Network(s) (continued) as notation, 511–12 openness and, 514 as theory, 512–15 for X WITH Y construction, 522f Neural sets, computational, 194 Neural Theory of Language (NLT), 39, 194, 1255 computational models and, 202, 214, 227–28, 326 website, 574 Neurocognitive linguistics, 574–75, 601 Neurocomputational models, 30–31, 39 Neurological modeling, 16 Neurology, embodiment and iconicity, in literary form and affect, 1187–89 Neurophysiology, 30, 37, 39 Neuroscience, 26, 36–39, 206, 209n18, 325–26 Newman, John, 140 Newmeyer, Frederick, 579 Newport, Elisa L., 1115, 1119, 1210 Niemeier, Susanne, 243 Nietzsche, Friedrich, 599 Nikiforidou, Kiki, 155, 253–54 Ning Yu, 8 NLT. See Neural Theory of Language Nominal classification, 676–96. See also Classifier(s) categorization, CL and, 690–92 central problems of, 686–90 systems of, 678–86 systems of, from world to nouns and, 677–78 Nominal semantics, 893–97 Nominalizations, 253–54 Nondiscreteness, 150, 151t, 990 Nonequality, 150, 151t, 990 Noun(s) class systems, gender and, 679–80, 692n2 in construal, 54, 55f–56f relational, 727 schematicity and, 91, 92f, 112n12 verbs and, 439–40, 452n29, 453n30 Noun-noun compounding, 666, 667f, 668, 672n8 attribute-listing and matching approach to, 668, 669f multilevel templates and bottom-up approach to, 666, 667f, 668 Noun-verb conversion, event schemas and, 664, 665f, 666t Number, cardinal and grammatical, 1032–33 Nunberg, Geoffrey, 251, 468–70, 582 Oakley, Todd, 85, 109, 199, 1186 Object. See also Indirect objects; Subject, object and Object maps, 1053, 1056–57, 1059–60 Objective situation, 426 Objectivist Semantics, 25–27, 29 Objectivity. See also Subjectivity/objectivity subjectivity v., 414n9 universalism, relativism and, 43–44 Obviation, 792–93 Occhi, Debra, 1063–64 Occurrent reference, alternatives v., 287 –88 O’Connor, Mary Kay, 466–68, 715–16 Ogawa, Roy H., 1063–64 O’Grady, William, 708 Okamoto, Yukari, 1032 Oliveira, Marco Antonio de, 952 Olivier, Donald C., 1030 Olson, David R., 1015 ‘‘One meaning, one form,’’ 399, 641, 997 Ong, Walter J., 1015 Onomasiological profiles, 1003f, 1004 Onomasiology case studies of variations in conceptual and formal, 1000, 1001f–1005f, 1006 CL contribution to, 997–98, 999f, 1000 semasiology and, 989, 993–96 structural and pragmatic, 993 usage-based, 999f, 1000 Onomatopoeia, iconicity and, 394–95, 397–98, 402 Opacity, referential, mental spaces and, 358–63 Openness, networks and, 514 Optimality Theory (OT), 444, 581–82, 614, 628n2 Optimization, 356 Organon Model, 600–601, 1280–83, 1282f, 1289n13 Orientation cultural models of space and theory of, 1059–61 deictic, 1053–54 spatial, 1052–54, 1055f, 1056–58 spatiocultural, 1052–65 OT. See Optimality Theory Overlapping sets model, 154, 155f, 157f Overt linguistic signals, 919 Pagliuca, William, 740, 870, 876, 946–49, 951–52, 982n3 Paine, Thomas, 1184 Palmer, Gary, 624, 1046, 1048, 1052, 1063–64, 1066n3, 1190 Pancake, Ann S., 1229 Pa ˆ nini, 322 Panther, Klaus-Uwe, 244, 247, 661–62, 664 Papafragou, Anna, 249, 250 Paradigms, 172, 595, 639, 643–46. See also Word- Paradigm model ‘‘Parietal Hypothesis,’’ 326 Particles, 411, 415n18 Passives, 14, 777n5, 777n7. See also Voice Pastiosity, 1187 1320 index Path, 330–32, 333 Patient. See Actor-Patient; Agent-Patient; Voice Patient subjects, 176 Pattern Completion Principle, 382 Paul, Hermann, 237, 997 Pauwels, Paul, 220 Payne, Thomas, 852 PDP (Parallel Distributed Processing), 1270–72, 1276, 1288n6 Pederson, Eric, 1015, 1017, 1019, 1020, 1023, 1027, 1033–34 Pederson, Mary A., 52, 324 Peeters, Bert, 601–2 Peirce, Charles Sanders, 394–95, 397–98, 1188, 1257, 1283 Pelyva ´ s, Pe ´ ter, 306–8, 314n11, 876, 884n16 Penfield, Wilder, 37 Perception language and, 334 neuroscience, brain and, 26, 36–39 subjectification and, 26–27, 930 verbs of, 406 Pe ´ rez Herna ´ ndez, Lorena, 247, 249, 252 Perkins, Revere D., 870, 876, 982n3 Perspective(s) construal and, 29, 53–54, 56, 58, 66–73, 68f, 77, 77n1, 1181–82 coordination of, 66–73, 68f embodiment and, 29 explicit multiple, 70, 71f, 72–73 implicit multiple, 66–70, 68f–69f system, 328 -taking, social cognition, culture and, 1096–98 Perspectivization, 9 construal and, 48–81 general grounding and, 63–65 specific grounding and, 65–66 Philippine languages, 852–53, 864 Phillips, Betty S., 952, 955–57 Philosophical Perspectives on Metaphor (Johnson, M.), 596 Philosophy, 10, 29, 1241–65 CL challenge to, 1253–54 metaphors and, 207 of mind, conceptual structures and, 1249–52 of science and linguistics, in twentieth century, 1243–47 Philosophy in the Flesh (Lakoff/Johnson, M.), 1254 Phonemes, 113n14, 612–16, 628n1, 1280 Phonetics, 10 Phonic level, iconicity on, 402–3 Phonological alternations, life cycle of, 957 Phonology, 611–31. See also specific individuals basic principles of, 611–22 cognitive, 611, 614, 618, 620, 628n2, 1193 Cognitive Grammar and, 443–47, 453nn39–40, 454nn41–44, 612, 615, 617–18, 623, 627–28 flap and stops in, 616–17, 619–20, 621, 623, 625, 628n4 Generative, 623 as human action, 626–28 inventories, prototypes and, 622–23 Natural, 590, 613–14, 618, 623, 625 neutralization and overlap with, 621–22 profiling and, 445, 454n41 radial sets and processes and, 615–20, 621f, 628nn4–8 sign languages and, 1114–15 usage-based models and, 624–26 Phrasal verbs, 1153, 1154f–1155f Phrase Structure Grammar, 575 Physical size, in cognitive science theoretical framework, 40, 41t–42t Piaget, Jean, 125, 1095, 1267, 1276–77, 1289n9 PIBU. See Primary information-bearing unit Pied-piping, 529 Pietrandrea, Paola, 1121 Pike, Kenneth L., 171, 613 Pine, Julian M., 502, 1101, 1102 Pinker, Steven, 112n12 Pires de Oliveira, Roberta, 1224 Pitch maps, 37 Pizzuto, Elena, 1101, 1115 Plank, Frans, 1233 Plato, 25, 1243, 1259 Cratylus, 395, 1289n13 Plato’s Problem (Laurence/Margolis), 143 Plungian, Vladimir, 638, 639, 869 Poetics, 214, 223–24, 1175–1202 Point of view, 48, 57, 58, 64–65, 68, 911–14. See also Location of perspective point; Viewpoint Poles of human behavior, 601 phonological, 338, 426– 27, 444, 446, 451n7, 490, 497, 638, 1119 semantic, 338, 426–27, 444, 451n7, 490, 497, 638 Politeness and political correctness, 415n15 Polysemy, 34, 82. See also specific individuals ambiguity, 142–43, 159 brain and, 158 classical, 140, 160n2 complementary, 160n2 Construction Grammar and, 162n14 domains and, 160n2 homonymy and, 139, 141–42, 144, 152–54, 159n1, 162n15, 342 image schemas and, 219–22 of individual words or constructions, 219–21 intra v. intercategorial, 147 intractability of, 1161, 1165–66 link, 487–88 index 1321 Polysemy (continued) metaphor and, 592–97, 740 metonymy and, 592–97 monosemy and, 152–54, 161n8, 161n10, 161n12, 432, 871, 872f, 873 morphemes and, 273–74 prototypes and, 26, 90, 139–69, 160n5, 641, 733, 736 radial categories and, 26, 90, 139–69, 641 radial sets and, as extended version of prototype theory, 147–49 of related words or constructions, 221–22 schematicity and, 82, 85, 90, 99 spatial, 326, 340–42 structured nature of, 1161, 1166–68, 1169f systematic, 4, 154, 160n2 tests, 141–44, 154 vagueness and, 144, 154, 158, 160n2, 160n6 Polzenhagen, Frank, 1214, 1225 Pope, Alexander, 1193 Popova, Yanna, 1183 Popper, Karl, 322 Posner, Michael, 40 Postal, Paul M., 177, 399 Post-Whorfian relativity, fictive spaces, ground and, 1061–62 Poulin, Christine, 363–64 Pourcel, Stephanie S., 325 Pragmatic(s), 13, 590 inferencing, metonymy, discourse functions and, 248–51 model, of processing, 197 semantics v., 339, 431–32 Prague Linguistic Circle, 1280 Prague school, 590, 1267 Prefixation, 658, 659t, 660f Prepositions, 128–30, 320, 733–38 Primary information-bearing unit (PIBU), 731 Prince, Ellen F., 467 Prismatic model, 244, 671n3 Processes achievements and, 815 and change, acoustic-perceptual aspects of phonological, 951 nature of online, in usage-based models, 625–26 radial sets and, phonology and, 615–20, 621f, 628nn4–8 reductive, 950 Processing Best Fit Principle and, 517–18, 535 Natural Language, 570 pragmatic model of, 197 Word Grammar and, 517–18, 535 Profile(s), 434 composite, 904f determinance, complement-modifier distinction and, 106f, 107, 115nn31–32, 442, 903, 904f determinant, 441–42 onomasiological, 1003f, 1004 Profile, base and, 182–83, 435. See also specific individuals metonomy and, 452n26 prominence and, 901, 902f–904f, 905–6 Profiling, 272, 434–37, 436f, 452n24 constructional, 776 phonology and, 445, 454n41 subject and object, 442, 453n37 Prominence, 435–36, 445. See also Profiling; Trajector/landmark alignment construal and, 53, 54, 56, 77n1 as factor in reference point selection, 898 Figure/Ground and, 899f, 900–901 pronominal anaphora and, 898, 899–907 voice and, 829, 831, 832, 864 Pronominal anaphora, 890–915 Pronouns, with construal, 51, 66, 72, 77n9 Protagoras, 677 Protoscene, 153, 161n10 Prototype(s), 434 categorization and, 26, 34, 88, 89f–90f, 91, 92f, 112nn10–12, 139–69, 145–46, 641, 989–90 effects, 145–46, 150, 151t frames and, 173 Gestalt, Figure/Ground and, 1278–80 ‘‘isa,’’ default inheritance and, 515–16 phonology, inventories and, 622–23 polysemy and, 26, 90, 139–69, 160n5, 641, 733, 736 radial categories and, 26, 90, 139–69, 641, 1149 in schematic network, 90f schematicity and, in learning, 1148–51 Prototype theory, 144–51, 158, 590. See also Fuzzy logic prototype effects and, 145–46 radial sets and polysemy as extended version of, 147–49 standard version of, 147 Prototypical speaker, 400–401, 408, 413, 414n9 Prototypicality, 4, 9. See also specific individuals additional features of, 149–51 isomorphism, polysemy and, 399 in lexical structure, 1161, 1162–65 literature and, 1177–79 Proverbs, 697, 698, 703–4, 717, 720 Proximate, distal v., 65 Psycholinguistics, 214, 224–25, 268, 324–25 Psychology, 10, 15. See also Behaviorism; Cognitive psychology; specific individuals Cognitive Science and, 1266–94 conceptual foundations in, 1270–83 1322 index experimental, 17 of higher mental processes, 1268–69 Psychomechanics, 598 Pustejovsky, James, 252 Putnam, Hilary, 1164, 1260, 1261 Pu ¨ tz, Martin, 16 Quadri, Bruno, 997 Quantifiers, classifiers v., 681–82 Quantitative studies, 127 Queller, Kurt, 1144 Quine, Willard Van Orman, 141, 146, 358 Quinn, Naomi, 1204–7, 1217 Radden, Gu ¨ nter, 7, 238, 239–41, 245, 1145 Radial categories can as, 872f of constructions, 149, 773 -er suffixation and, 661–62 prototypes, polysemy and, 26, 90, 139–69, 641, 1149 Radial sets, 148, 154–55, 156f–157f, 452n16. See also specific individuals abstract representation of, 156f development of, 990–91 polysemy and, as extended version of prototype theory, 147–49 processes and, phonology and, 615–20, 621f, 628nn4–8 schematic network combining overlapping sets model and, 157f Raichle, Marcus, 40 Raising, 528f, 578 Cognitive Grammar and, 796–98, 799nn10–11 complements and, 795–97 description of, 795 Rakova, Marina, 161n12, 1254 Ramey, Martin, 1190 Rappaport, Hovav, 662 Rationalist and Romantic Models, 1235 Raven, Peter H., 150, 1016 Ravid, Dorit, 1178–79 Read, Charles, 1015 Reality basic, known and immediate, 878 cognitive, of conceptual metaphors, 195–98 projected and potential, 309–11, 310f return to, 1285 Reasoning abductive, 646 argumentation theory and, 259n4 conditional, 1031–32, 1037n7 as journey through space, 314n11 with metonymic links, 248 within pretence cocoon, 203 Reciprocals, 856, 864n3 Reconstitution, process of, 286 Reddy, Michael J., 174, 189 Reductionism, 481, 496, 1250 Reductions, 947–48 Reference frames, 1033–34. See also Frame of reference Reference points. See also Point of view; Vantage point cognitive, 145 conceptual, 897–906 dominions and, 182, 897–98, 907, 911 factors determining selection of, 898–99 with Figure/Ground, 129, 135n4, 900 salience and, 133–34 transitivity and, 765–66 Referent, 327 Referential opacity, mental spaces and, 358–63 Referential triangle (me-you-it/speaker-listener- topic), 1092 Reflexives, middle voice and, 859–62, 863f, 864 n5 Regier, Terry, 228–29, 326, 338, 1031 Region, 330, 331–32 grams, 743 Japanese locative nouns for, 331f onstage, 425, 437 in spatial semantics, 330–32 Reh, Mechthild, 739 Reichenbach, Hans, 804–8, 811, 819, 822n4 Reinhart, Tanya, 818, 907 Reisig, 594 Relata, 410–11 Relational constructions, 726–52 head of, 730–31, 738, 745n1 syntactic relation of governance among elements of, 730–33 themes for next decade regarding, 744–45 variation of, 729–33 Relational grams boundedness of, 730, 745n1 grammaticalization of, 738–44 host of, 730 internal structure of, 730 order of landmark and, 729–30 in relational construction, 728–37 Relational nouns, 727 Relational trajector, 131, 327 Relationships, 440–41, 453nn32–33 atemporal, 440, 453n33 classification of, 518, 519f, 927–29 component-composite, schemas and, 107, 108f, 109, 115nn33–34 distinguishing, with and without labels, 520f, 521 index 1323 Relationships (continued) form-meaning, inflectional morphemes and, 638–42 of schematicity, 83–84, 87, 89–91, 111n3, 112nn5–6 Relativism, 4, 43–44 Relativity principle, 598–99 Relator constructions, 411–13, 415nn17–20 Relator in the middle (RIM), 410–13 Relators coordinate, 411 nonpredicative, 411–12 predicative, 411–12, 415n19 subordinative, 411–12 Relevance Principle, 382 Religious texts, 1190 Repeat identification, 905–6 Representation. See also specific types abstract, 286–87 availability of, 288 degree of deviation from intended v. actual, 285–86 developing, situated, embodied mind and, 1284–87 diagrammatic, 576 factors involving occurrence of, 286–88 factors involving relation between reference and its, 284–86 inclusion of, 286–88 intended v. actual reference and, 284–85 presence v. absence of explicit, 286–87 recency of, 288–89 reference v., 284 symbolization and, 1280–83, 1282f Representational redescription, 1273 Research, 3–4, 9, 1087n6. See also Tasks; Variable(s); specific subjects empirical, 16–18, 159, 1187 Retiming changes, 949–50 Rey-Debove, Josette, 1161 Rhee, Seongha, 222 Rhetorica ad Herennium, 237, 258n1 Rhetorical Structure Theory, 547, 552 Rice, Sally, 7 empirical methods and, 17 on intuition, 1249 on polysemy, 159, 341 on spatial semantics, 322, 734, 736 on transitivity, 764 Rich, Adrienne, 1185 Richards, Jack C., 1141 Richardson, Alan, 1188 Ricoeur, Paul, 596 Riemer, Nick, 245, 258 Rijkhoff, Jan, 415n16 RIM. See Relator in the middle Roberts, John M., 1030 Robotics cognitive, 31 epigenetic, 343 Rockridge Institute, 175 Rodgers, Theodore S., 1141 Rohrer, Tim, 343n1, 1190, 1229 Role and Reference Grammar, 547, 549, 551 , 552, 554, 556, 730 Romaine, Suzanne, 224 Romeo and Juliet, 355, 356f Rong Chen, 8 Rorty, Richard, 1260 Rosch, Eleanor on categories, 146, 595, 691 on colors, 145, 1030 on entrenchment, 122, 123, 125 on word-formation, 668 Rostand, Edmond, 1186 Rowland, Caroline, 1102 Royen, Gerlach, 678, 690, 692n2 Rubba, Johanna, 444 Rubin, Edgar, 1279, 1289n10 Rubino, Rejane B., 1101 Rudzka-Ostyn, Brygida, 7, 17, 156, 1144, 1153–55, 1172 Ruhl, Charles, 152 Ruiz de Mendoza, Iba ´ n ˜ ez, 239, 243, 247, 249, 251, 252, 660 Rule(s) constraints and, 581–82 loss/ordering, 959 schema v., 1270–72 syntax and, 12–13, 82 Rule/list fallacy, 568, 575, 584n1, 946 Rumelhart, David, 111n2, 1270–72 Russell, 358 Russo, Tommaso, 1121–22 Rutherford, William, 1145 Ruwet, Nicolas, 248, 249, 414n11, 792 Ryder, Mary Ellen, 662–64, 666–68 Sadock, Jerrold, 142, 526 Sag, Ivan, 468–70, 582 Salience, 119–20 attention and, 264–65 cognitive, 119–20 construal and, 56–57, 934 definiteness and, 133 Giora on, 159, 162n16 onomasiological, 125 ontological, 119–20, 132 reference points and, 133–34 semantic roles, clauses and, 131–33 spreading activation and, 119, 122, 135n6 1324 index Salience and entrenchment, 87–90 attention with, 117, 127–28, 135n6 basic levels and, 117–38, 998 effects in syntax, 127–34 Saliency clause structure and, 775–76 hierarchy, 132–33, 135n5 topicality and, 135n5 Samuel, A. G., 617 Sanction(s) by components, 107, 108f entrenchment and, 121, 134n1 of established and novel structures, 100, 101f as mechanism of generativity with schemas, 99–100, 101f, 114n23 Sanders, Ted, 550, 926, 930 Sandikcioglu, Esra, 16, 1229 Sandra, Dominiek empirical methods and, 17 on intuition, 1249 on polysemy, 153, 159, 341 on spatial semantics, 322, 324, 734 Sanford, Anthony J., 735, 922 Santa Ana, Otto, 1228 Santibanez-Saenz, Francisco, 660 Sapir, Edward, 1013, 1066 on phonology, 613, 618 on sign language, 1113 Sapir-Whorf Hypothesis, 598, 1012 Sapper system, 203 Saussure, Ferdinand de on autonomy, 579 Humboldt v., 1203–4, 1205f on iconicity, 394, 395, 397, 1117 influence of, 597–98, 600–602 on language/linguistics, 11–12, 1233, 1245, 1257 on langue and parole, 21, 324, 598, 602, 1233, 1280 on metaphors, 594 on oppositions and categories, 112n13 on phonemes, 612–13 structuralism and, 597–98 Saxton, Matthew, 1020, 1032 Sayings, 698 Scanning, summary v. sequential, 230 Scenarios, in anthropological linguistics, 1046, 1066n2 Scenes in anthropological linguistics, 1046, 1050 commercial, 272–73 constructs and, 173 primary, 208n7 Schachter, Paul, 852 Schane, Sanford, 613 Schank, Roger C., 178 Schema(s). See also event schemas; Image schemas; X-schemas analogy and, 82, 100–101, 102f, 114nn24–26 blends and, 87, 109, 110f, 115n35 categorization with, 88, 89f–90f, 91, 92f, 112nn10–12, 214 classical and prototype-based categories with, 88, 89f–90f, 91, 92f, 112nn10–12 classification, coherence and gradation between one and two with, 97, 98f–99f component-composite relationship and, 107, 108f, 109, 115nn33–34 COMPULSION, 306f computational, 111n2 Construction Grammar and, 97 constructional, 754–55, 757–60, 777n1, 1100–1103, 1105f core, 335 domains and, 103–5, 114nn27–29 elaboration sites, syntactic coherence and, 105, 106f, 114n30 elaborations of, 83–84, 87, 96–97, 114n22 figurative language and, 82, 102, 103f functions, in Cognitive Grammar, 88–110 generalizations, rules, patterns and constructions with, 94–97, 113nn19–20, 114n21 headship and, 82, 106, 109, 115n32 idiom, 712–16 inference, 248–49 linguistic, metaphor and, 1277–78 metaphors, metonymy and, 102, 103f metonymy and, 102, 103f, 104–5 nouns, verbs and, 93, 113n17 REMOVAL OF RESTRAINT, 307f rhetorical, 216 rule v., 1270–72 sanction as mechanism of generativity with, 99–100, 101f, 114n23 self, autobiographic memory and, 1274–75 source-oriented and product-oriented, 499–501 spatial grams and, 734–36 superordinate concepts and substantive nature of, 91–94, 112n13 syntactic rules as, 95–97, 96f as term, 83, 111n2, 1046–47 Schemata, 111n1, 216, 1277 Schematic networks, 152–57 blends in, 109 combining overlapping sets model and radial sets, 157f comparing representational formats with, 154–57 cross-cutting classificatory schemas in, 97 granularity of definition with, 152, 154, 157 models, 153–54, 155f–157f, 161n13 index 1325 Schematic networks (continued) parsimony or polysemy with, 152–54 polysemy and, 87 prototype in, 90f Schematic systems, 267–68. See also specific systems Schematicity, 82–116 comparison and, 86–87, 89, 112n7, 112n9 construal and, 51, 53, 54–56, 77n3, 113n17 extension facilitating, 86–87, 112nn7–9 full and partial, 86–87, 89 hierarchies of, 84, 92–93, 94f, 113nn14–15 isomorphism and, 400, 414n4 nature of, 83–85 polysemy and, 82, 85, 90, 99 prototypes and, in learning, 1148–51 relationships of, 83–84, 87, 89–91, 111n3, 112nn5–6 similarity and, 86–87 ubiquity of, 85 valence and, 82, 106 word-formation and, 654–55, 656f, 666, 667f Schematization, levels of, 230–31 Schieffelin, Edward L., 1063 Schiffrin, Deborah, 917 Schmid, Hans-Jo ¨ rg, 8 on basic levels, 95 on contrast, 658–59, 672n5 on entrenchment and salience, 87, 89 on iconicity, 1145 on overlapping sets model, 155 Scho ¨ n, Donald A., 174 Schuchardt, Hugo, 952 Schulze, Rainer, 17, 736, 1172 Schulze, Wolfgang, 830 Schwenter, Scott A., 742 Science. See also Cognitive Science ideology and, 1232–33, 1234f, 1235 metaphors and, 1232–35 Scinto, Leonard F. M., 1015 Scope, 437 construal and, 56, 77n1 double-, blends, 378, 391–92 immediate, 437, 452n25 maximal, 437 of spatial semantics, 320–21 Scribner, Sylvia, 1015 Scripts in anthropological linguistics, 1046, 1066n2 restaurant, 178 Searle, John, 192, 1255, 1260 Secondary figure, 131 Sectors, 425–26 Segments, 445, 454n42 Seiler, Hansjakob, 683, 685 Selective projection, 378, 380 Self autobiographic memory, schema and, 1274–75 socially situating, 1286–87 Semantic(s). See also Compositional semantics; Generative Semantics; Lexical semantics; Spatial semantics; T-semantics; U-semantics of adpositions, 726–28, 733–38 attenuation, 743 Cognitive, 294, 336, 553, 998–99, 1144, 1162, 1180, 1249 Cognitive Grammar and, 431–38 coherence, 757–58 conceptualization and, 431–38, 451n13, 452n24, 491 Continental Structural, 988 domains, 681, 687–88, 691–92, 693n9 extension, 652 general orientation, 1064–65 meaning and, 12–15, 25–27 neglect of, in Generative Linguistics, 573 nominal, 893–97 pragmatics v., 339, 431–32 prestructuralist, 593–94, 997, 1161–62 Truth-conditional, 29, 1248 word order in, 437–38 Semantic categories as conceptual universals, 336–37 as emergent from interaction of motivation and convention, 338 as usage-based, 337–38 Semantic change causes/motivating factors of, 27, 160n4, 946 diachronic, larynx evolution and, 43 directionality of, 34 expressivity and efficiency as causes of, 160n4 frame-to-focus variation and, 222 generalization and, 222, 975 in grammaticalization, 975–79 image schemas and, 222–23 image schemas, grammaticalization and, 222–23 metaphors and, 222–23 metonymy and, 236–37, 255 subjectification and, 74–76, 222 from subsets, 991–92 Semantic field, 1183 Semantic interpretation, 468–70 Semantic maps semantic similarity and, 501 typology and, 1083–86, 1087nn8–10 Semantic polygenesis, 991 Semantic roles event types and, 760–63, 777n3 salience, clauses and, 131–33 Semantic similarity closeness and, 500 semantic map model and, 501 1326 index Semantic Structures (Jackendoff), 305 Semantic tagging, 159 Semasiological change, 74 Semasiology diachronic, 989–92 onomasiology and, 989, 993–96 Semiotic Grammar, 504 Senft, Gunter, 1065 Senses, of expressions, 432–33, 451n16 Sequential markers, 917–18 Serra-Borneto, Carlo, 221–22 Set theory, fuzzy, 145 Sethuraman, Nitya, 1104 Seto, Ken-ichi, 258n1 Shaffer, Barbara, 1129 Shakespeare, William, 1183–85 Shape classification, 1031 Sharifian, Farzad, 1147 Sharwood Smith, Michael, 1145 Shelley, Percy Bysshe, 1183, 1188 Shen, Yeshavahu, 1187 Shepard, Roger, 36–37, 1272 Shibatani, Masayoshi, 835–39, 852 Shore, Bradd, 204–5, 1063 Shwedder, Richard A., 1026 Sign languages, 10, 1113–36. See also Fingerspelling; specific types attention and, 265 CL and, 1117–25 classifiers in, 680 gestures and, 453n40, 1125–27, 1128f–1131f iconicity and, 1117–22, 1188 linguistic research on, 1114–16 mental spaces, blends and, 1125 mental spaces, modality and, 354, 363–65 metaphor and, 1122–23 metonymy and, 1124 morphology of, 1115–16 phonology and, 1114–15 spatial semantics and, 335 spoken and, 1035–36, 1114, 1128 syntax and, 1116 Sign theories, 479, 1283 Signals, symbols v., 1281, 1282f, 1283, 1289 nn15– 17 Siironoinen, Mari, 1052 Silverstein, Michael, 132, 1013 Similarity as ground, 191 metaphors and, 191–92 schematicity and, 86–87 Similes, 699–700 Simo Bobda, Augustin, 1214 Simons, Wim, 923 Simple clause patterns, Figure/Ground in, 131–33 Simpson, Paul, 1189 Sinha, Chris, 7 on experientialist nature of CL, 1007 on language acquisition, 30, 31, 226–27, 1060–61, 1098 philosophy and, 1251, 1253–54 on spatial semantics, 338–39, 737 Situation(s) aspect, 816 speech and evaluative, 803, 822nn1–2 tense and, 803, 811, 822nn1–2 Skinner, B. F., 12, 1245 Skinner, Debra, 1207 Slang, 702 Slobin, Dan I. on inflectional morphemes, 639–40 on language acquisition, 1098–99 on languages, 692 on linguistic relativity, 1025, 1029, 1034 on literary translation, 1192 on spatial semantics, 324 on ‘‘thinking for speaking,’’ 52, 547 Sloman, Steven A., 1034 SME (Structure Mapping Engine), 203 Smieja, Birgit, 8 Smith, Marion, 1013 Smith, Michael B. on complements, 787 on datives, 774 on image schemas, 221, 222–23 on metaphors, 595 Smith, Neilson, 619 Social cognition, culture, perspective-taking and, 1096–98 Society, meaning, embodiment and, 1275– 76 Sociohistorical linguistics, 13 Sociolexicology, 995–96, 1000 beyond, 1006–7 Sociolinguistics, 10, 13 constraints on speaker of COOKIE and ME, 534f, 535 variation and, 10, 15–16, 1173 Word Grammar and, 534f, 535 Sociosemantic theory, 1164 Sociovariational analysis, 15–16 Soffritti, Marcello, 1151 Solomon, Karen Olseth, 1279 Solska, Agnieszka, 1144, 1146, 1152 Song, Nam Sun, 249, 250 Sound changes, 945–46 conclusions about, 957 gestures and nature of, 947–48 lexical diffusion of, 952, 953t, 954 perceptually motivated, 955–56 specifying class of, 946–47 theoretical consequences of lexically and phonetically gradual, 954–55 usage-based approach to, 946–57 index 1327 Sound symbolism iconicity and, 394 metaphors and, 207 Source and target domains exact nature of, of metaphorical transfer, 307–8 with metaphors, 181, 190–91, 199, 202–3, 596, 642–43, 718–19 with metonymy, 239, 240–42, 243, 251 Source domains, 181, 190–91, 199, 202–3 backgrounding, 242 Space(s). See also Mental spaces; Spatial semantics blended, 378 conceptual, 320, 501, 1085 construal and, 54, 77n3 cultural models of, orientation theory and, 1059–61 grounded, 364 input, blend and generic, 199 linguistic relativity and, 1033–34 viewpoint, 806–7 Space builders, 371, 925 Space Grammar, 320, 354, 591 Spaces, Worlds, and Grammar (Fauconnier/ Sweetser), 354 Spatial conceptualization, 231 Spatial grams meaning components as uses of, 732–33 relational constructions and, 734, 741–42 schemas and, 734–36 spatial semantics and, 320, 734 Spatial language conceptual metaphors and, 30–31, 39 spatial semantics and, 320 Spatial representations (SR), 337 Spatial semantics, 318–50. See also Landmark; Motion; Path; Region; Trajector; Viewpoint; specific individuals basic concepts of, 326–34 computational models and, 228–29, 326 direction in, 332–33 image schemas and, 326, 330, 336 linguistic description, cross-linguistic generalizations and, 334–36 methodologies for investigating, 322–26 scope of, 320–21 summary and guidelines for future research in, 342–43 theoretical issues and controversies with, 336–42 Spatiocultural orientation, 1052–65 Speaker constraints on, of COOKIE and ME, 534f, 535 iconicity and closeness to, 408–9 prototypical, 400–401, 408, 413, 414n9 S(peaker) and H(earer), in Cognitive Grammar, 77n6 Speech act functions, metonymy and, 246–47 modality, 314n9, 872 relations, 927–29 Speech event, 803 Speech, parts of, 439 Speelman, Dirk, 17, 1003–6 Spha ¨ renmischung (missing of spheres), 600, 1277 Spivey, Michael J., 17 Spooren, Wilbert, 550, 926, 930 Sprachpsychologie (psychology of language), 1267 SR. See Spatial representations Stage model, 311–12, 753–54, 761 nominal semantics and, 893, 894f, 895, 896f Sta ´ hlin, Gustav, 596, 599 Stalking with stories, 1063 Stampe, David, 617–18, 623, 628n6, 947 Stanulewicz, Danuta, 599 Starting point, voice and, 831–32 Stassen, Leon, 1086 State(s) actions and, 815–16 change-of-,subject, middle voice and, 853–59 cognitive, 267, 295 point, 816 Statistical methodology, 159 Steen, Francis, 1186 Steen, Gerard J. on literature, 1177–78, 1180, 1185 on metaphors, 206, 1185 Stefanowitsch, Anatol, 17, 1173 Stereotypes extensional concepts v., 1164–65 social, 180 tautologies and, 256 Stern, Daniel, 35–36 Stern, Gustaf, 997 Sternberg, Meir, 1180 Stimulus-response theory, 12 Stock, Penelope F., 1166 Stokoe, William C., 1114–15, 1118, 1126 Stops, flap and, 616–17, 619–20, 621, 623, 625, 628n4 ‘‘Story of Over’’ (Brugman), 323, 1249 Stratificational Grammar, 512 Stratificational Linguistics, 601 Strengthening(s), 951–52 pragmatic, inference or, 976–77 Structural priming, 513 Structuralism, 597–98 Studdert-Kennedy, Michael, 1126 Sturtevant, Edgar H., 958 1328 index Subject clause construction and, 755–56, 770, 771f middle voice, change-of-state and, 853–59 topic v., 135n6 Subject, object and, 6 causal chains, verbal profile and, 763–64 of likes, 521f perception, in subjectification, 26–27 profiling, 442, 453n37 voice and, 829, 831, 864n1 Subjectification, 73–76. See also specific individuals Functional Linguistics and, 551, 559n15 modality and, 870, 874–80, 876–80, 882–83, 884n19 perception and, 26–27, 930 research on, 547, 558n10 semantic change and, 74–76, 222 subjectivity v., 74 Subjectivity of idealism, 322 subjectification v., 74 Subjectivity/objectivity, 53, 70, 76, 78n18, 436–37, 743–44, 877 Substitution theory, of metonymy, 237–38 Subvocalization, 1020–21 Suffixation, -er, 660–61, 662f, 663t, 671, 672n7 Supalla, Ted, 1115 Suppletion, 639, 647 Suprasegmental changes, 956–57 Surface structure (S-structure), 464 Suzuki, Satoko, 789–90 Svorou, Soteria on grammaticalization, 741–42 on spatial semantics, 320, 338 Swanepoel, Piet, 1169 Sweetser, Eve, 7, 567, 1207 on blends, 110, 1186 on metaphors, 33–34, 245, 354, 872, 1185 on modals, 300, 305–6, 309–10, 314nn9–10, 872, 874–75, 883n5, 884n12, 884nn8–9, 885n23 on relations, 927–30 on tense, 370 Symbol(s) icon, index and, 397 signals v., 1281, 1282f, 1283, 1289nn15–17 Symbolic, iconicity and, 397, 414n5 Symbolic structures assemblies of, 438–43 of constructions, 472f, 480–81 content requirement of, in Cognitive Grammar, 218–19 Symbolism, sound, 207, 394 Symbolization, representation and, 1280–83, 1282f Synaesthesia, 225–26, 1187 Syncresis, 639 Synecdoche, metonymy and, 238, 248, 258n1 Synesthesia, metaphors and, 207 Syntactic and semantic structure, anatomy of construction and, 472–76 Syntactic change diachronic linguistics and, 946 paths of, 502 Syntactic figure, 131 Syntactic ground, 131 Syntactic level, diagrammatic iconicity on, 405–13 Syntactic roles, clause constructions and, 754–56 Syntactic Structures (Chomsky), 569–70 Syntax. See also specific individuals acquisition of, inductive model of, 501 centrality of, in Generative Linguistics, 572 factors involving morphology and, 10, 274–76, 470–71 force dynamics in, 311–13 lexicon and, 14–15, 471f, 1281 logical, 1245 morphology and, 10, 274–76, 470–71 rules and, 12–13, 82 salience and entrenchment effects in, 127–34 semantics and, of A, SMALL, CAT, MEOW, 531f, 532 semantics and, of A small cat miaowed, 532f semantics, conceptual interface between, 4 sign languages and, 1116 usage-based, 1103–4, 1105f, 1106–7 Word Grammar and, 527–29 Systemic Linguistics, 546, 551, 552, 558n 9 Systemic-Functional Grammar, 14, 546, 552, 554, 560n22, 590, 1223 Szabo ´ ,Pe ´ ter, 1144 Tabakowska, Elzbieta, 1191 Tagmemic formulas, 171 Takahashi, Kiyoko, 333 Takano, Yohtaro, 1032 Takubo, Yuki, 371 Talmy, Leonard, 7, 567 on construal, 49, 50, 52, 54–56, 77nn2–3 on event frames, 761 on Figure/Ground, 128, 130t, 354, 644, 729, 818, 1099 on force dynamics, 35, 77n2, 294–308, 313, 873, 883n7, 884n8, 884n10, 1049, 1096 Gestalt and, 591 on image schemas, 214, 1094 on inflectional morphology, 639, 647 on languages, 3, 678 index 1329 [...]... tense and, 810–11 Vantage Theory, 158, 1030 Variable(s) controlling extraneous, 1024–27 linguistic, 1024–25 nonlinguistic subject, 1026–27, 1037n4 responses, 1024 Variationist studies, 159 Variations behavioral consequences of linguistically determined cognitive, 1021–22 in conceptual and formal onomasiology, case studies of, 1000, 1001f–1005f, 1006 cultural, 1213–16 in expressions of inflectional morphology,... 1013 structured, 878 Wundt, Wilhelm, 1066, 1267, 1269, 1278–79, 1288n4 ¨ Wurzburg school of Denkpsychology, 599 ¨ Wuster’s Vienna school of terminology, 1169 Wyman, Virginia J., 956 X-schemas computational models and, 202, 227–28 f-struct of, 227 Yangklang, Peerapat, 335 Yu, Ning, 1211 Zadeh, Lofti on fuzzy set theory, 145 on polysemy and monosemy, 161n12 Zagajewski, Adam, 1192 Zavala, Roberto, 832... 583 Generative Linguistics and, 573–74, 576 Universalism bodily experience and, 1208–9, 1217–18 relativism, objectivity and, 43–44 Unpacking Principle, 382 Usage genetics, competence, performance, social code and, 11–13 language change and, 14–15 meaning and, rules v., 16 1332 index Usage events, 422, 425, 426f categorization of, 428f–429f, 430 definition of, 425 structural description of, 429 Usage-based... time-moving models of, 195–96 linguistic relativity and, 1034 metaphors and, 195–96, 204–5, 642–43, 736, 1123 of reference, tense and, 805–6, 810, 819, 822n4 Tobin, Vera, 1186 Todd, Zazie on jokes, 160n3 on metonymies, 256 on simile and metaphor, 1187 Token frequency, 499–500, 1099 Tolstoy, Nikolaevich, 1183 Tomasello, Michael, 6, 14, 583, 1283 on cognitive differences between humans and other primates,... 1006 sociolinguistics and, 10, 15–16, 1173 typological, 10 Veale, Tony, 203 Vector, 301, 331 Vendler, Zeno, 813–16 Verb(s) See also Raising classes, 813–16 clause constructions and, 756–57, 758f–760f in construal, 50–52, 54, 55f–56f, 69, 72 idioms, incorporating, 699 of judging, 171 modal, 871–80 nouns and, 439–40, 452n29, 453n30 of perception, 406 phrasal, 698, 1153, 1154f–1155f Verb Island hypothesis,... Susan, 225–26 Wang, William S.-Y., 952, 954 War of the Ghosts story, Boas and, 1272, 1288n8 Ward, Gregory, 467 Wasow, Thomas, 468–70 Watt, Ian, 1015 Watters, James K., 221 The Way We Think (Fauconnier/Turner), 373 Web Principle, 382 Weber, Max, 1257 Weingart, Peter, 1233 Weinrich, Harald, 596–97 Weinstein, Scott, 922 Weinzweig, Helen, 1189 Werth, Paul, 1183 Wertheimer, Max, 597, 1278, 1289n11 White, Michael,... and, 511–12 networks as theory and, 512–15 networks illustrating notation of, 512f processing and, 517–18, 535 sociolinguistics and, 534f, 535 syntax and, 527–29 website, 536 word order in, 527f, 528–29 Word meanings, image schemas and, 1094–96 Word order default and exceptional, 527f in semantics, 437–38 in Word Grammar, 527f, 528–29 Word Power: Phrasal Verbs and Compounds— A Cognitive Approach (Rudzka-Ostyn),... Grammar, 484–85, 504 Unipolar organization, 444, 446 Uniqueness, labels and, 520–21 Units, 424–30, 451n5, 451n7 See also LUs activation of categorizing, 429f, 430 atomic, 481, 496, 505n4 categorization of, 428–30 elements, components and, of constructions, 474–75, 476f inventory of, 424 phonological, 427, 890 PIBU, 731 semantic, 427, 451n7, 890 symbolic, 427, 451n7, 890, 1145 Universal(s) conceptual, 4, 336–37... Wilcox, Sherman, 364, 1119, 1126 Williams, Darrell, 222 Williams, Richard, Venus and Serena, 250 Windowing, of attention, 267, 286, 308 Witherspoon, Gary, 1049, 1052 Wittgenstein, Ludwig, 146, 595 ´ Wojcik-Leese, Elzbieta, 1191 Wolf, Hans-Georg, 1214, 1225 Women, Fire, and Dangerous Things (Lakoff), 569, 598, 677, 1014 Woodman, Claudia, 1046 Word form, 524–25 Word Grammar, 9, 509–39, 574 Best Fit Principle... discourse and, 916–41 Theme(s) See also Voice in focus strategy, 833–37, 838f, 839, 842 force dynamics and, 302–3, 314n6 for next decade, regarding relational constructions, 744–45 Theory formation, 9 generative, 6 Theory-Theory, 158 Thibault, Paul J., 597 THING category, 91, 92f ‘‘Thinking for speaking,’’ 52, 547 Thomas Aquinas, Saint, 189 Thompson, Sandra, 14 on complements, 798 on construal, 72 on . 726–52 head of, 730–31, 738, 745n1 syntactic relation of governance among elements of, 730–33 themes for next decade regarding, 744–45 variation of, 729–33 Relational grams boundedness of, 730,. to, 1253–54 metaphors and, 207 of mind, conceptual structures and, 1249–52 of science and linguistics, in twentieth century, 1243–47 Philosophy in the Flesh (Lakoff/Johnson, M.), 1254 Phonemes,. 8 NLT. See Neural Theory of Language Nominal classification, 676–96. See also Classifier(s) categorization, CL and, 690–92 central problems of, 686–90 systems of, 678–86 systems of, from world to