Practicing Organization Development (A guide for Consultants) - Part 57 docx

rigid, and people have a constrained notion of what’s possible. In our experiences with appreciative inquiry, and in documented AI interventions (see Fry, Barrett, Seiling, & Whitney, 2002; Hammond & Royal, 2001), we have found that when people engage in a search for life-giving moments, exceptional moments of meaning, moments that surpassed expectations—these moments expand the creative imagination and create bonds between people. This finding has been supported by research in the field of positive psychology (for a review, see Sekerka & Cooperrider, 2003). Positive feelings are not just pleasant experiences. Positive emotions broaden and expand the thought-action repertoire and support personal strength, well-being, and resilient responsiveness (Fredrickson, 1998). When people experience positive emotions, they are more creative (Isen, Daubman, & Nowicki, 1987); they are more flexible thinkers (Isen & Daubman, 1984); they are more open and receptive (Estrada, Isen, & Young, 1994); and they are able to think in broader, more expansive terms (Isen, 1987). In our experience, every time members are given the opportunity to share best-past stories and experiences, there appears a collective willingness, if not excitement, to build from the lessons embedded in these stories. 2. The Journey of Transformation Begins with the Unconditional Positive Question Because we enter and approach situations with questions continuously, questions are our windows into organizational life. The moment we start to ask questions, even the moment we start to wonder about some social phenome- non, we already change the “targeted” social system. Every question begins a conversation that creates, maintains, or transforms a way of talking. We set the stage for what we will discover: We call attention to the presence of a topic, trigger stories that posit causes and antecedents, and project likely outcomes or endpoints. Often our diagnostic questions are so automatic that they escape our notice. We begin by asking about gap analysis, analysis of failures, defensive routines, bureaucratic breakdowns, and turf battles. AI is, in the simplest and most direct sense, the art and practice of crafting positive questions. Instead of wondering about the root of conflict or turf battles, we might begin by asking: “When was a time that you were surprised by someone making a cooperative offer to you?” or “When was a time that this group experienced mutual support and cooperation?” When asking an unconditional positive question, we invite and tell a different story about ourselves: Generative categories and life-giving theories emerge. Unconditional positive questions cultivate a spirit of discovery, inquiry, curiosity, and fascination that lead to greater creativity (Ludema, Cooperrider, & Barrett, 2000). For that reason there is nothing quite so practical as a good question. The organizational world is filled with boundless mystery. When we are able to approach organizing with the kind of innocent wonder and openness to surprise, we discover a BRINGING EVERY MIND INTO THE GAME TO REALIZE THE POSITIVE REVOLUTION IN STRATEGY 531 30_962384 ch22.qxd 2/3/05 12:24 AM Page 531 world brimming with vitality. Beginning inquiry with an unconditional positive question is a small change that makes a large difference. Questions evoke whole new worlds of possibilities. What we have found in our own lives is that we too move—emotionally, theoretically, relationally, spiritually—in the direction of what we persistently ask questions about. Inquiry intervenes in two ways: It intervenes “in here” as well as “out there.” In other words, questions have a double import. The conventional view suggests that, to do good inquiry, it’s important to come to the experience with certain qualities— intellectual curiosity, awe, openness to surprise, the ability to value—qualities we associate with the spirit of inquiry. It is rare, however, that we come to organizations with this kind of childlike mind. At the beginning of inquiry, when we are called to address some problem or crisis, we rarely begin with the experience of wonder. What we increasingly realize is that the questions—the appreciative, life-centric questions—hold the key to the doorway into wonder. It is not so much a question of trying to romantically recover the state of being a child. This mindset can begin quite pragmatically in ordinary circumstances of discovery, conversation, and the deepening of relationship, endowed by the positive question. Here is the crux of the matter. Inquiry itself creates wonder. It is not the other way around. When we are really in a mode of inquiry, doorways into appreciable worlds are opened up around us. Entering into those worlds—those seemingly intractable conversations—would not be possible without the question. The feeling of wonder is the outcome. We know that we are doing inquiry when, at the end of the day, we feel more spirit. 3. Elaborating the Positive Core Involves Expansive Circles of Inquiry Collins and Porras (1994) argue that consistently high-performing systems understand the need to value continuity, to preserve the organizational core that connects the past with compelling images of the future. System-wide appreciative inquiry interventions take this suggestion another step by proposing methods for discovering and renewing the positive core. AI interventions are essentially relational interventions: They begin with one-on-one interviews in pairs and then expand outward to include multiple voices in expanding circles. There is a rhythm to the building of appreciative learning cultures. As new words and new networks of meaning emerge within the context of relational exchanges, fresh alternatives for action become possible. Inviting parties to talk about what they value most about their past and what they hope for in their future leads to energy for action. We have found that, once unleashed, these conversations have a natural momentum: When someone begins to care about an idea or person, one naturally wants to know more, to explore further. Passionate stories about exceptional actions intensify meaning; these magnified stories invite people to experiment and entertain scenarios of a better world. 532 PRACTICING ORGANIZATION DEVELOPMENT, 2ND EDITION 30_962384 ch22.qxd 2/3/05 12:24 AM Page 532 People experience an open orientation toward the future and move beyond pre- viously imagined constraints. 4. Practicing Affirmative Competence Expands the Improvising, Self-Organizing Capacity of the System Many change programs are framed as linear and sequential in which those with the vision “hand off” plans to implementers. An emergent, iterative, improvi- sational approach to organizing is needed, one in which members act on the spot when the situation requires. Creative improvising involves an affirmative competence, a capacity to see possibility in the face of obstacles, a willingness to experiment with no guarantee of outcomes, a view of errors as learning opportunities that might seed unexpected ideas. Appreciative interviews tap into the capacity for spontaneous, adaptive self-organizing; they trigger a centrifu- gal process of attunement; members are able to “live” systems awareness, to see what’s needed on the spot, to respond to what a situation requires rather than run ideas up the chain of command for approval. Appreciative processes seed synchronicity as people self-initiate, respond extemporaneously to emergent demands, commit to and invite further engagements. Change is seen as an ongoing part of everyone’s job, rather than an interruption of “real” work. Most significant innovations have humble beginnings. It is often only in ret- rospect, after a breakthrough innovation is complete, that we look back and iden- tify fortuitous moments, early proposals that seemed “crazy” at the time. One reason that appreciative interventions have positive consequences that support improvisation and creativity is that members pay attention to small beginnings. Improvisation leads to sustained innovation when we support the nascent moments of mutuality, the small promises and mini commitments. It is important to remember that humans have the capacity to defy anticipations, to initiate the unexpected, to begin the unprecedented. There is miraculous potential in new beginnings—something is initiated that cannot be predicted based on anything that has happened before. Appreciative interventions support improvisation because they create holding environments of curiosity and wonderment. CONCLUSION AND FUTURE DIRECTIONS In this chapter we sought to link the advances of appreciative inquiry with models of strategy making. Traditional views of strategy formulation have assumed that strategy is the exclusive right of those top executives or planning depart- ments of specialists trained to understand competitive markets, the skills of financial analysis and accounting. We began by citing Jack Welch’s provocative claim that a firm will flourish when every mind is brought into the game. In order to realize the revolution, it is important to democratize the entire strategy-making BRINGING EVERY MIND INTO THE GAME TO REALIZE THE POSITIVE REVOLUTION IN STRATEGY 533 30_962384 ch22.qxd 2/3/05 12:24 AM Page 533 process. Strategy formulation and implementation must reunite. In this chapter we notice various trends that propose a different emphasis—uncovering positive strategic core, bringing diverse groups together to experience holistic enterprise, cultivating dialogues that emphasize strategic visioning over goal setting, learning over planning, and relating over thinking. We proposed one method that embodies these five themes—the appreciative inquiry summit. Clearly, we are still in our infancy in experimenting with these events and we still have much to learn. With this in mind, we hope that this chapter furthers the important dialogue between people in the fields of organization development and strategy. For additional information about appreciative inquiry—intended to extend your knowledge in case you are one of many interested in finding out more— see Exhibit 22.1. 534 PRACTICING ORGANIZATION DEVELOPMENT, 2ND EDITION Exhibit 22.1. A Sampling of Research Related to Appreciative Inquiry • The original article that described appreciative inquiry as a theory-building method was published in 1987 in Cooperrider, D.L., & Srivista, S., Appreciative inquiry in organizational life. See Woodman, R., & Pasmore, W. (Eds.), Research in organizational change and development: 1991 Greenwich, CT: JAI Press, pp. 129–169. However, appreciative inquiry began in the early 1980s at Case Western Reserve University with the doctoral research of David Cooperrider and his thesis advisor, Suresh Srivastva. The first studies were not purposeful interventions, but research into peak experiences of doctors—physicians at the Cleveland Clinic, articulating a theory of what CCF looked like when operating at their best. The study is reprinted in Cooperrider, D., Srivastva, S. (1990). The emergence of the egalitarian organization. In S. Srivastva & D.L. Cooperrider (Eds.), Apprecia- tive management and leadership: The power of positive thought and action in organizations. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass. • This story is retold in light of the early “discoveries” regarding the interventionist potential of research and formation of positive questions in Cooperrider, D., Bar- rett, F.J., & Srivastva, S. (1995). Social construction and appreciative inquiry: A journey in organizational theory. In D. Hosking, P. Dachler, & K. Gergen (Eds.), Management and organization: Relational alternatives to individualism. Alder- shot, UK: Avebury Press. • For a further articulation of generative potential of theory as positive intervention, see D. Cooperrider & F.J. Barrett. (2002). An exploration of the spiritual heart of human science inquiry: A methodological call of our time. SOL Journal, 3, 56-62. • The first deliberate use of appreciative inquiry to consciously intervene into a social system was the February 1985 use of an appreciative inquiry and generative metaphor intervention. See F.J. Barrett & D. Cooperrider. (1990). Generative metaphor intervention: A new approach to intergroup conflict. Journal of Applied Behavioral Science, 26, 223–244. 30_962384 ch22.qxd 2/3/05 12:24 AM Page 534 BRINGING EVERY MIND INTO THE GAME TO REALIZE THE POSITIVE REVOLUTION IN STRATEGY 535 • The first “large group” AI intervention, in the spring of 1985, was facilitated by David Cooperrider and John Carter and involved Touche Ross Canada. The case is summarized in C. Elliot. (1999). Locating the energy for change: An introduc- tion to appreciative inquiry. Winnipeg, Canada: International Institute for Sustainable Development. • For an articulation of theoretical principles of AI, see Cooperrider, D., & Whitney, D. (1999). Appreciative inquiry: Collaborating for positive change. San Fran- cisco: Berrett-Koehler. • Many of the early theory development articles are reprinted in Cooperrider, D., Sorenson, P., Whitney, D., & Yaeger, T. (2000). Appreciative inquiry: Rethinking human organization toward a positive theory of change. Champaign, Il: Stipes. • Recent books that explore AI methods include the following: Gibbs, C., & Mahe, S. (2003). Birth of global community: Appreciative inquiry in action. Cleveland, OH: Lakeshore Publishers. Ludema, J., Whitney, D., Mohr, B., & Griffin, T. (2003). The appreciative inquiry summit. San Francisco: Berrett-Koehler. Watkins, J., & Mohr, B. (2001). Appreciative inquiry. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass. Whitney, D., & Trosten Bloom? (2003). The power of appreciative inquiry. San Francisco: Berrett-Koehler. • For an edited book of case studies of appreciative inquiry interventions from pri- vate sector, public sector, and governmental organizations, see Fry, R., Barrett, F.J., Seiling, J., & Whitney, D. (Eds). (2002). Appreciative inquiry and organizational transformation. Westport, CT: Greenwood Books. Cooperrider, D., & Avital, M. (Eds.). (2004). Constructive discourse and human organization. Advances in Appreciative Inquiry Series, Volume 1. Oxford: Elsevier Science. (This new series by Elsevier Press documents cutting edge AI theory and cases.) • For a comparative empirical study, see Bushe, G.R. (1995, March). Appreciative inquiry as a team-development intervention: A controlled experiment. Journal of Applied Behavioral Science, 31, p. 13. • Achievements in Practice: In 1997, the American Society for Training and Development bestowed its presti- gious Culture Change Project Award on GTE for its diverse and system-wide application of AI to aid in the transformation of that culture. In 1997 the Catalyst Award for “best place to work in the country for women” was given to Avon Mexico for its innovative use of appreciative inquiry to develop healthy cross-gender relationships in the workplace and helping to end a disturbing history of gender discrimination and harassment. Roadway Express’s use of AI is covered in K. Hammonds. (2001, July). Leaders for the long haul. Fast Company, 48. • For one excellent resource for appreciative inquiry developments see the AI Commons website hosted by Case Western Reserve University, updated on an ongoing basis. http://ai.cwru.edu/ 30_962384 ch22.qxd 2/3/05 12:24 AM Page 535 Bibliography Axelrod, D. (1992). 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San Francisco: Berrett-Koehler. 538 PRACTICING ORGANIZATION DEVELOPMENT, 2ND EDITION 30_962384 ch22.qxd 2/3/05 12:24 AM Page 538 CHAPTER TWENTY-THREE Human Systems Dynamics Competencies in a Complex World Glenda H. Eoyang EMERGING THEORY AND PRACTICE Practitioners in organization development and management are learning from the new sciences of complexity. Sometimes called chaotic, self-organizing, non- linear, complex adaptive, or emergent, these new sciences give voice to the intu- itions and experiences of persons who work competently to support change in human systems. Around the world, individuals and teams are exploring—in theory and in practice—how to apply lessons from these new sciences to their engagements with human systems. Today their approaches are as diverse as the individuals who practice and the environments in which they work: • An HR manager at a development bank in Saudi Arabia considers the role of Islamic principles of purposefulness, values, and intention in establishing coherence in human systems. • A school administrator builds generative collaborative relationships to provide health services to children when challenges are increasing and funding is decreasing. • A master facilitator brings insights about complex human dynamics to support decision making and action among teams in business, government, and nonprofit environments. 539 ∂ ∂ 31_962384 ch23.qxd 2/3/05 12:22 AM Page 539 • An official of family court supports the emergence of new patterns of relationships that help kids develop into healthy and happy adults. • An international pharmaceutical company applies human systems dynamics principles to understand and influence the use of its products by patients, caregivers, and professionals. • An international financial services company incorporates complexity competencies into its leadership development programs. • A consulting team in Canada integrates emergent project management with “open space technologies” to help businesses realize their shared visions in record time. • A government official in Columbia establishes an infrastructure for community peace and justice. • A new venture capital firm uses insights about human systems dynamics to foster collaboration among high-tech start-ups and sources of funding. • An expert in information technology leads an effort to design and imple- ment the next generation of Internet technologies for educators and researchers. • Healthcare professionals, including CEOs, physicians, and nurses, use principles of complexity and human systems dynamics to improve both clinical and financial outcomes. All of these professionals and many more around the world use the principles of complexity every day to respond to the emerging needs and dynamics of human systems. They draw from the age-old wisdom of effective leaders. They learn from the discoveries of 20th Century scholars and practitioners in organizational sciences. They derive metaphors, tools, and methods from the study of complex dynamics in physical sciences, information theory, and math- ematics. They bring these various threads together into a single, emerging field of knowledge—human systems dynamics (Eoyang, 2003). What do these students of human systems dynamics (HSD) have in common? How can you, as a professional, develop competencies to do this work? How can the OD field establish standards and developmental pathways to help others explore this exciting and innovative territory? The answer is, “Nobody knows.” We don’t know because the field is in its infancy, and we’ve only begun to explore what’s possible. We don’t know because each of these environments and each practitioner brings unique gifts and challenges to the table. We don’t know because we are all so busy doing the work and building our own conceptual models and suites of tools that we have no time to articulate and share what we’ve learned with the larger 540 PRACTICING ORGANIZATION DEVELOPMENT, 2ND EDITION 31_962384 ch23.qxd 2/3/05 12:22 AM Page 540 . and organizations: Implications for organizational learning. Organization Science, 9(5), 605—622. Barrett, F., & Fry, R. (Forthcoming). Appreciative inquiry: A guide for system wide transformation emotions? Review of General Psychol- ogy, 2 (3), 300–319. French, W., & Bell, C. (1984). Organization development: Behavioral science interventions for organizational improvement (4th ed.) bestowed its presti- gious Culture Change Project Award on GTE for its diverse and system-wide application of AI to aid in the transformation of that culture. In 1997 the Catalyst Award for “best place