Optical Networks: A Practical Perspective - Part 86 pdf

polarization-mode dispersion (PMD) (continued)

origin, 320

outage, 320

outage probability, 320

penalty causes, 320

power penalty, 354-355

RZ modulation and, 322

second-order, 322

for typical fiber, 320

See also dispersion

policing, 513-514

population inversion, 153

higher, 156

SOAs and, 162-163

for thermal equilibrium, 156

positive dispersion fibers, 95-98

postal, telephone, and telegraph (PTT)

companies, 4 power amplifiers, 290, 291

power penalty, 284-287

allocation, 287

budgeting, 286

extinction ratio, 288

four-wave mixing (FWM), 330

impairments resulting in, 286

interchannel crosstalk, 301,303

intrachannel crosstalk, 300, 301

lumped amplifiers, 295

optimized threshold setting and, 285

power transfer function, 745

dielectric slab, 745-746

dielectric thin-film filter, 748, 749

of Fabry-Perot filter, 131,132

multiple dielectric slabs, 748

power transients, 296

PPS testbeds, 650-657

All-Optical Network (AON)

consortium, 655

BT Labs, 654

Contention Resolution by Delay Lines

(CORD) testbed, 656-657 focus, 650

FRONTIERNET switch, 652-654

KEOPS (Keys to Optical Packet Switching),

650-652 key features, 651

NTT optical ATM switches, 652-654

Princeton University, 654-655

See also photonic packet-switched (PPS)

networks practical networks, 25 prechirping, 343 Princeton University testbed, 654-655

private line services, 7 private network-network interface (PNNI) signaling protocol, 581

private user-network interfaces, 382 probability density functions Gaussian distribution, 752-753 Maxwellian, 753

for photocurrent, 259

random variables, 751-752 probability mass function, 753-754 propagation

by total internal reflection, 52 calculation methods, 130-131 delay, 647

error, 247 intensity dependence, 736 light, 50-64

in nonlinear medium, 81-83 pulse, 731-740

soliton, 336, 337 wave, 743-747 propagation constant, 59, 84, 110

at angular frequency, 84 normalized, 61 protection, 537, 538 1+ 1,544-546 1:1,546 bandwidth-efficient, 679

capacity, 584 client layer, 563 dedicated, 540 implementation, 537

in IP networks, 558-559 mechanisms in different layers, 582 mesh, 576-581

nonrevertive, 540 optical layer, 560-582 point-to-point links, 5 4 4 - 5 4 6 protect paths, 539

revertive, 540 service classes based on, 5 6 6 - 5 6 7

shared, 540, 584

in SONET/SDH, 542-558

subnetwork connection (SNCP), 544, 547

INDEX 8 2 1

working paths, 539

See also failures

protection switching, 199, 537

automatic (APS), 541-542

bidirectional, 540, 541,542

unidirectional, 540, 541-542

protect paths, 539

public user-network interfaces, 382

pulse-broadening

chromatic dispersion, 70, 71

SPM and, 84, 86

pulse compression effect, 72, 73

pulse propagation, 731-740

chirped Gaussian, 734-735

nonlinear effects on, 735-738

soliton, 738-739

pulses

chirped Gaussian, 69-74,

104, 356, 734-735

chirp RZ, 100

envelope, 739

framing, 620

group velocity, 732, 733

narrow spectral width, 733

phase velocity, 732

soliton, 98, 100, 336

SPM effect on, 737

unchirped, 312, 313

pulse walk-off phenomenon, 327

pulse width

half-width, 311

optimum, 312

root-mean square (rms)

width, 311

quality-of-service (QoS), 8, 9

ATM, 386-387

guarantees, 387

IP, 392

quantum limit, 253

queuing delay, 647

Raman amplifiers, 159-161

crosstalk, 161

distributed, 160, 295

drawbacks, 160-161

EDFAs vs., 159

fiber, 66

illustrated, 160

noise sources, 160 pump sources for, 190-191 spontaneous emission noise, 161

See also optical amplifiers

Raman gain coefficient, 327 random processes, 754-756 autocorrelation, 754 autocovariance, 754 first-order density function, 754 first-order probability distribution function, 754

Gaussian, 756 Poisson, 755-756 power spectral density, 755

second-order density function, 754 second-order distribution function, 754 uses, 7

variance of, 755 wide-sense stationary, 754

random variables, 751-752 ranging, 604

rate-preserving overhead, 518 Rayleigh scattering, 65, 67 coefficient, 67 loss due to, 67

ray theory See geometrical optics approach

receiver noise statistics, 757-762 receivers, 288-289

APD, 260, 261,277 coherent, 263-265 decision threshold, 285 direct detection, 253-254, 265,273

heterodyne, 264 homodyne, 264 ideal, 252-253 parameters, 288 receiver sensitivity, 260, 273, 288-289

of APD receiver, 261,277 coherent receiver, 265

as function of bit rate, 261 obtaining, 260

overload, 288,289

of pin diode, 261

plotting, 277 typical, 289 reciprocal devices, 112

recirculation buffering, 639-641 contention resolution and, 640

recirculation buffering (continued)

low differential loss, 641

See also buffering

reconfigurable OADMs, 417-419, 432

fully tunable with parallel architecture,

417, 418 fully tunable with serial architecture, 417, 418

illustrated, 418

partially tunable with parallel architecture,

417, 418 partially tunable with serial architecture,

417, 418 types of, 417

See also optical add/drop multiplexers

(OADMs) redundancy, 267

increasing, 271

Reed-Solomon codes, 271-272

Reed-Solomon codes, 270-272

coding gain, 270

large burst correction with, 271-272

principle of operation, 270-272

redundancy, 271

restriction, 270

reflection coefficient, 744, 745

reflection gratings, 120

blazed, 121,122, 227

illustrated, 119

refractive index, 50

intensity-dependent, 85, 333, 736

LEAF, 95

linear, 736

near beam center, 55

nonlinear, 92

profile, 75, 76

TE mode, 144, 145

TM mode, 144, 145

variation of, 75

regeneration

optoelectronic, 218

with reshaping and retiming (3R), 217,

221-223 regenerators, 35, 151

regional Bell operation companies (RBOCs),

3-4 relative intensity noise (RIN), 182, 287

remote nodes (RNs), 593

illustrated, 594

processes, 593

repetition code, 269-270 resonant wavelengths, 131 resource reservation protocol (RSVP),

394, 581 restoration, 537

time requirements, 538-539 time scale, 537

return-to-zero (RZ) modulation, 240-242 bit rate and, 312

chirped, 343 chromatic dispersion limits, 311-314 peak transmit power, 241

PMD and, 322 uses, 242 variations, 240

See also signal formats

reuse factor, 467 determining, 467 for different RWA algorithms, 474 improvement, 468

number of nodes vs., 469, 470 number of wavelengths vs., 468 reverse-biased pn-junction, 195, 196 revertive protection, 540

ring networks, 431,432 fixed-wavelength conversion, 479 full wavelength conversion, 479 with N nodes, 482

optical-layer equipment, 441 wavelength assignment in, 478 wavelength conversion capabilities in, 478-479

WDM, analysis, 473 rings, 378-380 ADMs, 378-379 bidirectional, 547 bidirectional line-switched (BLSRs), 380, 454,

544, 550-555 interconnection, 555-558,671 interoffice, 379

metro case study, 700-703 multifiber, 480-481 multiple overlaid, 380 online RWA in, 481-482 self-healing, 547-549 shared protection, 584 SONET/SDH, 454, 547 speeds, 379

stacked, 669

INDEX 823

static, 671

unidirectional path-switched (UPSRs), 380,

549-550

RITENET WRPON architecture, 606-607, 612

rms spectral width, 313

root-mean square (rms)width, 311

rounding algorithm, 453

route computation, 521-522

router ports

number of, 439, 441,443

in PWDM design, 447

reduction in, 447

touters, 390-391

buffering, 618

forwarding, 618

functions, 617-619

label-switched (LSR), 392-394, 524

multiplexing, 618

routing, 618

switching, 618

synchronization, 618-619

topology seen by, 439

routing, 618

deflection, 637, 645-649

illustrated, 391

IP, 390-392, 393

nodes, 616, 617

shortest-path, 477

tables, 390

routing and wavelength assignment (RWA)

problem, 440, 454-460

algorithms, 473-474

combinations, 455

example, 456-457

multifiber rings and, 480-481

offline, 462, 475-481

online, 462-463,475,481-482

on rings with no conversion, 476-477

solution, 462

solving, 442, 448

routing protocols, 390

interdomain routing protocol, 392

intradomain routing protocol, 391

Rowland circle, 142, 228

safety, 526-530, 531

Class I standard, 527, 530

Class IIIa standard, 527

Class IIIb standard, 527

maximum power, 527 open fiber control (OFC) protocol, 528-530 shuttered optical connectors, 527

sampled grating (SG) DBR lasers, 183, 1 8 4 - 1 8 5

illustrated, 185 reflection peaks, 184 S-band, 66

scattering matrix, 111,226-227 scattering nonlinearity effect of, 324 threshold power of, 324-325 scrambling, 241

advantage of, 241 SONET standard, 274 SDH networks, 12, 278, 364 basic signal rate, 367 channel layer, 543 extra traffic support, 546 high-reliability services, 366 management information, 366 multiplexing, 367-370 multiplex section layer, 370, 543 path layer, 370

physical interfaces, 376-377 pointers, 367-368

protection schemes, 544 standard optical interface, 366 standards, 721-722

transmission rates, 368

See also SONET/SDH second-order PMD, 322 section overhead bytes, 374 illustrated, 373

See also SONET frame structure security management, 496-497 horizontal partitioning, 496

unauthorized entity protection, 497 vertical partitioning, 496

self-healing rings, 547-549 architectures, 547 comparison, 548 service restoration, 547

See also SONET/SDH self-phase modulation (SPM), 76, 83-88,323, 333-335

effect on pulses, 737 enhanced, monotone, pulse broadening, 86 induced chirp, 84, 86, 333

self-phase modulation (SPM) (continued)

induced chirp for Gaussian pulses, 87-89

induced phase change, 88

penalty, 334, 355

positive chirping and, 86

problem, 333

system limits calculation, 334

See also nonlinear effects

self-similar traffic, 616

semiconductor lasers, 166, 526

semiconductor optical amplifiers (SOAs),

161-165, 625 antireflective coatings, 164

bandwidth, 163

block diagram, 162

conduction band, 161

crosstalk, 164, 165

EDFAs vs., 161

energy bands, 161,162

facets, 164

gain dependencies, 219

noise figures, 164

nonlinear effect in, 219

population inversion and, 162-163

switches, 214-215

valence band, 161

See also optical amplifiers

serial OADM architecture, 413,414-416

deployment complexity, 414

fully tunable OADM with, 417, 418

illustrated, 413

linear network with, 431-432

loss, 414-415

partially tunable OADM with, 417, 418

SC-OADMs, 414, 415

traffic change impact, 415

See also optical add/drop multiplexers

(OADMs) server layer, 582-583

service access points (SAPs), 17

service-level agreements, 537

services

asymmetric, 592

bandwidth-on-demand, 655

best-effort, 8

changing landscape, 9-10

circuit-switched, 7

connectionless, 6, 8

datagram, 8, 19

full, 592 guaranteed bandwidth, 655 private line, 7

symmetric, 592 transparency, 24-26 set of lightpaths, 475 line network with, 476 maximum load of, 475

See also lightpaths set operation, 500 Shannon's theorem, 249 shared bandwidth, 594, 595 shared protection, 540 short-haul interoffice connections, 377 short-period fiber gratings, 126-127 shot noise, 759

APD receivers, 285 current, 253,254, 759 power spectral density, 759 variances, 254, 257, 260

See also noise shufflenets, 646, 647 signal-dependent noise, 288 signal formats, 240-242

DC balance and, 241 non-return-to-zero (NRZ), 240-242 return-to-zero (RZ), 240-242

See also on-off keying (OOK) modulation signaling interface, 503

signal-spontaneous beat noise, 256, 257 signal-to-noise ratio (SNR), 257 optical (OSNR), 262-263 performance, 288 Silver service class, 567 simple network management protocol (SNMP),

390, 501 single-channel OADM (SC-OADM),

414, 415 single-longitudinal mode (SLM) laser, 37,

168, 169 DFB, 310 output spectrum, 169 side-mode suppression ratio, 168 spectral pulse width for, 356 single-mode fiber, 35-37, 54, 59 chromatic dispersion, 36, 331 core diameter, 35

dispersion-shifted, 36 fundamental mode, 59

INDEX 8 2 5

positive chromatic dispersion, 97

See also optical fiber

single sideband (SSB) signals, 248

slab waveguides, 64

sliding-frequency guiding filters, 338

Snell's law, 51, 52

solitons, 98-101,738

dispersion-managed, 100-101,240, 338-341

frequency alteration, 337

fundamental, 98, 99, 739

higher-order, 100

order of, 738, 739

propagation, 336, 337

pulse propagation, 738-739

pulses, 98, 100, 336

shape, 337

significance of, 100

system advantages, 100

system design, 336-338

soliton trapping, 629

soliton-trapping AND gate, 623,629-630

block diagram, 630

operation illustration, 630

SONET, 12, 278, 364

BLSR, 564-566

clocks, 368

deployment, 39

digital crossconnect (DCS), 380-381

element illustration, 379

extra traffic support, 546

frame duration, 371

frames, 367

high-reliability services, 366

interfaces, 375

IP over, 19-20

layer, 22, 23

line layer, 370, 543

LTEs, 560, 561

management information, 366

multiplexing, 365, 367-370

network elements, 22

network reliability, 22

path layer, 370, 543

physical layer, 370

pointers, 367-368, 369

protection schemes, 544

rings, 454

scrambling, 274

signal rate, 367

standard optical interface, 366 standards, 723-724

STS-Nc signal, 368, 371-372

STS-N frame, 371 sublayers, 370 synchronous payload envelope (SPE),

367, 368 synchronous signal level-1 (STS-1),

367, 371 transmission rates, 368 transmitters, 367 transport, 367 virtual tributaries (VTs), 368, 369

See also SONET frame structure;

S O N E T / S D H

SONET frame structure, 371-375 illustrated, 372

line overhead, 374-375 overhead bytes, 371,373 path overhead, 375 section overhead, 374 SONET/SDH, 363, 364-381 ADMs, 378

architecture deficiencies, 671-673 benefits, 364-366

carrier backbone network based on, 670 core network, 669-673

framing, 675 infrastructure elements, 378-381 interoperability, 366

layers, 371,399-400 management, 366 multiplexing scheme, 367-370 multiplexing simplification, 364-366 multiplexing structure, 669 network availability, 366 physical layer, 375-378 protection in, 542-558 rings, 378-380, 547

as transmission layer, 673 transmission rates, 365, 368

as underlying transport mechanism, 363

See also client layers

source frequency chirp factor, 70 space division multiplexing (SDM), 681 using, 682-683

Spanke architecture, 205-206 illustrated, 206

nonblocking, 205

Spanke-Bene~ architecture, 207

spatial dilation, 305

drawbacks, 305

illustrated, 306

spatial reuse, 551,555

spatial walk-off polarizer (SWP), 114

spectral efficiency, 30, 245-250

capacity limits, 249-250

improvement, 245

multilevel modulation, 249

optical duobinary modulation, 246-248

optical single sideband (SSB) modulation,

248-249 spectral slicing, 610

spectrum, 29

spontaneous emission, 152, 153

amplified (ASE), 153

deleterious effect, 153

factor, 256

lifetime, 153

in Raman amplifiers, 161

rate of, 153

spontaneous-spontaneous beat noise, 256

reducing, 257

variances, 257

squelching, 554

stacked rings, 669

standards, 721-725

ANSI, 724-725

ESCON and Fibre Channel, 724-725

fiber, 721

full service access network, 604

ITU-T, 721-723

management, 722-723

optical networking, 722, 724

physical and environmental, 723

SDH, 721-722

SONET, 723-724

Telcordia, 723-724

star couplers, 108-109

Stark effect, 190

Stark splitting, 154-155

state of polarization (SOP), 62

crosstalk penalty and, 300

horizontal, 113

variation with time, 320

vertical, 113

static wavelength crossconnects (WXCs),

115-116

AWG as, 140 crossconnect pattern, 141 illustrated, 116

statistical dimensioning models, 464-474 analysis problem, 465

blocking model, 465,467-474 design problem, 465

first-passage model, 464-465,466 types of, 464-465

statistical multiplexing, 7-8 step-index fiber, 53, 103 length, 350 limit, 54 Stimax grating, 120 stimulated Brillouin scattering (SBS), 76, 79-80, 323,325-326

gain, 79 gain bandwidth, 325, 326 penalty reduction, 325, 326 pump wave, 77

threshold power, 326 threshold power computation, 355

See also nonlinear effects stimulated emission, 152-153 population inversion, 152-153, 156 principle, 152

stimulated Raman scattering (SRS), 76, 80-81,

159, 323,326-329 for amplification, 80-81

as broadband effect, 80 channel coupling, 326 coupled wave equations, 327 effects, alleviating, 329 effects, calculating, 327 gain bandwidth, 327 gain coefficient, 81,327 illustrated, 81

maximum transmit power limitation, 328 penalty, 326-327

power transfer, 80 pump wave, 77

See also nonlinear effects Stokes wave, 76-77 storage-area networks, 363,395-397, 699-700 architecture illustration, 395

bit rates, 395 ESCON, 396-397 Fibre Channel, 397 HIPPI, 397

INDEX 8 2 7

switches, 395

technologies, 396

types of, 396

subcarrier modulated fiber coax bus

(SMFCB), 598

subcarrier modulation, 242-245

illustrated, 243

signal clipping, 244

use motivation, 242

See also modulation

subcarrier multiplexing (SCM), 243-245, 272

applications of, 245

signal distortion sources, 243-245

subnetwork connection protection (SNCP),

544, 547

subrate multiplexing, 525-526

super-structure grating (SSG) DBR lasers, 183

surface micromachining, 211-212

survivability, 537-587

addressing, 539

concepts, 539-542

summary, 583-584

See also protection

susceptibility, 57

as function of angular frequency, 58

higher-order nonlinear, 741

linear, 741

third-order nonlinear, 83

switch core, 421

electrical, 421-422, 423

illustrated, 422

optical, 422, 423

ports, 422-423

See also optical crossconnects (OXCs)

switched digital video (SDV), 600

switches, 199-216

applications, 199, 200

Bene~, 206-207

blocking, 202

bubble-based waveguide, 212, 213

bulk mechanical, 207-209

Clos, 204-205

crossbar, 203-204

crosstalk, 201

electronic, 215-216

electro-optic, 213-214

extinction ratio, 200

insertion loss, 200-201

large, 201-207, 215-216

latching, 201 liquid crystal, 212-213, 214

micro-electro-mechanical system (MEMS), 209-212

nonblocking, 202-203 optical, 199-215 output buffered, 638

in packet-switched networks, 200 parameters, 200-201

reliability, 201 SOA, 214-215 Spanke, 205-206 Spanke-Bene~, 207 technologies, 207-215 technology comparison, 208 thermo-optic, 214

switching, 618, 649-650 symbols, this book, 717-719 symmetric services, 592 Synchrolan, 654 synchronization, 618-619, 631-634 achieving, 631

optical phase lock loop, 633-634 tunable optical delay line, 632-633 synchronous digital hierarchy See SDH networks synchronous payload envelope (SPE), 367, 368 synchronous signal level-1 (STS-1), 367 bandwidth requirements, 585 frames, 371

system model, 283-284 Telcordia standards, 723-724 optical networking, 724 physical and environmental, 723 SONET, 723-724

See also standards telecommunications management network (TMN), 501

telecommunications network architecture, 3-5 telephone network, 595

TE modes, 64, 144 effective indices, 64 refractive indices, 144, 145 temperature tuning, 179 terahertz optical asymmetric demultiplexer (TOAD), 627-628

advantages, 628-629 illustrated, 628 operation principle, 628

TeraLight fiber, 93

terminal multiplexers (TMs), 378

text access, 421

thermalization, 155

thermal noise

current, 253

detection limited by, 301

variances, 254, 257, 261

See also noise

thermo-optic switches, 214

thin film, 747

thin-film resonant cavity filter (TFF), 133

thin-film resonant multicavity filter (TFMF),

133, 135 third-order nonlinear susceptibility, 83

threshold power, 324

approximation, 325

calculation of, 325, 355

reduction, 325

SBS, 326

of scattering nonlinearity, 324-325

throughput, 450, 647-648

increasing, 648

relative, 648

time division multiplexing (TDM), 12, 41,603

electronic, 616, 683

illustrated, 13

optical (OTDM), 12-13, 619-631

requirement, 683

transmission impairments, 683

upgrade path, 700

use question, 682

using, 683-684

WDM combination, 14

timing jitter, 337

timing recovery, 251,265-266

block diagram, 266

clock extraction step, 265

timing signal, 266

TM modes, 64, 144

effective indices, 64

refractive indices, 144, 145

topologies

2-connected, 441

all-optical, 442, 445-446

five-node fiber, 488

hub, 442, 444-445

lightpath, 405-406, 440, 442-443

management, 521

physical, 440 PWDM ring, 442, 443 ring, 378-380, 539-540 support, 403-404 total internal reflection, 51, 52 TPONs, 603-604

architecture, 604 broadcast, 608 broadcast and select, 603 cost effectiveness, 604 failures in, 604 FSAN-based, 604 traffic pattern, 647 Transaction Language-1 (TL-1), 501

transimpedance front-end amplifier, 197,

198, 199 transmission basics, 28-32 bidirectional systems, 303-305 capacity, increasing, 681 coefficient, 745 history, 32 layer design, 681-705 low-loss, 49 system evolution, 34 WDM systems, 31 transmission control protocol (TCP), 8, 19, 390 transmission gratings, 120

illustrated, 119 principle of operation, 122 transmit power

design and, 342-343

DM soliton system and, 339 FWM and, 332

nonlinearities and, 344 peak limit, 288 SRS and, 328 upper limit per channel, 342 transmitters, 165-192, 283,287-288 direct and external modulation, 186-190 extinction ratio, 287-288

lasers, 166-176 light-emitting diodes (LEDs), 176-178 output power, 287

SONET, 367 tunable lasers, 178-186 transparency, 24-26 advantages, 24 bit rate, 420

INDEX 8 2 9

design considerations, 348

full, 24

impact of, 508

level of, 530

types of, 26

WDM system, 348,405

transponders, 216, 406-407

cost of, 441

function of, 406

overhead, 407

wavelengths generated by, 407

transport layer, 19

transversal filter, 267

transverse component, 61

TrueWave fiber, 94

trunking efficiency, 468

tunable lasers, 178-186

applications, 178

DBR, 181-183

external cavity, 179-180

GCSR, 183, 185, 186

laser arrays, 185-186

SG DBR, 183, 184-185

SSG DBR, 183, 184-185

tuning mechanisms, 179

VCSELs, 180-181

VGF, 183-184

See also lasers

tunable optical delay line, 632-633

illustrated, 632

pulse streams, 632

See also synchronization

tunable wavelength converters (TWCs),

643,644

tuning

Fabry-Perot filter, 133

mechanical, 179

temperature, 179

twisted pair networks, 596

ultra-long-haul (ULH)networks, 690

capabilities and costs, 691,694

cost breakdown, 695

equipment and crossconnects, 691,695

interoffice connections, 377

optical add/drop capability, 694

transponders/amplifiers relative cost, 693,696

undersea networks, 698

See also long-haul networks

undersea networks, 5 cost, 697 deployment, 698 illustrated, 698 long-haul, 697-698 reliability level, 697 terrestrial links vs., 698 unidirectional path-switched rings (UPSRs), 380,

454, 544, 549-550 drawback, 550 illustrated, 548 implementation, 550 popularity, 550

See also bidirectional line switched rings (BLSRs)

unidirectional protection switching, 540, 541-542

APS protocol, 541-542 illustrated, 541 use of, 540-541

See also protection switching unidirectional WDM systems, 686-688 bidirectional comparison, 686-688 illustrated, 686

implementation using, 687 unspecified bit rate (UBR), 387 user datagram protocol (UDP), 390 user-to-network interface (UNI), 382, 385, 523

valence band, 161 variable optical attenuator (VOA), 213 Vernier effect, 231

vertical cavity surface-emitting lasers (VCSELs), 173-174 advantages, 173 drawbacks, 173 tunable, 180-181 two-dimensional array, 174

See also lasers vertical grating-assisted couple filter (VGF) lasers, 183-184

illustrated, 184 problems, 183-184 vertical partitioning, 496 very-long-haul interoffice connections, 377 vestigial sideband (VSB) modulation, 249 virtual channel identifier (VCI), 383-384, 387 virtual channels, 383

virtual circuits, 9, 19