Conditions
Natural factors
Climate: China's climate ranges from extremely dry, desert-like conditions in the north and west to the rain and heat of the tropical monsoon in the south and southeast Nonetheless, the majority of the country lies in the temperate zone and therefore has four seasons.
Summers in the Southeast were typically quite hot and muggy, with highs around 38°C, while the minimum temperature in the winters was 10°C Between July and September, typhoons frequently hit the coast.
The Northeast and Southwest experienced particularly cold winters, with lows of -40°C A maximum temperature of 35°C was reached during the hot, dry summers
Winters in the central regions were brief and chilly, with lows below zero but the summers were lengthy, warm, and muggy.
The steppe and desert in the northwest were dry Summers in the area were swelteringly hot and dry, with Turfan reaching 45 degrees Celsius Despite having an average temperature of -10 degrees Celsius, winters here could be equally as harsh as they are in the Northeast.
Because of its elevation, the Tibetan plateau is exceptionally dry all year round
The land was low in the east and high in the west, ascending like a three-step staircase: The first step was plains and lowlands in the east and southeast, while the other two constituted two-thirds of the country, which was mostly mountains and high plateaus.
China was separated from the rest of the world by dry deserts to the north and west, by the Pacific Ocean to the east, and high mountains to the south This facilitated the independent development the civilization.
Hydrology: China has two major rivers that played an instrumental role in the formation and development of the Chinese civilization These rivers provided the people with water, food, fertile soil, and also served as a means of transportation This enabled the agriculture of the civilization to prosper and promoted the growth of the economy.
The Yellow River to the North, which is often called the "cradle of Chinese civilization" The Yellow River is 3,395 miles long, so it is the sixth longest river in the world The Chinese civilization first formed along the banks of this river
The Yangtze River is to the south of the Yellow River and also flows from the west to the east Being the third longest river in the world, it is 3,988 miles long.
Resources: Ancient China's vast landmass included resources like coal,fresh water, many minerals, as well as plant and animal life Natural resources such as coal, iron ore, tin, lead, copper, gold, salt, clay, jade,pine, and bamboo could also be found in ancient China These resources provided the civilization with numerous materials for production and trading.
Societal factors
Primeval tribes were inhabiting along the bank of the Yellow River.
These tribes wanted to unify to gain more power.
Formation
The primeval tribes that lived in the Yellow River's middle and upper reaches were combined into two strong tribes by the Yellow and Fiery Emperors Having decided to expand their territory, they started warfare and finally subdued theSanmiao and Jiuli tribes after years of conflict A portion of the vanquished tribe was assimilated into the tribes ruled by the Yellow and Fiery emperors to form the ancient Chinese people.
PRIMARY HISTORICAL PERIODS AND DYNASTIES OF CHINESE CIVILIZATION
Ancient Chinese
Formation: Yu the Great founded the Xia Dynasty Tradition holds that the legendary Yu the Great founded the Xia dynasty after receiving the throne from Shun, the final of the Five Emperors Its capital was relocated to Anyi, and the Xia was ruled by the descents of the Xiahou tribe
It lasted between about 2070–1600 BCE.
Formation: Cheng Tang, who deposed the evil ruler of Xia, is said to have established the Shang Dynasty sometime around 1600 BCE Over the period of about 600 years, the Shang Dynasty was a monarchy ruled by a succession of kings (29 or 30 in total).
Formation: The Zhou dynasty began with the Battle of Muye, where Wen's son Wu and his ally Jiang Ziya crossed the Yellow River with an army of 45,000 soldiers and 300 chariots to overthrow King Zhou of Shang.
Imperial Chinese
Formation: The Eastern Zhou was a time of tremendous division in contrast to the stability and prosperity of the Western Zhou, as the king lost power and this period witnessed the emergence of seven states The Qin Dynasty was founded by Qin, the last of these seven states to prevail.
Formation: Liu Bang, who led the uprising against the oppressive practices of the previous Qin dynasty and rose to become the Gaozu emperor, established the Han dynasty in 206 BCE.
It lasted between 206 BC – 220 AD.
2.2.3 Wei, Jin, Northern and Southern dynasties
The Tabgatch (Tuoba) tribesmen, who were of unclear ancestry like many of the nomads who lived on the northern Chinese boundaries, formed the Wei dynasty.
Sima Yan laid the foundation for the Jin dynasty Sima Yan crowned himself the Jin dynasty's emperor in 266 and forced Cao Huan, the last ruler of Cao Wei, to abdicate.
The Three Kingdoms Period began when the Han Dynasty broke up as it waned (220–265) After the Three Kingdoms Period, there was partial unification under the Jin Dynasty However, the Southern and Northern Dynasties were created when China once more broke apart.
Formation: Wendi Yang Jian, the founder and visionary who was able to unite the Chinese land, led the Sui Dynasty to victory after more than
300 years of discord and violent political warfare.
Formation: Li Yuan, a military captain who proclaimed himself emperor in 618 after putting down a revolt organized by the Sui emperor, formed the Tang dynasty.
Formation: A military leader known as Emperor Taizu (Zhao Kuangyin) united China by capturing many Chinese territories As a result, the unsteady Five Dynasties and Ten Kingdoms periods came to an end, ushering in the Song dynasty.
Formation: In 1234, the Jin dynasty was overthrown by the Mongols,and the mainland China was unified Genghis Khan's grandson, Kublai
Khan, won the Mongol civil war and transferred China's capital to Dadu (modern-day Beijing), founding Yuan dynasty.
Formation: Zhu Yuanzhang (1328-1398), a rebel commander who led a gang of robbers against the Yuan troops and other contenders seeking power, took control of the capital city in 1368 and proclaimed the beginning of the Ming dynasty.
Formation: The Ming army was destroyed and major cities along China's northern border were taken over by Manchurian forces from northeastern Asia in 1616, near the end of the Ming Dynasty The result was a full-scale invasion, and Emperor Shunzhi founded the Qing dynasty after defeating China.
TYPICAL CHARACTERISTICS AND THE CONTRIBUTION OF CHINESE
Writing
Beginning: During the Shang Dynasty (1600–1046 BCE), the use of divination (oracle bones) influenced the creation of ancient Chinese writing:
The diviner would cut the question into the bone, heat it until it cracked, and then read the lines to interpret and respond to the inquiry.
During the Zhou Dynasty, oracle bones were replaced by a different form of divination called the I-Ching (The Book of Changes), which used a written text of hexagrams to interpret the meaning of a pattern created by the questioner throwing yarrow sticks onto a table (1046-226 BCE).
Evolution: From these early beginnings, Chinese script evolved:
Jiaguwen (1600-1000 BCE): writing on oracle bones, pictographic.
Dazhuan (1000-700 BCE): engraved on bronze and wood, pictographic with many more characters and was more refined.
Xiaozhuan (700 BCE - now): more logographic.
Lishu (500 BCE - 220 CE): written on bamboo scrolls, used in governmental bureaucracy.
In addition to these characters, cursive scripts for poetry and calligraphy were developed In Standard Script, these are Caoshu, Xingshu, and Kaishu (Grass Script) Caoshu debuted during the Qin Dynasty, whilst Kaishu and Xing were created during the Han Dynasty.
Usage: China's bureaucracy developed to rely on written records, and due to the cultural ability to communicate one's innermost thoughts and feelings through poetry and prose, some of the world's best literature was produced during this time.
Adoption: Chinese script was adopted by other countries of the region (Japan, Korea, Vietnam, etc.)
Impact: The introduction of writing by the Chinese, which was eventually adopted by people from other nations, facilitated the creation of some of the most enduring literary works in addition to promoting communication and record-keeping.
Literature
Tang poetry played a significant role in Chinese’s routine life.
Totally 2200 authors wrote approximately 49000 poems which were remaining until today.
Becoming a master in this skill was a prerequisite to pass national examinations Poetry competitions were held commonly at that time and Tang poems were cited in Ancient Chinese.
It had a strong relationship with religion.
Its most popular styles were jintishi and gushi:
Jintishi: Jintishi, which translates to "Modern Poetry," was created starting in the 5th century and is thought to have reached its peak by the early Tang dynasty The majority of the writings are composed of five- and seven-character lines with limited tone patterns that aim to balance each couplet's four Middle Chinese tones The four-line jueju, the eight-line lüshi, and the infinite pailü are the three main kinds
Gushi: This is an ancient style Lines are typically written in syntactically paired couplets and have a consistent length of 5 or
7 syllables (or characters) in professional writing Parallelism that highlights a thesis or an antithesis is common, although it is not a must Couplets usually conclude with a rhyme, though the exact sound of the rhyme can occasionally change as the poem progresses.
It consisted of normally 5 to 7 words instead of 4 words and mainly talks about daily life.
Li Bai (701 – 762): Today he is considered as a romantic author who devoted his talent to Chinese poetry to reach a new level.There are about 1000 poems of him that are still surviving to this day His major topics comprise of nature, friendships, or drinking…, but generally about his private life His work is known for its obvious fictional tone and affected a wide range of 20th century authors.
Several best-known works of Li Bai: The solitude of night; Before the cask of night; A poem of Changgan; Quiet night thought;…
Du Phu (712 – 770): He was not only an imperial servant but also a distinguished poet and 1500 surviving examples are attributed to him nowadays He is highly complimented because of his precise techniques that talked about normal people’s suffering His works are based on several themes such as military tactics, history, morality, and painting.
Some important works of Du Phu: The Song of The Wagons; Ballad of the army carts; Behind the gates of the wealthy;…
Its period generally included four parts: Early Tang, High Tang (prosperous), Middle Tang and Late Tang:
Early Tang: Poems were aristocratic, glamorous before the creation of more socially important poems.
High Tang: It was considered as the golden age of Tang Poetry during Chinese civilization.
Middle Tang: Poets were visionary and told the truth about everyday lives of people as well as natural landscapes and segregation.
Late Tang: Had a reputation for poems that were written in a clear style although sometimes they were abstract and difficult to understand.
Ming - Qing novels developed with many good novels and produced many famous works, so the Ming and Qing periods are called the era of Chinese novels.
Novels cover a wide range of topics:
Historical fiction or heroic fiction
Novels of chivalry (guests, swordsmen, martial arts)
The novel of the social context, etc.
“Romance of the Three Kingdoms” (Luo Guanzhong): This is a historical novel written in the 14th century based on the Records of the Three Kingdoms (Chen Shou) It centers on the romanticized and dramatized relationships between leaders and servants of the three kingdoms in the context of social upheavals when the Han dynasty collapsed
“Water Margin” (Shi Nai’an): It is written in vernacular Mandarin and tells the story about the rebellion against the government by 108 outlaws There are also famous characters in Chinese literature in this work, namely Lin Chong or Wu Song.
“Journey to the West” (Wu Cheng’en): Published in the 16th century, this novel centers on the pilgrimage of monk Tang Sanzang and three protectors to the West to acquire sacred texts of Buddhism This work is extremely popular and has been adapted into plays and movies
“The Plum in the Golden Vase” (Lanling Xiaoxiao Sheng): This novel was written in vernacular Chinese in the latter half of the 16th century and was regarded as a spin-off from “Water Margin” It revolves around the downfall of an affluent family headed by Ximen Qing, a corrupt person
17th and 18th century works:
The Scholars (Wu Jingzi): This is the first satirical novel of China It offers insights into the pressure of gaining social status by a variety of ways, ranging from academic competition to impersonation in the 18th century.
Dream Of The Red Chamber (Cao Xueqin): It is universally recognized as China’s greatest novel The novel tells about the fall of the Jia family, using a Buddhist - Daoist mythological motif.
Late Qing novel: Sequels to Dream of the Red Chamber; Flowers in the Mirror by Li Ruzhen, The Travels of Lao Cao, …
3.2.3 The Four Books and The Five Classics
The Four Books are Chinese classic texts about the core value and belief systems of Confucianism.
Great Learning: Regarded as the gateway of learning, it is comprised of a short main text by Confucius and 9 commentary chapters by Zengzi.
Doctrine of the Mean: It is attributed to Zisi, Confucius' grandson The purpose of this work is to point out how the golden way can help to achieve perfect virtue
Analects: This is a collection of speeches and discussions by Confucius and his disciples This work has made a big influence on the philosophy and moral values of China, as well as other East Asian countries.
Mencius: This is a compilation of conversations of the scholar Mencius with kings of his time, written into long dialogues and prose.
The Five Classics are five pre-Qin books that form the system of philosophical belief of the Chinese.
Classic of Poetry: Consisting of 305 poems, including 160 folk songs, 105 festival songs for court ceremonies, and 40 hymns and eulogies.
Book of Documents: It collects the documents and speeches written by the authority of the early Zhou period and before
Book of Rites: It depicts ancient rites, social forms and court ceremonies
Book of Changes: The book is converted from a divination into a cosmological text with a series of philosophical commentaries known as the "Ten Wings".
Spring and Autumn Annals: This is the concise chronicle of theState of Lu, from 722 to 481 BC.
History
Spring and Autumn Period: Spring and Autumn Annals
Being the first Chinese chronological history, it is one of the most important Confucian classics and was compiled by Confucius.
It is about happenings in the Zhou Dynasty not only in the state of Lu, but also other state as reported to Lu from 722 BCE to 481BCE The book provides a comprehensive, although relatively rough, month-by-month record of crucial occurrences that took place throughout the 12 emperors' tenure of Lu, Confucius' home state.
It is claimed that the text makes moral judgments about occurrences in subtle ways, such as when Confucius purposefully omits the name of a corrupt ruler.
It represents the most profound break in Confucian philosophy; The book served as a vehicle for imposing Confucian principles on politics.
A number of commentaries to the Annals were written throughout the Warring States era (475-221 BC) in an effort to explain or elucidate the short entries in the Annals.
Han dynasty: Records of the Grand Historian
It was written from 109 BCE to 91 BCE by Sima Qian; It was China's first universal biographical history.
With 130 chapters and more than 520,000 words, it covers significant occasions and figures of 2,000 years.
Sima Qian put the previous events into a novel, five-part scheme. The "Basic Annals" provides a historical timeline that is centered on what happened at the court at the time that was thought to be the supreme authority The next section is made up of chronological tables that explain the history of the many independent feudal kingdoms and make it easy for the reader to quickly see what was happening in each state at any given period The "The Hereditary Houses" chapters contain thorough accounts of each state Several monographs cover several important facets of government The text concludes with a collection of "Biographies" of well-known people chosen as examples of various forms of conduct, as well as a discussion of the many foreign peoples' issues, whose existence was growing more and more significant during the reign of the emperor Wudi.
It covered the Western, or Former Han dynasty from the first emperor in 206 BCE through Wang Mang's collapse in 23 CE,and was completed in 111 AD.
It was written by Eastern Han court official Ban Gu (32-92 CE) with the assistance of his sibling Ban Zhao, carrying on the legacy of their father, Ban Biao.
Their work was based on the Records of the Grand Historian, a generic history that spans several dynasties, but it was the first annals-biography to focus solely on a particular dynasty.
It served as a model for the official histories of China's succeeding ruling families, which documented the regimes of their predecessors.
It is the best source – and occasionally the only one – or many subjects, including this era's literature.
Ban Gu went back to the beginning of the Han, copying nearly to the letter most of the records Sima Qian had used for the portion of the Han period he had dealt with, and removing redundancies or simplifying any passages of text that looked confusing or difficult to understand Ban Gu had access to an even greater collection of recent records since people in his own generation had access to broader education, bureaucratic proliferation, improved writing equipment and techniques and standardized orthography.
Although only covers about 200 years, it is much longer compared to Records of the Grand Historian, which dealt with over 3000 years.
Book of the Later Han
A variety of older histories and records served as the basis for the compilation of the book, which was done by Fan Ye and others in the Liu Song dynasty in the fifth century.
It covers the Later or Eastern Han period of the Han dynasty's history, which runs from 6 to 189 CE.
The Treatise on the Western Regions' chapter was based on a report that Ban Yong wrote (with some subsequent changes) and submitted to Emperor An of Han in the early 125s It is a crucial source for cultural and socioeconomic information on theWestern Regions, and it contains some of the most in-depth early accounts of India and Central Asia as well as the oldest records of Daqin (the Roman Empire).
Records of the Three Kingdoms
It was written by Chen Shou in 3CE.
It belongs to the list of established dynasty histories
It is one of the "Four [Great] Histories" of ancient China, along with its forerunners (Records of the Grand Historian, Book of Han).
It has 65 volumes and is divided into three books: The Book of Wei, The Book of Shu, and The Book of Wu.
Each book provides information about different famous people in the form of a biographical text.
Due to his involvement in Shu Han, Chen Shou was able to use his memory to present the necessary details for The Book of Shu, and he most likely added to it with surviving narratives and records.
Chen Shou gained access to the Wei and Wu officials' historical records when he served the Jin Dynasty.
Sparse language and a straightforward prose style indicate that Chen Shou's writing was intended to provide information rather than to engage the reader in a narrative.
The characters in Chen Shou's writings frequently receive their own moral judgements, either applauding or criticizing them for their actions.
The History of the Ming Dynasty
It is the Ming dynasty's official dynastic history.
The Mingshi was only completed in 1739 and presented to the throne by Zhang Tingyu despite beginning to be compiled in 1679.
One year after the Manchus conquered Beijing, the first imperial order to compile the history of the Ming was issued in 1645, although at that early date it was impossible to gather enough information and sources for such a work.
In 1679, the Mingshiguan, or Compilation Office for the History of the Ming, was founded.
Ye Fang'ai, Zhang Yushu, Tang Bin, and Xu Qianxue served as the compilation team's leaders under the supervision of Xu Yuanwen Wan Sitong was one of the most significant contributors.
The Mingshigao draft was completed in 1691, but due to its incompleteness and lack of consistency, it was not presented to the king at that time.
Three years later, Wan Sitong and Qian Mingshi were recruited to assist the editors while Wang Hongxu, Xiong Cilü, Chen Tingjing, and Zhang Yushu took over the refining.
Following the passing of Wan Sitong in 1702, Wang Hongxu personally edited and refined the writing.
The typical and collective biographies, which were presented to the crown in 1714, were the first section to be completed The biographies and the treatises, which still needed to be shortened, were submitted in 320 chapters in 1723.
A finalization that was presented to the throne in 1739 was created based on this version by Zhang Tingyu and Zhu Shi It took 95 years to complete the compilation process, which is the most time required for any official book.
The Ming Mingshilu's official records, archival materials, the Peking Gazette, a local history of the imperial capital, the
"Statutes of the Great Ming," throne memorials, local gazetteers, biographies, as well as unofficial sources like privately written histories or literary sources, served as the compilation's primary sources.
Du You, a well-known scholar and official, compiled Tongdian during the Tang Dynasty (618–907 CE) (735–812 CE).
The Tongdian, a review of historical Chinese social, political, and cultural institutions, has long been used as a template for Chinese encyclopedia production.
It was brought to the court in 801
It has 200 volumes and roughly 1.7 million words, and it is occasionally recognized as the most representative modern Tang Dynasty text.
Du You spent 36 years producing the Tongdian, compiling it from a variety of sources.
Du You adhered to the conventional Confucian idea that the past might serve as a guidance for the present in his writings. However, he had a fairly non-Confucian viewpoint, contending that social and political institutions must modernize, and that emulating high antiquity is insufficient These issues were represented in Tongdian, which was created as a comprehensive guide for the realm's scholar-officials.
It was made up of extracts from many sources that were ordered by topic and interspersed with the compiler's own remarks and insights.
The Tongdian offers a perspective on human history that emphasizes how social and political institutions substantially shaped it.
Du You noted that the improvement of the populace should be the top focus in governance in his introductory chapter on economic issues, making sure that the people have enough food and clothing comes before edification.
The Tongdian placed a heavy emphasis on ceremony, including the customs and traditions of the court and society The majority of the encyclopedia, or 100 volumes, are devoted to ritual guidelines from prehistoric times to the eighth century.
The chapters of the Tongdian are arranged into sections and subcategories: Economics, Civil Service Selection, Bureaucracy, Ritual, Music, Warfare, Punishments, Administrative Districts, Border Frontiers.
Initiated in 1403 by the Yongle Emperor of the Chinese Ming Dynasty, it was finished in 1408.
Its compilation involved 9169 scholars, of which 2180 were students at Nanking University.
The Yongle Encyclopedia, with a total of 11,095 volumes, was the largest general encyclopedia in the world for a long time.
The encyclopedia featured a wide range of topics, such as farming, art, astronomy, theatre, geology, history, literature, medicine, natural sciences, religion, and technology, as well as descriptions of uncommon natural events.
Block printing was not possible due to the work's size, and only one other manuscript copy is believed to have been produced.
Less than 400 volumes, or roughly 800 rolls, or 3.5% of the entire work are still in existence.
Religion
Founded during the Zhou Dynasty in the 6th century BCE by Lao-Tzu Tao Te Ching.
Taoism holds the belief that all living things have a universal power and individuals should merge with nature.
Taoism is the source of the Yin and Yang Yang has properties such as: masculine, light, hot, active, solid Yin has opposite properties such as: feminine, dark, cold, passive, soft, etc Yin and yang interact with each other to form everything in the universe.
The Bagua: The Bagua represents the 8 material elements that make up the world: Qian: heaven, Kun: earth, Zhen: thunder, Xun: wind, Kan: water, Li: fire, Gen: mountain, Dui: marsh With the conception of eight material elements such as water, fire, mountains, lakes, etc., that make up the universe, and at the same time pay attention to the development of things, the trigram theory is a philosophical thought with a materialist nature and dialectic.
The Five Elements: Five factors that create things, including: Wood, Fire, Earth, Metal, Water To explain the change of things, the yin and yang school proposed the law of the mutual relationship of the Five Elements Mutual birth is giving birth to each other, namely: Wood gives birth to Fire, Fire gives birth to Earth, Earth gives birth to Metal, Metal gives birth to Water, and Water gives birth to Wood Mutual victory is against each other, namely: Wood wins Earth, Earth wins Water, Water wins Fire, Fire wins Metal, Metal wins Wood.
Confucianism was a style of living for the ancient Chinese, and it still exerts an influence on current Chinese society.
Confucius, the philosopher of Confucianism, lived from 551 to 479 BCE He was a political and philosophical person living in the period of disintegration under rival political powers.
Confucius placed emphasis on ethical guidelines for living He claimed that how we conduct ourselves when with others is the secret to creating a peaceful life.
Confucius' thought consists of four aspects: philosophy, morality, politics, and education
Philosophically, Confucius was less concerned with the origin of the universe, so he expressed a vague attitude about heaven and earth
In terms of morality, Confucius attaches great importance to them because they are the standards for maintaining social order. The content of Confucius' ethical point of view includes many aspects such as Kindness, Decorum, Uprightness, Wisdom, Faithfulness but the most important of which is Kindness
Regarding the way of governing the country, Confucius advocated to rely on morality The content of virtue rule, according to Confucius, consists of three things, which are to make the population crowded, the economy to develop, and the people to be educated
Regarding education, Confucius made very important contributions He was the first founder of the private education system in China The purpose of education is to shape character and cultivate talents, so Confucius's important educational motto is to learn etiquette first, then literature The second educational motto of Confucius is learning to go hand in hand with practice, learning to apply in practice.
During the Han Dynasty, which lasted from 206 BCE to 220 CE, Confucianism became prevalent and was regarded as the primary political ideology.
Around 500 AD, during the reign of the Three Kingdoms, Buddhism made its way from India to China for the first time
Siddhartha Gautama, widely known as the Buddha or the Enlightened One, founded Buddhism
Buddhism developed significantly in part as a result of Daoism. Buddhists transformed Daoist ideas into Chinese so that the Chinese might comprehend them Both Buddhism and Daoism benefited from this interaction
Chinese Buddhists have faith in a combination of Taoism and Mahayana Buddhism, which states that an individual can achieve enlightenment in a single lifetime.
Buddhism steadily gained popularity in Chinese society, influencing everyone from the common people to the emperor, and Buddhists developed a vocabulary that made it easier to teach their religion By the sixth century, Buddhism had really surpassed Daoism in terms of acceptance and influence in politics.
One of the most well-known figures in Chinese Buddhism is theBodhisattva Guanyin (the one who perceives the laments of the world–Guanshiyin) Both Chinese Buddhists and Daoists focus their devotional practices on Guanyin She is an exceptional person who relieves pain throughout the cosmos and has Indian Buddhism as her foundation.
Architecture
Qin Shi Huang, often known as the First Emperor, united China in
220 B.C.E He ordered to joint the existing walls into a single system Emperor after Emperor strengthened and extended the wall, often to keep out northern invaders The first wall-like border defenses were most likely constructed during the fifth century B.C. The Wall was built over a period of 2,000 years.
The Great Wall of China is a 6,000-kilometer path that runs through the Middle Kingdom, across six northern Chinese provinces, autonomous regions, and municipalities: Hebei, Beijing, Shanxi, Inner Mongolia, Ningxia, Shaanxi, and Gansu.
The wall stood seven or eight meters tall, reaching ten meters in certain places, and was seven meters wide at the base and six meters wide at the crest The building was just a long wall of compacted clay and sand covered with multiple brick walls that made it exceedingly strong.
The most common approach for constructing the walls was to build a timber skeleton that was then filled with earth layers, one on top of the other After allowing the structure to cure, the solid earth walls were removed Some soil that has been combined with stones and coated with bricks.
The construction is regarded as a top architectural feat in the world history, and it is also recognized as a UNESCO World Heritage site in 1987.
The Mausoleum of Qin Shi Huang
It is the burial place of the first sovereign emperor, Qin Shi Huang
The burial complex is a 60-square-kilometer underground metropolis dug to a depth of 70 to 120 meters below the aquifers It is directed to the cardinal points and has an area of 350x345 meters, virtually square in shape The emperor's mausoleum dominates the underground city, surrounded by nearly 500 tombs of his courtiers and attendants.
The tomb was fortified with a number of ingenious traps designed to catch the occasional curious visitor or burglar Hundreds of the emperor's servants and servitors were buried alive after the tomb was finished so that they might continue to serve him after his death.
In 1987, the compound was designated as a UNESCO WorldHeritage site Archaeological excavations at the site continued into the twenty-first century, with archaeologists expecting it to take years to unearth the complete tomb complex.
The Forbidden City is a vast precinct in the centre of China's capital, Beijing, with red walls and yellow glazed roof tiles The precinct is a micro-city in its own right, as the name implies
The Forbidden City, which measures 961 meters in length and 753 meters in breadth, is made up of more than 90 palace compounds,
98 buildings, and is bordered by a 52-meter-wide moat; it covers an area of about 72 hectares (180 acres) with a total floor space of approximately 150,000 square meters (1,600,000 square feet).
The Forbidden City was built from 1406 to 1420 on the orders of Zhu Di - Emperor Yongle of Ming dynasty (reign 1402–24).
The Forbidden City consists of three parts: the defenses (moat and wall), the Outer Court and the Inner Court.
The Forbidden City experienced three fires, and so most of the present palaces were rebuilt during the Qing dynasty; It was home to 24 emperors, their families and servants during the Ming (1368– 1644) and the Qing (1644–1911) dynasties.
During the Second Opium War (1856–1860), the Forbidden City was controlled by Anglo-French forces and occupied until the end of the war.
The Forbidden City is a ceremonial, ritual, and dwelling facility constructed by architects who adhered to the ideal cosmic order in Confucian doctrine that had held Chinese social structure together for generations
The architectural style displays a feeling of hierarchy as well Each structure was created in line with the Treatise on Architectural Methods or State Building Standards (Yingzao fashi), an eleventh- century handbook that established specific designs for structures of certain social grades in Chinese society.
It was recognized as a UNESCO World Heritage site in 1987 for its significance as the seat of Chinese authority for five centuries, its unmatched architecture, and its contemporary function as thePalace Museum of royal art and history.
Sculpture
With the Xia dynasty, China entered the Bronze Age The Erlitou culture's ruins in Shanxi have yielded examples from this time period, including intricate but plain utilitarian artifacts The Shang dynasty that followed produced more complex items, such as several vessels used in rituals.
From the Shang through the Zhou periods, bronzes' appearance and function gradually altered They started serving more useful purposes instead of just being employed in religious rituals Bronze vessels have evolved into beautiful artifacts during the Warring States era Some featured abstract patterns inlaid with gold, silver, or precious and semiprecious stones, while others featured social themes, such as those from a feast or hunt.
Bronze artifacts also played a significant role in the Han Dynasty as they served funerary purposes, reflecting the aesthetic and artistic qualities of Han Dynasty.
When they were collected and prized for their shape and design as well as the different green, blue green, and even reddish patinas created by chemical action as they lay buried in the ground, Shang bronzes from the Song dynasty came to be recognized as works of art.
One of the most important types of Chinese art, ceramic pottery has seen constant growth since the pre-dynastic eras The raw materials required to produce ceramics are abundant in China
The first ceramic products date back to the Paleolithic age, while later ceramic products include everything from sophisticatedChinese porcelain goods manufactured for the imperial court to building materials like bricks and tiles that were baked in kilns or bonfires Even the highest quality later Chinese ceramics were typically produced on an industrial scale, making it difficult to identify individual potters or painters.
Large quantities of ceramics were sent as diplomatic gifts or for trade from an early date because many of the most known studios belonged to the Emperors or were set aside for them.
Jade is a garnishing stone mainly used in the making of jewelry art, figure carving, and other types of sculpture.
Nearly all of the jade-carved objects were highly prized due to the fact that the Chinese believe that jade represents, elegance, longevity, purity and even immortality In addition, jade carvings are also valued for its glitter, translucent colors, and shades.
Most jade carvings have been made from 2 varieties of jade: nephrite or jadeite.
Both types of jade are as hard as steel, they cannot be cut or carved with metal tools so the only way to refine the gemstone is by manually chiseling and chipping small chunks of the jade.
Due to the gemstone’s rarity and technical difficulties to manufacture, the use of jade was restricted to emperors and noblemen.
Jade was mainly used in the carving of ritual vessels, ceremonial utensils, and decorations, ranging from indoor decorations to jade burial suits.
Stone carving is considered one of the traditional types of Chinese sculptural art beside jade carvings and wood carving.
Stone-carved sculptures can often be seen on large gate velaria and stone arches of famous buildings.
Due to the fact that the stone sculptures were a demonstration of the strength and power of the Chinese ruler and his court, it is often situated near the imperial tombs.
Aside from the stone sculpture, there were also stone plates that are intricately carved, unlike the sculpture that depicts an individual, the stone plates depict legends in the ancient Chinese as well as imperial feasts, scenes from the hunt to even circus performances.
Wood carving is a branch of China’s traditional handicraft.
According to its usage, wood carvings can be divided into 2 types: wood carvings with ornamental value mainly use for decoration and practical value for everyday objects such as chairs, tables,…
Ornamental wood carving can be further divided into 3 categories:firstly is three-dimensional carving, which is a kind of carving that imitate real animals These type of carvings have high ornamental value and can be appreciated from different angles Secondly isRelief carving, which is a kind of carving carved on the surface.It’s an art form that is mixed between three-dimensional carvings and 2-dimensional paintings, these types of carving can only be viewed from 1 side And lastly is root carving, root carving utilizes the distorted shape of a wood root to create masterpieces that are the perfect blend between natural beauty and skilled handicraft.
Painting
In the Tang dynasty, the classical style of Chinese ink paintings developed quickly With the simple tools of brush, ink and paper, China’s scholars and artists created “the beauty between resemblance and non-resemblance.
It doesn’t focus on visual perspective like Western painting does. The artists emphasize the aesthetics of the brush strokes and composition to set off the essence of the subject.
Ancient Chinese artists get inspirations from Confucianism, Taoism and Buddhism for thousands of years Whether the paintings are landscapes, flowers, birds, people, or architecture, they reflect an understanding of nature and the human condition based on the wisdom of their spiritual traditions.
An outstanding feature of Chinese ink painting is the use of lines,the strength and softness of the brush strokes can have a sense of movement, calmness or vigor The thickness, lightness, dryness,wetness, and burnt colors of the ink can frame a vivid landscape or depict a lively conversation among literati.
The interdependence of the line’s straightness and curves create a symphony on paper Like the melodies and rhythms of music, the painters’ objectives are woven into the narrative of the painting.
ChaiMun Mountain - Duong Ba Ho
Raise goat - Minh Tuyen Tong
Riverside village - Duong Van Thong
Fresco: appeared very early in the ancient life of the Chinese Country. This genre of paintings can be divided into three large groups:
The frescoed tomb: Archaeologists discovered many frescoes on the mausoleums and tombs from the Qin-Han dynasties The content of the picture usually shows the pictures spiritual images or about events, characters…
Dunhuang murals: Dunhuang Macao Cave has a total length of about 1600 meters, including more than 50,000 manuscripts. Especially, there are murals of 10 dynasties: Former Qin, Northern Wei, Northern Zhou, Sui, Tang, Five Dynasties, Song, Liao, Western Xia, Yuan occupying 45000 square meters Dunhuang frescoes mainly have Buddhist content, partly influenced by Indian frescoes The style is very rich, the content is diverse in terms of history, customs, feelings, myths.
Eternal Palace frescoes: Represents the genre of frescoes painted in palaces It specializes in painting the flourishing scene of Taoist fairy tales Yongle Palace has 873 square meters of murals, exquisite technical style, inheriting and developing character paintings of the Song and Tang dynasties.
3.7.2 Significant paintings through the ages
The author of this painting is Yan Lap Bon, one of the most respected painters of the early Tang Dynasty (618-907) The painting "CombinedMap" depicts the scene of Emperor Thai Tong Ly The Dan receivingTibetan emissaries The painting is 38.5 cm wide, 129.6 cm long, painted on silk and appreciated in both historical and artistic aspects, now on display in the Beijing Palace Museum.
The painting "Five oxen" was painted on hemp paper (139.8 cm long, 28.8 cm wide); it is the work of Han Huang (723 - 787) He was also the Prime Minister under Tang Duc Tong The painting is his most valuable work, favored by many famous collectors such as Emperor Cao Tong Zhaogou (Song Dynasty) or Emperor Qian Long (Qing Dynasty) Han Huang is the first artist in the history of Chinese painting to reach such a level of vividness.
Thanh Minh Thuong Ha map
"Thanh Minh Thuong Ha Map" means: a picture of a riverside scene in Thanh Minh period This is a large-format painting by painter Truong Trach Doan painted at the end of the Northern Song Dynasty The painting depicts the life of the Chinese people during the Song Dynasty in the capital of Bianjing (present-day Kaifeng).
Daily activities, costumes, professions, architecture and roads are described in detail in a silk painting that is 24.8 cm wide and 528.7 cm long with a bright background People call "Qingming Shanghe Tu" as the "Mona Lisa of China", is a treasure of many dynasties and is currently on display at the Beijing Palace Museum.
Inventions
After repeated experiments, Bi Sheng (970-1051), during the Song Dynasty (960-1279), created the portable, reusable, clay-like printing method Manuscripts used to be entirely handwritten by academics before the invention of this printing method, which took a lot of time and invariably had errors.
Bi Sheng carved individual characters onto fine clay pieces during the Song Dynasty so they could be reused after printing Bi Sheng is referred to as the "father of typography" since his remarkable invention gave rise to a revolutionary printing technique Later, his method was adopted in Korea, Japan, Vietnam, and Europe.
The Western world could find it easier to use moveable clay type printing because there are fewer English letters (compared to the number of Chinese characters) The rapid expansion of printing technology allowed for the production of many more copies of books, which greatly aided in the spread of education, information, and communication.
Cai Lun, a Han Dynasty officer in the imperial court, created paper in about the year 105 AD (206 BC – 220 AD).
Ancient people from all around the world wrote words on a variety of natural materials before paper was invented, including leaves, animal skins, rocks, and earthen plates Chinese people kept track of significant occurrences using bamboo or wooden strips, tortoise shells, or the shoulder blades of an ox Books that were written on bamboo strips were bulky and exceedingly heavy.
Later, Chinese inventors created a silk-based paper that was much lighter than the strips The paper was identified as bo It was so expensive that only the imperial court or governments could afford to utilize it.
Cai Lun created a new type of paper out of leftover rags, fishing nets, hemp scraps, mulberry fibers, and other cheap fibers Compared to earlier varieties, this paper was significantly lighter and less expensive And a Chinese brush was more appropriate for writing on it.
Japan, Korea, Vietnam, and other adjacent Asian nations adopted the papermaking method Chinese papermaking technology were exported throughout the world from the Tang Dynasty (618-907) through the Ming Dynasty (1368-1644), greatly advancing global civilization alongside moveable type printing.
During the Tang Dynasty, Chinese alchemists created gunpowder. Alchemists in medieval China were individuals whose ultimate objective was to create an elixir of immortality They unintentionally discovered that sulfur, saltpeter, and charcoal can cause an explosion.
Fireworks made from gunpowder were first produced to mark holidays and significant occasions Later, it was employed as an explosive component for cannons, fire arrows, and other military-grade weaponry.
As mass industry was created and there were numerous battles during the Song and Yuan dynasties (960–1368), gunpower was in high demand.
Between the 12th and the 13th centuries, the art of producing gunpowder expanded to Arab nations before reaching Europe.
The Warring States Period (476-221 BC) is when the compass first appeared, when the Chinse people utilized a tool called a si nan to indicate direction.
During the early Song Dynasty, a round compass with a tiny, magnetized steel needle was developed after continuous refinement The little needle's southern and northern ends point in opposite directions.Afterward, during the Northern Song era, the compass was brought toEurope and the Arab world (960–1127).
People relied on interpreting the positions of the sun, moon, and pole stars prior to the development of the compass to determine their whereabouts on open water or in uncharted area When the weather was severe or gloomy, traveling was challenging.
Yi Xing, a Buddhist monk, created the Water-driven Spherical Birds clock in 725 A.D., which is considered to be the earliest mechanical clock ever made It was run by water drips, which propelled a wheel that turned once every 24 hours A more advanced clock known as the Cosmic Empire was established in 1092 by the inventor Su Song, hundreds of years before the mechanical clock was made in Europe.
One of the oldest fabrics, silk, was developed in China more than 6,000 years ago The oldest evidence of silk was unearthed at the Yangshao Culture Site in Xiaxian County, Shanxi Province, China, where a cut-in- half silk cocoon from between 4000 and 3000 BC was discovered The West had to pay the equivalent amount of gold in gold for the silks because the Chinese had developed advanced silk weaving technology that was a closely-kept secret Silk was a priceless commodity produced in China in ancient times, and for many centuries, traders transported it from China to the West along the now-famous Silk Road.
Shennong, the Chinese Father of Agriculture, is credited with discovering tea in an ancient Chinese narrative that takes place around 2,737 BC. During the Tang Dynasty (618–907), tea gained popularity and was consumed by people from all social strata In the Tang Dynasty, Lu Yu wrote Cha Jing (also known as The Book of Tea), which included detailed explanations on how to cultivate tea, drink tea, and classify various types of tea The book is regarded as the first monograph on tea ever written And the largest and oldest live tea tree in the world, which is about 3,200 years old, is in Lin Cang, China
Iron smelting technology was created in China as early as the 5th century
BC during the Zhou Dynasty (1050 BC-256 BC), according to archeological findings China saw a boom in iron smelting during the Spring and Autumn and Warring States periods (776-221 BC) The Han Dynasty (202 BC–220 AD), which saw extraordinary development, saw the central government monopoly iron smelting.
Medicine
The oldest text on Chinese medicine, "Neijing," commonly referred to as
"The Classic of Internal Medicine of the Yellow Emperor," demonstrates that acupuncture was a popular form of treatment in China long before it was written Additionally, a variety of acupuncture needles of different types were found in the tomb of Prince Liu Sheng, who passed away approximately 200 B.C This is another evidence that acupuncture was used in China more than 2000 years ago.
During the Ming dynasty, the healthy developed immunity against smallpox by inhaling powdered smallpox scabs blown up their noses.They would then go down with a mild case of the disease, thereby becoming immune to it Although the technique had a 0.5–2.0% mortality rate, this was still considerably lower than the 20–30% mortality rate of the disease itself.
Education
The Chinese education system only reached its height in the period of the Song dynasty:
Under the Song dynasty, aristocratic control over the bureaucracy system was strictly restricted because the nobility had been weakened since the Tang dynasty’s last years.
To limit noble families’ power, close relatives of officials serving in the imperial court were prohibited from registering the civil service examinations.
The Song dynasty’s examination system attained the thriving form that remained in following centuries, with three levels of examinations introduced and adopted:
Firstly, qualifying examination is given each year at the provincial capital Successful candidates succeeding at this stage could only obtain local positions.
Next, or every three years, candidates who wished to go on could take the second examination, and if the result was successful, they could apply for an official position.
Finally, the final examination is given in the palace every three years, those passing this exam could be eligible for high positions in the central bureaucracy or for appointments as district magistrates.
During the Song dynasty, the examination questions were based entirely on the Confucian classics, which is different from the Tang with only questions on Buddhist and Daoist topics being included.
Candidates were required to memorize passages and interpret underlying meanings of moral lessons Thus, the system would guarantee that all the candidates who passed the examination could have entirely grasped the ethics of Confucian politics and society.
The Song authorities made effort to expand the education system in order to fairly provide opportunities for the poor as well as the affluent,establishing training academies at the provincial and district level Such developments were extremely crucial because if it was not for those academies, only candidates from noble families could have passed the examinations.
However, most candidates still came from landed gentry, non-aristocratic landowners who controlled the majority of the countryside’s wealth. Because the gentry prized education and was the primary upholders of traditional Confucianism, they were also well-known as scholar-gentry.
Nevertheless, political issues such as official arrogance, nepotism,bureaucratic infighting and corruption were still prevalent in medievalChina as well as the rest of the world Despite those weaknesses, theSong’s civil service examination system was an impressive feat for the contemporary period due to more efficient government and fairer opportunities.
CONCLUSION
Chinese civilization is one of the earliest and most prosperous civilizations of humanity.
It is also one of a few civilizations that survive into modern time
It was characterized by a long history and rich culture with numerous achievements in a variety of aspects These accomplishments have not only made extremely valuable contribution to humanity in general but have also inspired and facilitated the growth of other civilizations.