservation Corps (CCC). The TVA was an innovative water re- source management program that involved compre - hensive regional planning. Though confined to the Tennessee River and its tributaries, it provided a model for total resource management. The aim of the CCC was to provide employment while repairing some of the damage that had resulted from past exploitation of natural resources and neglect of the environment. Workers constructed bridges, roads, and fire lanes for the development of recreational facilities; con- ducted tree-planting programs; instituted soil- and water-erosion control projects; made lake and stream improvements; and participated in flood control proj- ects. Many of these early conservation practices in the United States spread to other countries and, over time, several international conservation organizations were formed, including the United Nations Envi- ronment Programme, the International Union for the Conservation of Nature, and the World Wild- life Fund. After World War II, nations focused on resource-relatedproblems,manytimescreatingagen- cies to assess theimpact that the war had onforest and natural resources. Moreover, the use of atomic bombs in the war—and the widespread nuclear testing that occurred in the 1950’s—exposed ecosystems to signif- icant levels of radiation. This situation marked the beginning of the modern conservation movement. The Modern Conservation Movement Although the United States is credited as the front- runner of the early conservation movement through its linking of ecology with conservation and resource management practices on public lands, during the modern conservation movement, especially in the 1980’s, the United States focused on economic growth and deregulation, sacrificing conservation. Neverthe- less, the efforts of the Worldwatch Institute and older organizations such as the Sierra Club, the Audubon Society, and Friends of the Earth kept the general citi- zenry aware of environmental and resource-related issues and their consequences. In 1962, Rachel Carson, in her book Silent Spring, cautioned the public against the indiscriminate use of chemical pesticides. She argued that persistent sub- stances released into the environment move through- out the food chain, concentrating over time, while pests may develop a resistance to the poisons. By the 1960’s, pollution from industrial and vehicular sources was beginning to be recognized as a global issue, as industrialized nations increased their spolia- tion and depletion of natural resources. In the United States, President John F. Kennedy introduced a num - ber of natural resource initiatives aimed at preserving 242 • Conservation Global Resources wilderness areas, developing marine resources, re - serving shorelines for public use, expanding outdoor recreation, formulating plans for developing water resources and developing actions against water pollu- tion, and encouraging the development of substitutes for resources in short supply. Also, he organized the Youth Conservation Corps to provide a workforce to implement the program. By the 1970’s, during the administration of President Richard M. Nixon, the United States had begun to adopt environmental laws such as the Clean Air Act and created the Environ- mental Protection Agency as its enforcement agency. The first Earth Day to celebrate sustainable use of nat- ural resources was in 1970. The international community came together to discuss the environment for the first time in 1972. The United Nations held the Conference on the Hu- man Environment in Stockholm, Sweden. This con- ference, which came to be known as the Stockholm Convention, resulted in the creation of the United Nations Environment Programme. The 1987 publica- tion of the Brundtland Report (also known as the Our Common Future) by the United Nations World Commission on Environment and Development was one of the first documents to take on the issue of sustainable global development in modern times in a manner similar to that espoused by Pinchot in earlier times. The goal of the Brundtland Report was to foster global economic development that is conservation-oriented and economically balanced. In 1980, another international organization be- came active in conservation. The International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN) published World Conservation Strategy. The purpose of this publication, and one of the ongoing goals of the IUCN, was to assist developing nations in conservation planning to protect and maintain natural resources: air, water, soil, forests, and animals. Since 1992, the international community and world leaders have continued to come together regularly to discuss global environmental problems. At the 1992 United Nations Conference on Environment and De- velopment held in Rio de Janeiro, Brazil, much of the discussion concerned the Brundtland Report. This conference, which came to be known as the “Rio Earth Summit,” focused on dire predictions concern- ing global warming, climate change, the ozone hole; concerns about the depletion of natural resources, loss of habitats, and biodiversity; and continued con - cerns with resource pollution and depletion, espe - cially forests and marine resources. Some experts at the Rio Summit suggested that society had to choose between economic development and conserving the environment. Although governments have been un- willing to make an either/or choice, one outcome of the Rio Earth Summit was the ratification by many na- tions of various international agreements to resolve some of the issues discussed at the Summit. For exam- ple, the Summit led to the ratification of the 1987 Montreal Protocol, which concerns depletionofozone by man-made chemicals, and the 1992 Kyoto Proto- col, to limit industrial emissions that may be affecting global climate change. Sustainable development became the main topic of discussion at the U.N. 2002 Earth Summit held in Johannesburg, South Africa. Many world leaders came together to promulgate international regula- tions to address such environmental problems as im- proving air and water quality; improving food access, agricultural productivity, and sanitation in develop- ing countries; and developing strategies and economic incentives to cope with international environmental issues related to war, poverty, and disease. Although the United States has not been a signa- tory to some of the latter-day environmental proto- cols, environmental conservation organizations, in- cluding the Sierra Club, and individuals, such as former U.S. vice president Al Gore, alertthe public to environmental issues. Gore won the 2007 Nobel Peace Prize together with the U.N. Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change for their efforts in getting out the conservation message on global climate change. International organizations continued the conserva- tion movement in preparation for the 2012 Earth Summit. Population and Resource Consumption Population growth is amajor factor when considering the time it will take to deplete the Earth’s nonrenew- able resources. A resource is consideredeconomically depleted after 80 percent of its known reserves have been exploited, because at that point the resource becomes too expensive for wide use. As the world’s population grows, the rate of resource exploitation grows. More production is necessary to satisfy the needs and wants of larger populations: More materi- als are needed, more energy is consumed, and more pollution is created. Ecologists have come to realize that the Earth is a huge ecosystem with a definite carryingcapacity.That Global Resources Conservation • 243 is, there is a limit to the number of people that can be supported by the Earth. The rate of resource deple- tion is a function both of the rate of population growth and of the rate of consumption of resources per person. More resources are consumed per indi- vidual in wealthy countries than in poor countries. As poor countries strive to develop, greater pressures are placed on the Earth to provide resources and to assim- ilate wastes. Overpopulation occurs when there are too many people for the available resources or when population growth exceeds economic growth; such conditions ultimately begin to cause damage to the Earth’s life-support system. Water Resources: The Next Great Conflict The availability and purity of water may be the next great natural resource issue facing the world, and control of water resources could lead to serious con- flict. Water not only is necessary to sustain life and health but also is needed for food production and various industrial uses. Water resources continue to be polluted; rivers have dried up and have been dammed, thus reducing downriver flows to wetlands and floodplains; underground water supplies from aquifers have been used faster than they are replen- ished with rainfall; and development is destroying wetlands and other water resources and converting them, in some cases, to deserts. Because the global so- ciety has always relied on water as a renewable re- source, it has continued using management policies that are no longer viable. In order to maintain human and wildlife populations, habitats, and health, and in order to ensure that there are sufficient water re- sources to sustain food production, water resource management policies must change. Other Natural Resource Issues Other global natural-resource issues concern extrac- tions from the Earth: minerals, precious metals, and gems such as diamonds; oil and gas drilling; and coal mining. Some of the methods used for these extrac- tions and the consequences of accidents and spills have raised the global consciousness about their im- pact on the environment. A search for renewable re- sources to replace many of these nonrenewable re- sources is under way within the global community. Also controversial is the negative environmental impact of outdated rangeland management tech - niques, uncontrolled timber harvesting, forest de - struction, and mismanaged disposal and dumping. Many developednationssuffer fromwastefulconsum- erism and overuse of natural resources, such as those that provide energy. Government structures to foster conservation are lacking in most developing coun- tries, and in many industrialized nations government leaders and the public are unwilling to make genuine efforts to conserve vital and dwindling natural re- sources, especially if they negatively impact economic growth. Scientists predict that these abuses of the en- vironment and overuse of natural resources can no longer continue at their present rate if we want to pre- serve the future of humanity. Economics and Conservation Economics plays an important part in the balancing of resource conservation and resource exploitation. Continued growth in the use of a nonrenewable re- sourcecanoccuronlyforanumber ofyearsbefore the resource is depleted. As a resource becomes scarce, the price increases, making it less affordable and reduc- ing the rate of consumption. This is a self-regulating process that makes conservation more practical as resources become more scarce in a market-driven system. Effective conservation programs often require gov- ernmental influence, regulation, or incentives. Since most resources are associated with property, govern- mental agencies that regulate land, businesses, and private citizens all make decisions that affect resource consumption. The general aim of many decision mak - ers is to maximize the return on investments; conser - vation must therefore be profitable within a reason - 244 • Conservation Global Resources Mammoth Hot Springs in Yellowstone National Park. (Photo courtesy PDPhoto.org) able time for people to practice it voluntarily. In a free enterprise system, resource exploitation produces in- come from the land and provides much of the incen- tive for land ownership. Thus, resourceexploitationis likely to win out over conservation if there are no in- centives to conserve. Conservation practices must be congruent with economics. Conservation programs are not effectively executed when economic necessity or opportunityin- tervenes. For the most part, conservation is good for the economy over the long term, because it improves the efficiency of production systems. However, be- cause modern economic growth has not been bal- anced and has not conserved natural resources, more drastic measures may be necessary to control future growth. One of the more controversial proposals to com- bat economic growth issues facing the environment are taxes on carbon-related energy sources. Another highly debated policy recommendation is over emis- sion trading, or cap-and-trade. Controlled ownership of resources through vehicles such as trusts to avoid depletion of natural resources—mostly nonrenew- able resources—is another proposal being debated. Those involved in national and global political and social debate must become serious in reaching a con- sensus for resolving the many environmental issues facing the world and recommend sustainable policies that bring together economists and environmental- ists in working for the same achievable goals regard- ing future growth. However, no matter what policies are eventually adopted, one of the main goals of balancing economic growth with conservation must be continued public awareness. The public and orga- nizations are more likely to become supportive part- ners for sustainable economic growth if they are pro- vided with not only information on economic growth and its effect on the environment, but also feasible, market-driven solutions. Assessing the Future Experts attempting to assess the future of natural re- sources are divided in their opinions. Positions range from optimistic to direly pessimistic to somewhere between the two extremes. Those who believe that technology can and will solve human problems have reason to be optimistic, and, to a great extent, history supports this view. Whenever humans experience shortages, they turn to technology for solutions— either developing more efficient ways of finding, ex - tracting, and using resources or finding substitutes for them. On the other hand, technology may not be able to continue solving all humankind’s problems—at least not in a timely enough manner to avoid a crisis. The primary basis for the pessimistic argument is that in- creases in resource consumption rates, coupled with an increase in population, may not allow enough time to find technological solutions to resource short- ages. Furthermore, the heavy modern dependence on nonrenewable resources is certain to cause re- source shortages. A more moderate view of the resource future sug- gests that, although there is good reason for concern, humankind has sufficient time to avoid a major crisis if we begin moving toward asustainable society now. A sustainable society is onethatallowshumanityto meet its needs today without compromising its environ- ment and future needs. Sustainability almost certainly requires that people in developed countries begin to live a lifestyle that includes more conservation and re- cycling, a greater dependence on renewable and per- petual resources than on nonrenewable resources, population control, and more self-discipline. This view embraces the ecological approach to resource management and employs the multiple-use concept. For example, forest conservation not only provides timber but also preserves a habitat for plants and animals; it can serve to help manage water resources, prevent flooding and soil erosion, and provide recre- ational areas. When we reach sustainability, most of hu- mankind’s material and energy needs will be provided by renewable and perpetual resources that should last indefinitely if properly managed. The ecological approach is holistic. Based on the philosophy that all things in the natural environment are interlaced through a complex system of feedback loops, it implies that the whole is functionally greater than the sum of its parts. This approach to resource management requires an understanding and anticipa- tion of the consequences of human actions through- out the ecosystem. Jasper L. Harris, updated by Carol A. Rolf Further Reading Castillon, David A. Conservation of Natural Resources: A Resource Management Approach. 2d ed. Madison, Wis.: Brown & Benchmark, 1996. Chiras, Daniel D., and John P. Reganold. Natural Re - source Conservation: Management for a Sustainable Global Resources Conservation • 245 Future. 10th ed. Upper Saddle River, N.J.: Pearson Prentice Hall, 2009. Degregori, Thomas R. The Environment, Our Natural Resources, and Modern Technology. New York: John Wiley & Sons, 2008. Freyfogle, Eric T.WhyConservation Is Failing and How It Can Regain Ground. New Haven, Conn.: Yale Uni- versity Press, 2006. Greenland, David. Guidelines for Modern Resource Man- agement: Soil, Land, Water, Air. Columbus, Ohio: C. E. Merrill, 1983. Greiner, Alfred, and WillSemmler. The Global Environ- ment, Natural Resources, and Economic Growth. New York: Oxford University Press, 2008. Harper, Charles L. Environment and Society: HumanPer- spectives on Environmental Issues. 4th ed. Upper Sad- dle River, N.J.: Pearson/Prentice Hall, 2008. Jakab, Cheryl. Natural Resources (Global Issues). North Mankato, Minn.: Smart Apple Media, 2008. Knight, Richard L., and Courtney White, eds. Conser- vation for a New Generation: Redefining Natural Re- sources Management. Washington, D.C.: Island Press, 2009. Krupp, Fred, and Miriam Horn. Earth: The Sequel— The Race to Reinvent Energy and Stop Global Warming. New York: W. W. Norton, 2008. Loeffe, Christian V., ed. Conservation and Recycling of Resources: New Research. New York: Nova Science, 2006. Miller, G. Tyler, Jr. Resource Conservation and Manage- ment. Belmont, Calif.: Wadsworth, 1990. Parson, Ruben L. Conserving American Resources.3ded. Englewood Cliffs, N.J.: Prentice-Hall, 1972. Raven, Peter H., Linda R. Berg, and David M. Hassenzahl. Environment. 6th ed. Hoboken, N.J.: Wiley, 2008. Scott, Nicky. Reduce, Reuse, Recycle: An Easy Household Guide. White River Junction, Vt.: Chelsea Green, 2007. Web Sites Conservation International http://www.conservation.org/Pages/default.aspx International Union for Conservation of Nature http://www.iucn.org/ The Nature Conservancy http://www.nature.org/ United Nations Environment Programme http://www.unep.org/ World Resources Institute http://www.wri.org/ World Wildlife Fund http://www.panda.org/ Worldwatch Institute http://www.worldwatch.org/ See also: Capitalism and resource exploitation; Civil- ian Conservation Corps; Conservation International; Developing countries; Endangered species; Environ- mental degradation, resource exploitation and; Envi- ronmental movement; International Union for Con- servation of Nature; Population growth; Renewable and nonrenewable resources; Sustainable develop- ment; United States; World Wide Fund for Nature. Conservation biology Categories: Environment, conservation, and resource management; scientific disciplines Biological scientists throughout the world are inter- ested and involved in conservation biology as a means of preserving biodiversity. Evolutionary biologists, bot- anists, ecologists, and geneticists, as well as those in applied-science management fields such as wildlife management, fisheries, and forestry, all play impor- tant roles inthebroad context of conservation biology. Background Conservation biology is a multidisciplinary field that incorporates the knowledge base and skill sets of all of the biological sciences in order to design and imple- ment methods that will attempt to ensure the long- term continuation of species, ecosystems, and ecolog- ical processes. Historical Perspective Conservation biology as a scientific discipline has its roots in the conservation movement of the early twen- tieth century. Wildlife scientists such asAldoLeopold, foresters such as GiffordPinchot, and progressive pol- iticians such as Theodore Roosevelt wielded tremen - dous influenceinbothconservationand preservation efforts. In the 1960’s and 1970’s, there was phenome - 246 • Conservation biology Global Resources nal growth of community ecology data and important ecological theories, such as island biogeography, pro- moted by Robert H. MacArthur, Edward O. Wilson, and Daniel Simberloff. Social trends of this time pe- riod also contributed to the development of this field, as many people embraced the environmental move- ment, and, accordingly, a number of significant pieces of environmental legislation were passed. As more and more species either neared extinction or became extinct, the movement to “save the planet” became ever more insistent. Consequently, much of the focus of conservation biology since the 1970’s has been on saving endan- gered and threatened species. The United States Fish and Wildlife Service (USFWS)definesanendangered species as one that is in danger of extinction through- out all or a significant portion of its range. A threat- ened species is likely to become endangered in the foreseeable future. The USFWS tracks the numbers of endangered and threatened species both within the United States and around the world. In 2009, the number of endangered animal species within the United States was 410, with 163 listed as threatened. Bird, fish, mammal, and clam species topped the en- dangered animal list. The endangered plant species total was 600; 146 plant species were threatened. Throughout the remainder of the world, 527 animal species were endangered and 44 were threatened; 1 plant species was listed as endangered and 2 were threatened. Obviously, these numbers vary from year to year; nevertheless, the data support the need for worldwide conservation efforts. Minimum Viable Populations In the past in Europe and North America, most ex- tinctions or local extirpations of species occurred because of overhunting. Examples of this in North America include bison, cougar (in the eastern U.S., with the exception of the remnant Florida panther population), red wolf, and passenger pigeon. In Eu- rope, the wolf, wild boar, goshawk, and capercaillie were gone by the nineteenth century. Although overhunting is still a reason for species decline in some parts of the world, today the primary cause for the large number of endangered and threat- ened species is habitat fragmentation. This occurs when a large area of habitat is divided into a number of smaller patches comprising a smaller total area. Of - ten these smaller patches are unsuitable for species of the original habitat, and thus dispersal of species into the “new” habitat can be low. Conservation biologists face the challenge of preserving as many individuals of the endangered or threatened species as possible within suitable habitat, thereby enabling genetic di- versity within the species to continue. As a result of fragmentation, conservation biologists are often try- ing to discover a minimum viable population (MVP) number for each imperiled species. Although the number of five hundred individuals has often been used as a base guideline for MVP, many scientists ar- gue that the specific number of individuals needed to ensure genetic diversity varies by species and that no set number applies to all species. If the MVP becomes too low, serious genetic prob- lems within the population may occur, as the number of individuals is simply too low to prevent inbreeding. Probably the best known example of this is the chee- tah, a species in which almost all of the individuals are now related to one another. Biologists have noted del- eterious genetic effects such as sperm malformation and high infant mortality within the cheetah popula- tion. With species that have greatly reduced popula- tion numbers, conservation biologists are faced with the management challenge of reducing inbreeding, encouraging outbreeding if enough individuals re- main, and seeking to enable members of the species to migrate, if possible. Reserves Along with determining MVPs for endangered and threatened species, biologists seek to meet the man- agement goals mentioned above by creating or main- taining suitable reserve sites. As with deciding on MVP, determining the necessary size and shape of a reserve can be extremely difficult and is again species dependent. Based on their research,severalconserva- tion biologists have suggested thata circular shape for reserves is best in order to minimize dispersal dis- tances and to minimize the amount of edge habitat. Within both temperate and tropical forest areas, neg- ative edge effects include temperature and humidity changes, wind exposure, tree mortality, and penetra- tion of light into formerly shaded areas. Many researchers recommend single large reserve areas for large herbivores, large carnivores, and birds, rather than a number of small reserves, unless an ex- tensive corridor of suitable habitat can connect the small reserves. The efforts of national conservation organizations are often necessary to establish and maintain large nature reserves, whereas regional and Global Resources Conservation biology • 247 even local groupsmaybeableto keep smaller reserves going for species that do not require large expanses of habitat in which to survive. Active management of reserves is usually necessary in order to provide continued suitable habitat for en- dangered and threatened species. Often exotic vege- tation must be removed from reserves, or a certain successional stage of vegetation must be maintained. Elimination of exotic animal species, such as wild boars or brown-headed cowbirds, may be needed. Once land has been set aside for the preservation of imperiled species, conservation biologists must be vigilant in its management in order to preserve the biodiversity of the area. Lenela Glass-Godwin Further Reading Groom, Martha J., Gary K. Meffe, and C. Ronald Carroll. Principles of Conservation Biology. Sunder- land, Mass.: Sinauer Associates, 2006. Pullin, Andrew S. Conservation Biology. New York: Cam- bridge University Press, 2002. Soulé, Michael E., and Gordon H. Orians. Conserva- tion Biology: Research Priorities for the Next Decade. Washington, D.C.: Island Press, 2001. Web Site World Resources Institute Global Forest Watch: Frequently Asked Questions http://www.globalforestwatch.org/english/about/ faqs.htm See also: Biodiversity; Biological invasions; Biomes; Biosphere; Biosphere reserves; Conservation; Endan- gered species; Endangered Species Act; Genetic di- versity; Species loss; Sustainable development; Wild- life biology. Conservation International Category: Organizations, agencies, and programs Date: Established 1987 Conservation International initiates projects and se- cures funding to promote biodiversity and protect en- dangered animal and plant species and vulnerable ecosystems, both terrestrial and aquatic, by sponsoring scientific research, educational programs, and publi - cations. This nonprofit organization urges indige - nous peoples, governments, and businesses to incor- porate environmentally compatible actions when interacting with natural resources. Background In February, 1987, several Nature Conservancy lead- ers, including Peter A. Seligmann, decided to establish Conservation International (CI) to introduce innova- tive conservation programs based on scientific investi- gations that concentrated on biodiversity. In 1989, Seligmann became CI’s chief financialofficer, and Rus- sell A. Mittermeier succeeded him as president, re- maining in that position into the twenty-first century. CI’s headquarters are located in Arlington, Virginia. Impact on Resource Use Protecting biodiversity shapes all CI’s endeavors. CI emphasizes that nature is essential to humans butthat economic and political agendas often cause imbal- ances in nature and destruction of natural resources. CI’s Rapid Assessment Program (RAP) involves scien- tific teams surveying a specific country’s ecosystems. Their reports assist each country’s government lead- ers, conservationists, and researchers to determine how to protect vulnerable natural resources. RAP work has aided in creation of national parks and has helped officials stop unlawful oil drilling. With proj- ects in approximately forty-five countries, CI main- tains field offices in five divisions: South America, Af- rica and Madagascar, East and Southeast Asia, Mexico and Central America, and Indonesia-Pacific. CI scientists identify sites that CI refers to as “biodi- versity hot spots” because those places are endan- gered by damaging situations, depleted resources, and threatened unique species. By 2008,CI had desig- nated thirty-four hot spots, noting that those places represented 2.3 percent of the Earth. CI created Con- servation Priority-Setting Workshops to devise effec- tive conservation strategies to advance biodiversity in hot-spot communities. CI’s Debt-for-Nature pro- gram secures rights to protect endangered natural re- source sites in trade for financial assistance. By 2008, CI estimated it had protected a total of approximately 1.2 million square kilometers. CI’s Center for Applied Biodiversity Science (CABS) and Tropical Ecology Assessment and Moni- toring (TEAM) Network endeavor to save valuable eco - systems from destruction by human activities. CI sci - entists conducted pioneering biodiversity studies of 248 • Conservation International Global Resources coral reefs and reptiles in 2007. They discovered pre - viously unknown species of plants, frogs, geckos, and jumping spiders. In 2008, CI scientists participated in a global mammal survey that determined that more than one-half of primates are at risk of extinction. CI recognizes that climate change threatens bio- diversity and therefore implements programs, such as tree planting, to counter deforestation. CI esti- mates this work decreases greenhouse-gas emissions by about 1 to 2 billion metric tons annually. The Mantadia Conservation Carbon Project in Madagas- car protects 450,000 rain forest hectares, which ab- sorb 9 million metric tons of carbon dioxide emis- sions. By providing educational opportunities and em- ployment incentives, CI encourages indigenous peo- ple living in fragile ecosystems to practice conserva- tion. CI helped Kayapó Indians in Brazil protect more than 11 million hectares from loggers. CI also en- dorses ecotourism to generate income and biodiver- sity awareness. CI publications include the RAP Bulletin of Biologi- cal Assessment, volumes in the CI Tropical Field Guide series, and pocket guides. Significant CI-sponsored books are Megadiversity: Earth’s Biologically Wealthiest Nations (1997), Hotspots: Earth’s Biologically Richest and Most Endangered Terrestrial Ecoregions (1999), Wilder- ness: Earth’s Last Wild Places (2002), and Hotspots Re- visited (2004). Elizabeth D. Schafer Web Site Conservation International http://www.conservation.org See also: Biosphere reserves; Conservation; Conser- vation biology; Endangered species;EndangeredSpe- cies Act; Wilderness. Consultative Group on International Agricultural Research Category: Organizations, agencies, and programs Date: Established 1971 The focus of the Consultative Group on International Agricultural Research is on agricultural productivity, profitability, and sustainability. The organization’s cross-cutting research focuses on reducing poverty, pro- tecting the environment, promoting the sustainable use of the naturalresources, and fostering humanwell- being and equality in terms of access to food. Background The Consultative Group on International Agricul- tural Research (CGIAR) was established in 1971 in response to the international community’s concern about famine in many parts of the world, especially in Africa and Asia. The creation of the CGIAR was the result of efforts that started in Mexico City between Mexico and the Rockefeller Foundation. These ef- forts eventually led to the Bellagio Conference, where Rockefeller and Ford Foundation representatives con- vinced the heads of multilateral and bilateral agencies of the importance of agricultural research and its pos- itive impact on food production around the world. The CGIAR is composed of fifty-six public- and private-sector members whose goal is to supportfifteen international agricultural research centers located in strategic regions around the world. Thegoal of the fif- teen international agricultural research centers is to address the issues of food production, livestock, for- estry, economics, water, and natural resources. The CGIAR governance structure is composed of the con- sultative group executive council, which includes the chairman of CGIAR,theco-sponsors,andothermem- bers; the CGIAR secretariat; the CGIAR committees; the fifteen international research centers; and the center committees. Impact on Resource Use The CGIAR’s mission is to promote sustainable agri- cultural development in order to provide food secu- rity, alleviate poverty through research, and support natural resources management in developing coun- tries. The CGIAR research program implemented by the fifteen research centers covers food crops, forestry, livestock, irrigation management, aquatic resources, environment, and policy. In addition, the research centers provide support and services to de- veloping countries’ national agricultural research programs. The CGIAR is involved in many resource protec- tion programs, such as the Challenge Program on Water and Food, from a research perspective. This program is a multi-institutions initiative with the ob - jective of creating and disseminating information Global Resources Consultative Group on International Agricultural Research • 249 . uranium was not a part of hu- man energy reserves until the technology to capture and control the flow of nuclearenergy was developed. Agrofuels produced from plant resources and biofuels developed. affecting the flow of some of these resources, such as water, and the recent harnessing of wind resources to produce energy is leading some scientists to suggest that altering the flow of wind with. carryingcapacity.That Global Resources Conservation • 243 is, there is a limit to the number of people that can be supported by the Earth. The rate of resource deple- tion is a function both of the rate of population growth