Encyclopedia of Global Resources part 7 doc

Metals on the History of Mankind. University Park: Pennsylvania State University Press, 1986. Shackelford, James F. Introduction to Materials Science for Engineers. 7th ed. Upper Saddle River, N.J.: Pearson Prentice Hall, 2009. Simons, Eric N. An Outline of Metallurgy. New York: Hart, 1969. Street, Arthur, and William Alexander. Metals in the Service of Man. 10th ed. London: Penguin, 1994. See also: Aluminum; Brass; Bronze; Cobalt; Copper; Manganese; Metals and metallurgy; Nickel; Rare earth elements; Steel. Aluminum Category: Mineral and other nonliving resources Where Found Aluminum is the most abundant metallic element in the Earth’s crust, comprising 8.3 percent of the mass in the crust by weight. As an element it is exceeded in crustal abundance only by oxygen and silicon. Com- mercially, the most important aluminum ore is baux- ite, a mixed aluminum oxide hydroxide with a com- position that varies withclimate.Large reserves ofthis mineral exist, typically found in thick layers with little topsoil or overburden so that it can be easily mined. Worldwide reserves are tremendously large, notably in Australia, Africa, Brazil, and countries in Central America. Primary Uses By far the main use of aluminum in its metallic form is as a structural material in the construction and trans- portation (particularly aircraft) industries. Another major use is as a container material, of which the soft drink can is the most widely recognizable example. Aluminum is a more effective conductor per unit of mass than copper, so it is a more versatile material for power lines. Electrical transmission lines thus ac- count for a sizable fraction of total world production as well. Technical Definition Aluminum (atomic number 13) is a member of the boron group (Group III) of the periodic table of the elements. In terms of chemical and physical proper - ties, the metallic element aluminum is more like bo - ron than the other elements in the group. There is only one stable, naturally occurring isotope of alumi- num, with an atomic weight of 26.98154. The pure solid exists in a single crystalline form in which every aluminum atom in the solid-state lattice is surrounded by twelve others at equal distances. Aluminum has a density of 2.699 grams per cubic centimeter. It has a melting point of660.37°Celsiusand a boilingpoint of 2,467° Celsius. Description, Distribution, and Forms Aluminum is the most abundant metallic element accessible in the Earth’s crust. Of the other metallic elements, only iron and copper display abundances approaching that of aluminum. Aluminum is a con- stituent of igneous minerals such as feldspar and mica. When these ores weather, they tend to generate clays such as kaolinite and vermiculite. These materi- als are widespread in the Earth’s crust. In addition, aluminum may be found in rarer minerals such as cryolite, spinel, beryl, turquoise, and corundum. Alu- minum compounds are important as precious miner- als aswell.The presence ofaslight trace ofatransition metal impurity in the aluminum oxide crystalline lat- tice typically imparts colortothe solid. The oreofcen- tral commercial importance in the primary extrac- tion of aluminumis bauxite, a mixed aluminumoxide and hydroxide first discovered in 1821. It is generated when silica and other materials are leached by weath- ering from silicates of aluminum. An aluminum compound of some importance is lithium aluminum hydride. This compound is an ef- fective reducing agent and functions as a hydrogenat- ing agent. It was a mainstay in organic synthesis until supplanted by organometallic hydrides that are less expensive to produce and easier to manipulate. Com- mercial production of lithium aluminum hydride dates from around 1950. Within twenty years the com- pound had displayed reactivity with more than sixty types of organic functional groups (the part of an or- ganic molecule that gives it a characteristic reactivity, such as a hydroxyl group). Total annual worldwide production of aluminum from its ores is almost 38 million metric tons, and there are large-scale production plants in many loca- tions around the world. The largest producer of pri- mary aluminum is China with approximately 13 mil - lion metric tons, which accounts for 33 percent of the world total. Russia and Canada account for another 30 • Aluminum Global Resources 20 percent of the world’s production. The United States, Australia, and Brazil are also major producers of primary aluminum. The need for primary extraction of aluminum from its ores is somewhat alleviated because of the ease with which metallic aluminum can be recycled. Recycling requires a fraction of the energy cost of pri- mary extraction.Primary extraction consumesalmost two metric tons of ore for every metric ton of alumi - num produced; it also consumes approximately one- Global Resources Aluminum • 31 Data from the U.S. Geological Survey, . U.S. Government Printing Office, 2009.Source: Mineral Commodity Summaries, 2009 Metric Tons 10,000,0008,000,0006,000,0004,000,0002,000,000 Venezuela Tajikistan South Africa Russia Norway Mozambique U.A.E. & Dubai United States Other countries India Germany Iceland China Canada Brazil Bahrain Australia 12,000,000 14,000,000 550,000 1,100,000 4,200,000 850,000 420,000 920,000 2,640,000 550,000 4,700,000 1,960,000 870,000 1,660,000 3,100,000 13,500,000 590,000 790,000 1,300,000 Aluminum: World Smelter Production, 2008 half of a metric ton of carbon, one-tenth of a metric ton of cryolite, and fifteen thousand kilowatt-hours of electrical energy. The air pollution one might expect from such a large energy output is moderated by the fact that aluminum production plants typically are run by hydroelectric power. This means that often the location in which the ore is mined and the location in which the metal is extracted are widely separated. (For mostmetals,the refining plantissituated as close as possible to the material source to minimize trans- portation costs.) Aluminum and most aluminum compounds are relatively benign in the environment. Primary envi- ronmental impact results from the direct electro- chemical extraction of aluminum from its ores. The process requires a tremendous amount of electrical energy, an applied potential of about 4 volts andacur- rent of 105 amperes, and a reaction vessel heated to about 900° Celsius. These power requirements place tremendous demandon resources, buttheavailability of hydroelectric power has minimized the air and thermal pollution produced by these plants. Aluminum also provides a means of determining acid rain effects. When lakes become acidic, alumi- num can be leached from the soil and dissolved in the water. A water sample can be treated with appropriate agents that bind with the metal to form brightly col- ored species. The concentration of aluminum can be determined by measuring the amount of light these materials absorb. This in turn provides information about the extent of acid contamination by deter- mining the amount of aluminum leached into the water. History Although aluminum is the most abundant metallic el- ement accessible onEarth, it was notisolatedin its ele- mental form until the early 1800’s. Even then, for most ofthe nineteenth century,its rarity madeita pre- cious metal with an expensive price tag and uses cen- tering on decorative rather than practical applica- tions. Chemical thermodynamics, the study of energy relationships in chemical reactions, provides a basis for understanding why isolating aluminum was so dif- ficult and why a pyrometallurgical technique could not be used. Most metallic elements, withthe exception of gold, silver, and a few others, tend to react with oxygen in the atmosphere or with other elements and form compounds rather than remain in their elemental, metallic state. To isolate the metal from the com - pound in its elemental form, the metal must receive electrons in a process called reduction. Typically this process requires heat energy, so the reduction (or smelting) must be done at elevated temperatures. Some elements, such as copper and lead, can be re- duced at a relatively low, easily attainable tempera- ture. Because of their ease of extraction, these ele- ments have been known for a long time. Other elements, such as iron, require a much higher tem- perature for the reduction reaction to proceed at an appreciable rate. These higher temperatures are much more difficult to obtain, requiring a higher level of technology, especially in terms of furnace de- velopment. Elemental iron could not be produced until this higher technological level was reached. Still other elements, such as aluminum, can be made to undergo chemical reduction only at temperatures so high that they are not commercially attainable or physically containable. Rather than being reduced at high temperatures, they are reduced by utilizing an electrochemical reaction that requires application of an electrical potential high enough to overcome the energy barrier to the reaction. This procedure elimi- 32 • Aluminum Global Resources Source: Mineral Commodity Summaries, 2009 Data from the U.S. Geological Survey, .U.S.GovernmentPrinting Office, 2009. Africa 33% Oceania 24% South America & Caribbean 22% Asia 15% Elsewhere 6% Location of World Bauxite Resources nates theneed for theextremely high temperatures of a pyrometallurgical reduction, but it requiresthe exis- tence of alarge, reliable source ofelectricity for indus- trial-scale productionto be feasible.Suchan electrical source did not exist until the nineteenth century, when the dynamo was invented. Availability of the dy- namo and hydroelectric power provided the massive amounts of electrical energy needed to produce large quantities of metallic aluminum. While the elemental form of aluminum was rare and even unknown prior to the technological ad- vances of the 1800’s, compounds containing alumi- num have been known since the days of ancient Greece and Rome. The very name “aluminum” is de- rived from “alum,” the common name for the hydrate of aluminum potassium sulfate. In the Greek and Ro- man civilizations, alum was known as an astringent (a substance that causes muscles to contract) and a mor- dant (a substance that causes dye molecules to adhere to cloth). Sir Humphry Davy, a pioneer of electro- chemical methods, attempted to isolate the metal but was unsuccessful. He proposed the name alumium, a name consistent in form with such names as sodium and potassium, elements that Davy had discovered in 1807 and named in terms of their historical sources (soda ash and potash). This was changed soon after to aluminum and was still further modified to alu- minium. The United States is one of the few countries still preferring the use of the name aluminum. The discovery of aluminum was facilitated by Davy’s isolation of sodium and potassium in their ele- mental forms. These elements are effective reducing agents, meaning they have a strong tendency to force electrons onto other materials, thereby reducing their charge. In the early 1800’s, Hans Christian Ørsted used sodium amalgamated with mercury to chemically reduce aluminum from aluminum chlo- ride. While he was able to isolate and identify alumi- num in thisprocess, the reactionwasinefficient, yield- ing small amounts of impure aluminum. In 1845, Friedrich Wöhlerprepared samplesofaluminum that were large enough to allow preliminary determina- tion of the elusive element’s chemical and physical properties. The results of these studies stimulated a great deal of academic interest in the metal, although little interest in commercial utilization of the metal arose. The first commercial production method was de - veloped in 1854 by Henri-Étienne Sainte-Claire De - Ville. This method used sodium as a reducing agent. Its introduction caused the price of aluminum to drop dramatically. Aluminum had cost about twelve hundred dollars per kilogram; with the introduction of the improved synthetic method, the price dropped to less than five hundred dollars per kilogram in the mid-nineteenth century. Even then, the element was perceived more as a curiosity than as a useful natural resource. At the time of the Paris exposition in 1855, the samples of aluminum displayed were billed as “sil- ver from clay,” a term evocative of both the perceived value of the element and the typical source from which it was derived. By the year 1880, construction of a plant capable of producing almost fifty thousand kilograms of alumi- num per year using the Sainte-Claire DeVille process was begun. By the time the plant had been built and gone into full-scale production, the cost of aluminum had dropped to about twenty dollars per kilogram. During thissame time period, thefirst serious attempt to produce aluminum in the United States was made by William Frishmuth. Among the more notable items produced was a three-kilogram pyramid of aluminum that was used to cap the Washington Monument as a functional part of its lightning rod system. Prior to its installation, this oddity was placed on public display. Obtaining Aluminum The difficulty in extracting aluminum from its ores, coupled with the interesting properties of the metal, made the quest for an economical means of produc- tion a target of many prospective inventors. The key discoveries needed to realize large-scale production were made almost simultaneously in 1886 by two young men, Charles Martin Hall in the United States and Paul Héroult in France. Both men were in their early twenties. The key to the success of these individ- uals lay in the extractive technique they utilized (an electrochemical method) and critical experimental modifications that they made. Hall correctly deduced that, at the high operating temperatures of his appa- ratus, impurities from the clay container he was using as a reaction vessel may have been causing undesired side reactions to take place, thus preventing alumi- num formation. He eliminated the clay vessel and in- stead used one lined with graphite, a form of elemen- tal carbon. The graphite also served as one of the electrodes in the electrochemical cell. With these modifications, Hall was able to produce large pieces of aluminum. These pieces were kept by the company Hall founded and dubbed the “crown jewels.” Com - Global Resources Aluminum • 33 mercial production escalated rapidly, resulting in an- other tremendous downward shift in price, from around twelve dollars per kilogram to about seventy- five cents per kilogram only fifteen years later. Uses of Aluminum Aluminum is of great importance in modern society. Many of the engineering accomplishments of the twentieth century would have been impossible with- out the availability of aluminum. Modern airliners would be impossible to construct without it. The im- portance of aluminum is based on its great strength, light weight, and resistance to corrosion. This resis- tance occurs because typically a thin film of chemi- cally inert aluminum oxide forms on the surface of the metal, shielding it from further corrosion. This protective layer can be artificially produced through an anodization process. Production of differing oxide layer thicknesses provides a variety of appearances and properties in the anodized materials. An oxide layer on the order of 15 micrometers in thickness gives sufficient corrosion protection for exterior structural use. Aluminum’s appearance makes it a de - sirable external feature. Thefirst skyscraper to beclad with aluminum was built in the 1950’s. The limited tensile strength of aluminum means that alloys typi- cally offer better service as structural components. There is no doubt that, after the construction indus- try, the aviation industry is the greatest beneficiary of aluminum’s benefits. Aluminum and aluminum al- loys make possible strong, lightweight airframes. In addition to their major applications when in the metallic state, aluminum compounds are utilized in in- dustrial processes and to make materials ranging from cements to chemical reaction catalysts. Aluminum compounds are important in the production of port- land cement, first patented in 1824. This strong ce- ment does not dissolve in water. John Smeaton found aluminum silicates to be an important ingredient of this cement. Portland cement contains approximately 11 percent by mass tricalcium aluminate. Although it was known tobe an important component, thechemi- cal structure of this compound was not known until 1975. The aluminate ion is a cyclic ion, with a key struc- tural feature of individual aluminum and oxygen at- oms linked alternately into a twelve-member ring. The reaction of this material with water is a key step and must be properly controlled to facilitate the setting of the cement. After the production process, the finished cement contains about 5 percent aluminum oxide. The portland cement industry is an important one, with production intheUnited States on the order of 85 million metric tons per year. Another versatile cement, ciment fondu, is useful in marine environments and contains up to 40 percent aluminum oxide. While aluminum itself is light and strong, its prop- erties can typically be enhanced by an alloying pro- cess. Typically, aluminum is alloyed with copper, man- ganese, zinc, or silicon. Each of these alloying agents produces alloys with certain desired properties. The strength-to-weight factor is enhanced in copper al- loys. Silicon alloys have low melting points and do not expand much when heated. This property makes these materials particularly useful as welding filler and for the production of castings. The corrosion re- sistance of aluminum is enhanced by alloying with magnesium. These alloy types are widely used in ship construction, especially as external fittings. Perhaps the most widely seen examples of aluminum alloys are the manganese alloys, used in cookware, storage tanks, furniture, and highway signs. One of the more spectacular uses of aluminum is based on its strong affinity for oxygen and its tendency 34 • Aluminum Global Resources Source: Mineral Commodity Summaries, 2009 Data from the U.S. Geological Survey, .U.S.GovernmentPrinting Office, 2009. Transportation 37% Packaging 23% Building 13% Electrical 8% Machinery 8% Consumer durables 7% Other 4% U.S. End Uses of Aluminum to lose electrons (to be oxidized) in chemical reac - tions. This is well demonstrated by the thermite reac- tion, in which aluminum reacts with another metal oxide to reduce the other metal to its elemental form and generate aluminum oxide. This type of reaction tends to liberate considerable thermal energy and proceed very rapidly. This rapid heat evolution causes the other metal to be generated in a molten form. Thermite reactions are used in welding operations. While there is only one stable isotope of alumi- num, a short-lived radioactive isotope, aluminum 26, it is of potential use in datingtheuniverse. There is ev- idence from ancient rock samples that this isotope was common intheearly solar system, and thisisotope decays to a magnesium isotope. Measurement of the ratio of this decay product to the remaining alumi- num 26 allows determination of the age of the object, in much the same way that the ratio of isotopes is used in carbon dating. From these measurements, estimat- ing the length of time it took the solar system to de- velop becomes possible. Craig B. Lagrone Further Reading Altenpohl, Dietrich. Aluminum—Technology, Applica- tions, and Environment, a Profile of a Modern Metal: Aluminum from Within. 6th ed. Washington, D.C.: Aluminum Association, 1998. Büchel, Karl Heinz, Hans-Heinrich Moretto, and Pe- ter Woditsch. Industrial Inorganic Chemistry.2drev. ed. Translated by David R. Terrell. New York: Wiley-VCH, 2000. Geller, Tom. “Aluminum.” Chemical Heritage 25, no. 4 (Winter, 2007/2008): 32-36. Greenwood, N. N., and A. Earnshaw. “Aluminium, Gallium, Indium, and Thallium.” In Chemistry of the Elements. 2d ed. Boston: Butterworth-Heinemann, 1997. Krebs, Robert E. The History and Use of Our Earth’s Chemical Elements: A Reference Guide. Illustrations by Rae Déjur. 2d ed. Westport, Conn.: Greenwood Press, 2006. Massey, A. G. “Group 13: Boron, Aluminum, Gallium, Indium, and Thallium.” In Main Group Chemistry. 2d ed. New York: Wiley, 2000. Totten, George E., and D. Scott MacKenzie, eds. Hand- book of Aluminum. New York: M. Dekker, 2003. Walker, Jearl. “Retracing the Steps by Which Alumi - num Metal Was Initially Purified Back in 1886.” Sci - entific American 255, no. 2 (August, 1986): 116. Web Sites Natural Resources Canada Canadian Minerals Yearbook, Mineral and Metal Commodity Reviews http://www.nrcan-rncan.gc.ca/mms-smm/busi- indu/cmy-amc/com-eng.htm U.S. Geological Survey Aluminum: Statistics and Information http://minerals.usgs.gov/minerals/pubs/ commodity/aluminum See also: Abrasives; Alloys; Brazil; Canada; Cement and concrete; China; Clays; Gems; Hydroenergy; Metals andmetallurgy; Oxides; Russia;United States. American Chemistry Council Category: Organizations, agencies, and programs Date: Established 1872 The American Chemistry Council plays a vital role in ensuring that necessary natural resources are used re- sponsibly and economically in the production of useful chemicals and that manufactured chemical products are safe for humans, wildlife, and the environment and pose no threat to national security. Background The Manufacturing Chemists Association was formed in 1872 to represent the interests of the chemical in- dustries to state and federal governments. The name was changed to the Chemical Manufacturers Associa- tion. The name American Chemistry Council (ACC) was adoptedatthe membership meeting heldin June, 2000. The ACC is an industry trade association that rep- resents approximately two hundred American chem- ical manufacturers. Members apply the science of chemistry to produce innovative products and ser- vices that help make human lives better, healthier, and safer. ACC moved its headquarters from Rosslyn, Virginia, to Washington, D.C., in 2010. Impact on Resource Use The ACC establishes and implements goals and guidelines on health, safety, security, and environ - mental issues that are related to the use of global re - Global Resources American Chemistry Council • 35 sources by chemical companies before, during, and after the manufacturing of chemical products. In 1988, the ACC adopted the Responsible Care pro- gram to reduce harmful chemical emissions and in- crease safety. Since then emissions have been reduced by 78 percent and safety has become five times better than the average for the manufacturing industry in the United States. The Responsible Care initiative was adopted globally and practiced in many countries with the commitment to increase the safety and se- cure management of chemical processes and prod- ucts. Implementation is managed at the global level by the International Council of Chemical Associa- tions. Practices vary from country to country as dic- tated by the laws and national industry association of each country. In 2002, the American Plastics Council merged with the ACC. The plastics division of the ACC repre- sents plastic resin manufacturers, which produce ver- satile plastic products that seek to make life better, healthier, and safer. Innovative use of plastics contrib- ute to amore efficient use of global resources. In addi- tion to the plastics industries, the ACC represents the producers and distributers of chlorine. As part of the global warming and climate change debate, the ACC is a strong proponent for develop- ment of alternative energy sourcesand greater energy production in the United States. Because chemical manufacturers rely heavily on natural gas as anafford- able supply of energy to produce chemical products necessary in making medicines, packaging, comput- ers, cell phones, automobile parts, antifreeze, and health and personal care products, the ACC lobbies for reduced natural gas prices and increased natural gas exploration. In 2005, the ACC launched its “essential2” cam- paign to improve its public image and reputation by promoting the chemical industry as a vital part of the economy and growth of the United States. It has worked with the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency to make available data related to the hazards associated with manufacturing high-production-vol- ume chemicals. The top priorities of the ACC are en- ergy and climate change, chemical regulations and manufacturer-site security, support for more railway competition for transporting chemical products, and the education of the general public about the risks as- sociated with chemicals. Alvin K. Benson Web Site American Chemistry Council American Chemistry http://www.americanchemistry.com/s_acc/ index.asp See also: Chlorites; Oil and natural gas chemistry; Petrochemical products. American Farm Bureau Federation Category: Organizations, agencies, and programs Date: Established 1919 The American Farm Bureau Federation, comprising nearly three thousand county farm bureaus, is the largest farm organization in the United States and claims to be the “voice of agriculture.” It is concerned with manyissues that affect the profitabilityof farming and resists those efforts to protect natural resources and safeguard the environment that it regards as ex- treme. Background The first local group to be known as a “farm bureau” was established as a subdivision of the Chamber of Commerce of Binghamton, New York, in 1911. Over the next several years many additional local farm bu- reaus were created, primarily at the county level. The main impetus for the organization of these new units came from the county farm agents funded by the Smith-Lever Act of 1914, which established the Agri- cultural Extension Service. The county agents set up many new farm bureau units to help farmers obtain higher yields in the areas in which the agents worked. This official relationship between a government agency and an interest group did not end until the 1950’s. Impact on Resource Use In addition to the local units, the agricultural exten- sion agents promoted the formation of state associa- tions of farm bureaus. The American Farm Bureau Federation was created at a meeting in Chicago in 1919. While the federation gave early and strong support to theNew Deal agriculturalprogram, itgrad - ually assumed a more conservative stance and advo - cated more free-market-oriented policies. The Ameri - 36 • American Farm Bureau Federation Global Resources can Farm Bureau Federation describes itself as an “independent, nongovernmental, voluntary organi- zation.” In addition to strictly farm-related programs, many state farm bureaus are heavily involved in the sale of casualty and property insurance. William H. Stewart Web Site American Farm Bureau Federation The Voice of Agriculture: American Farm Bureau http://www.fb.org/ See also: Agricultural products; Agriculture indus- try; Farmland; Rangeland. American Forest and Paper Association Category: Organizations, agencies, and programs Date: Established 1992 The American Forestand Paper Association is theU.S. national trade association of the forest, pulp, paper, paperboard, and wood products industry. Background The American Forest and Paper Association was formed in 1992 by the merger of the American Forest Council, established in 1932; the American Paper In- stitute, established in 1964; and the National Forest Products Association, established in 1902. The associ- ation publishes trade-related information for both members and nonmembers. American Tree Farmer: The Official Magazine of the American Tree Farm System is pub- lished bimonthly, and two annual statistical summa- ries provide information on recovered paper utiliza- tion and on paper, paperboard, and wood pulp. A comprehensive annual study of every mill in the United States gives capacity estimates for major grades of paper, paperboard, and wood pulp. When the asso- ciation believes that sound forestry practices are be- ing misrepresented, it responds in print, as in its 1994 publication Closer Look: An On-the-Ground Investigation of the Sierra Club’s Book, “Clearcut.” Impact on Resource Use Member companies grow, harvest, and process wood and wood fiber; manufacture pulp, paper, and paper- board from both virgin and recycled fiber; and pro- duce solid wood products. Annual awards recognize companies that make the best use of recycled wood products, that demonstrate wood’s versatility, and that are innovative in address- ing environmental concerns. An annual monetary award is also made to a young scientist or engineer for original research. Jill A. Cooper Web Site American Forest and Paper Association http://www.afandpa.org/ See also: Forestry; Forests; Timber industry; Western Wood Products Association; Wood and timber. American Gas Association Category: Organizations, agencies, and programs Date: Established 1918 The American Gas Association is a multinational as - sociation of more than twenty-five hundred corpora - tions. It works with thecompanies in conducting infor - Global Resources American Gas Association • 37 President Dwight Eisenhower speaks to representatives of the Ameri- can Farm Bureau Federation at the White House in 1959. (AP/ Wide World Photos) mational, training, and public relations activities regarding the storage, transport, distribution, and sales of natural gas and gas-related products. Background In 1918, the Gas Institute and the National Commer- cial Gas Association merged to form the American Gas Association (AGA). The AGA is headquartered in Washington, D.C. Corporate members include the major utilities and pipeline companies that deal with the storage and transport of natural gas; utilities that distribute and sell natural gas; and many companies that produce, test, and sell gas-related appliances. The AGA provides information to members and the general public through its publications. The AGA Gas Energy Review is a monthly journal devoted to is- sues such as future supplies of gas, demand, prices, consumption, and marketing strategies. A monthly magazine entitled American Gas provides gas company profiles and discusses new technologies, marketing programs, and trends in the gas industry. Impact on Resource Use The AGA provides its membership with important in- formation on gas utilization, sales, finance, research management, safety, and all phases of gas transmis- sion. Further, it compiles for its membership and the general public a wide variety of national and re- gional statistics as well as financial, economic, and marketing studies. The association has developed op- erating practices and rate schedules for each type of gas service available for virtually all gas companies. The AGA established the Gas Appliance Improve- ment Network (GAIN) in cooperation with the Gas Appliance Manufacturers Association to improve ap- pliance design and performance. Dion C. Stewart Web Site American Gas Association http://www.aga.org/ See also: Oil and natural gas drilling and wells; Oil and naturalgasexploration; Oil and naturalgas reser- voirs. American Mining Congress Category: Organizations, agencies, and programs Date: Established 1897 The American Mining Congress, an industry associa- tion, was created to promote the interests of the U.S. mining industry on a national level. In 1995, it joined with the National Coal Association to form the National Mining Association. Background The American Mining Congress (AMC) was created in 1897 to represent the U.S. mining industry on na- tional issues of concern for the industry. Member companies represent mineral producers, equipment producers, and consulting and financial services pro- viders. The AMC patterned its initial organizational structure after that of the U.S. Congress. The first per- manent office was established in Denver, Colorado, in 1904. AMC’s Washington, D.C., office became the of- ficial headquarters in 1919. In April, 1995, the AMC joined with the National Coal Association to form the broader-based National Mining Association (NMA) to act asa single lobbyingvoice for themining industry. Impact on Resource Use The AMC was(and the NMA is)concerned withissues such as health and safety, access to public lands, the environment, taxation, and international competi- tiveness. The AMC had a role in the creation of the U.S. Bureau of Mines in 1910 and was involved with the implementation of federal safety requirements and the establishment of industry standards. The AMC was involved in lobbyingCongress, working with government agencies that regulate mining activities, distributing information and educational materials through its own publications and the news media, pursuing litigation initiatives, organizing trade shows and conferences, and supporting research. Gary A. Campbell Web Site American Mining Congress http://www.nma.org/ See also: Bureau of Mines, U.S.; Mining safety and health issues; National Mining Association; Public lands; Underground mining. 38 • American Mining Congress Global Resources American Petroleum Institute Category: Organizations, agencies, and programs Date: Established 1919 The American Petroleum Institute is the leading orga- nization in the United States for establishing stan- dards on oil-field drilling and oil-producing equip- ment. It is a clearinghouse of oil industry opinion. Background Impressed by the success of intra-industry coopera- tion during World War I, oil industry leaders created the American Petroleum Institute (API) in 1919. The API seeks to coordinate an industry noted for its indi- vidualism, and thus to avert government regulation as much as possible. The API gathers and periodically publishes statistics on the industry’s operations, pro- motes the standardization of oil industry equipment, and represents the industry before the public and the government. It establishes standard units of measure- ment—such as the API gravity unit, used to measure the density of petroleum—and it assigns a unique number to each oil well drilled in the United States, known as the API well number. Impact on Resource Use The API is the principal lobbying group of the oil in- dustry as a whole and is its center of analytical studies. It establishes committees to investigate and publish information about such problemsas hydrocarbon res- ervoir mechanics, petroleum production methods, American dependence on foreign oil, and conserva- tion practices. The API has been successful in most of its endeavors, including securing favorable tax treat- ment for the oil industry and helping the oil industry through many difficult situations involving public skepticism, oil-company scandals,and oil-price fluctu- ations. The API maintains departments of transporta- tion, refining, and marketing in Washington, D.C., and a department of production in Texas. Alvin K. Benson Web Site American Petroleum Institute Energy API http://www.api.org/ See also: Oil and natural gas drilling and wells; Oil and natural gas exploration; Oil industry; Petroleum refining and processing. Ammonia. See Nitrogen and ammonia Animal breeding Category: Plant and animal resources Animal breeding isthe practice of selectingand mating domesticated animals toenhance their contributions to humans. Background Animal breeding has been used to produce animals more useful to humankind since animals were first domesticated. Traditionally it involved selecting indi- vidual animals for desired traits and mating them, with the intent of producing improved offspring. In the second half of the twentieth century, extensive performance records and computer-aided analysis permitted superior animals to be identified more ac- curately and, via reproductive technologies, to be uti- lized more rapidly for improving the major livestock species. In the future, molecular biology and biotech- nology promise to expedite thisprocess by identifying desirable genes from the same or different species and incorporating them into domesticated animals. Animal breeding will continue to augment the value of domesticated animals as a renewable resource. Genetic Inheritance and Determinance Animal breeding is predicated on two principles: that the genes of an animal are inherited from its parents and that its genes are an important determinant of its appearance, structure, behavior, and productivity. In animal species, almost all genes are located in the nu- cleus of an organism’s cells; these nuclear genes are inherited from bothparents. A few genes, located out- side the nucleus in subcellular structures called mito- chondria, are derived only from the mother. The full complement of genes, known as the genome, directs the development of an individual animal, the synthe - sis of all body tissues, including metabolic machinery, Global Resources Animal breeding • 39 . use of plastics contrib- ute to amore efficient use of global resources. In addi- tion to the plastics industries, the ACC represents the producers and distributers of chlorine. As part of the global. 14,000,000 550,000 1,100,000 4,200,000 850,000 420,000 920,000 2,640,000 550,000 4 ,70 0,000 1,960,000 870 ,000 1,660,000 3,100,000 13,500,000 590,000 79 0,000 1,300,000 Aluminum: World Smelter Production, 2008 half of a metric ton of carbon, one-tenth of a metric ton of cryolite,. fraction of the energy cost of pri- mary extraction.Primary extraction consumesalmost two metric tons of ore for every metric ton of alumi - num produced; it also consumes approximately one- Global Resources