Ngôn ngữ là một thực thể sống động, không ngừng phát triển và thay đổi. Tiếng Anh, với vị thế là ngôn ngữ toàn cầu, luôn phản ánh những biến động văn hóa, xã hội và công nghệ qua việc hình thành từ vựng mới. Khoá luận này tập trung nghiên cứu các xu hướng hình thành từ vựng tiếng Anh hiện nay, nhằm cung cấp cái nhìn tổng quan về cách mà từ ngữ mới được tạo ra, sử dụng và lan truyền trong xã hội. Sau khi phân tích 1089 từ vựng mới được cho vào 2 từ điển Oxford English Dictionary và Merriam Webster, tôi đã xác định được xu hướng nào là phổ biến nhất trong việc hình thành từ mới, cũng như tác nhân nào ảnh hưởng đến sự hình thành từ mới.
INTRODUCTION
Background of the research
Language, a vivacious and ever-changing phenomenon, forms an integral part of human society An American political journalist and author, Drew (1959, p.69) once stated in her book: “Language is like soil However rich, it is subject to erosion, and its fertility is constantly threatened by uses that exhaust its vitality
It needs constant reinvigoration if it is not to become arid and sterile.” As language develops through human communication, it transforms into a living entity, constantly evolving and adapting All languages worldwide undergo continual developments and significant changes in their lexicons, terms, and concepts, driven by the ever-changing world and its evolving demands (Jatowt & Tanaka, 2012) The English language, serving as a lingua franca, has effectively kept pace with society’s rapid growth by extensive transformations in grammatical structures, word forms, and meaning, particularly with the emergence of new words These lexical creations arise from various aspects of daily life, including technology, culture, society, etc (Küün, 2015; Harya, 2016; Schippan, 2002, as cited in Roth, 2020; Jiang, Shen, Ahrens & Huang, 2021).
Rationale of the study
As English is widely used as a global language, neologisms are created daily to effectively convey information and opinions It is particularly interesting to have an insight into how word formation has grown to become an important process in the growth and expansion of the English vocabulary, especially in this era of globalization While previous studies such as Liu (2017), Fauzi (2017), Ratih and Gusdian (2018), and Pereira (2021) have explored word formation in online sources or dictionaries, they often lack an examination of the factors driving lexeme emergence Additionally, prior research on word formation in online dictionaries like Fauzi (2017), Ratih and Gusdian (2018), or Pereira (2021) have
2 primarily focused on only the Oxford English Dictionary within a limited timeframe, from 2012 to 2016, or specifically, 2017 and 2020 To address these gaps, this study will analyze the collection of new words added to both the Merriam-Webster Dictionary and Oxford English Dictionary from 2018 to 2023, contributing to a comprehensive understanding of recent word formation processes and factors influencing lexeme creation.
Scope of the study
This research study aims to investigate the intricate aspects of word formation processes and explore the underlying motivations driving the emergence of new English words The primary focus will be on analyzing the collection of 1089 new words added to the Merriam-Webster Dictionary and Oxford English Dictionary in the period of six years from 2018 to 2023 By delving into these linguistic phenomena, the study seeks to gain a comprehensive understanding of how recent lexical items are formed and the factors that contribute to their introduction into the lexicon.
Significance of the study
The significance of this study lies in the recognition of the continuous and profound processes of lexeme formation within the English language over time Given the limited research conducted on the topic of lexical creation and the factors influencing the emergence of new words in online dictionaries, the study holds significant importance as it contributes to the body of knowledge and serves as a valuable resource for future researchers and educators The findings of this research can inform and enrich the existing literature in the field, adding to the understanding of vocabulary creation and the factors influencing the emergence of new words in contemporary English This knowledge can be utilized by educators to develop more effective teaching materials and strategies that align with current linguistic trends and practices
Research questions
This study aims to answer the following research questions:
• What are the recent trends in lexical formation in the neologisms recorded in the Merriam-Webster Dictionary and Oxford English Dictionary from
• What factors contribute to the emergence of new English words during this period?
Structure of the study
The dissertation consists of five chapters The study begins with an introduction, which sets the stage by outlining the research objectives The subsequent section, the literature review, delves into the definitions of neologism, their lifespan, and their significance Additionally, it examines various word formation processes and investigates potential factors that contribute to the emergence of new lexemes The methodology section details the approach employed in this study, shedding light on the methods utilized to collect and analyze data The fourth chapter presents the findings derived from the data analysis, followed by an extensive discussion of their implications Finally, the dissertation concludes with a final chapter that highlights the practical implications of the research and provides a comprehensive summary of the study’s key findings
LITERATURE REVIEW
Neologism
The term neologism was first documented in English in 1772, borrowed from the French word néologisme which originated in 1734 (Behera & Mishra, 2013) However, its etymology can be traced back to ancient Greek, where neos means
“new” and logo means “word” (Erkinova, 2021)
Neologism, according to the Oxford Learner’s Dictionary (n.d.), is a new word or expression, or a new meaning of a word For Malmkjổr (2002), neologisms can be defined as an item newly introduced into the lexicon of a language over a certain period of time Similarly, the term neologism is used by Budiu and Anderson (2001, as cited in Amiruddin, Yassi & Sukmawaty, 2021) to describe a word, term, or phrase that is relatively new and not yet widely used, or is currently in the process of being accepted into general usage A further definition of neologism is given by Quaisar (2015), who describes neologism as a linguistic phenomenon characterized by the morphological process of lexical innovation within a given language Its fundamental objective is to augment the lexicon and introduce novel word forms These newly coined lexical units assume a pivotal role in identifying and delineating emergent phenomena, as well as capturing the way old ideas adapt to new cultural contexts By exploring the neologisms within the selected texts of our research, we can gain valuable insights into the ever-evolving social and cultural dynamics These linguistic innovations serve as a mirror, reflecting the changing nature of language in response to shifts in society According to Algeo (1993), neologisms are expressions or uses of expressions that are not included in standard dictionaries Durham (2018) defines a neologism as a recently coined word or a novel usage of an existing word that has not yet gained widespread acceptance For a neologism to endure
5 beyond its initial stages, it is crucial for it to represent a lasting and significant concept while remaining relevant in its word choice and usage
Quaisar (2015) also asserts that neologisms can take different forms, such as borrowing directly from other languages or inventing entirely new terms These new words can be created through morphological processes, where linguistic elements are combined, or by giving new meanings to existing words These processes will be detailed in Section 2.2.
Guilbert (1971, as cited in Schneider, 2018) contends that establishing a definitive lifespan for all neologisms is an arduous task These newly coined words or novel word usages exhibit varying levels of endurance While some neologisms may persist for approximately five years, others endure for a decade or even longer before either assimilating into a specialized language or falling into disuse
Parianou and Kelandrias (2002, as cited in Damaskinidis, n.d.) outline a comprehensive three-stage process that characterizes the evolution of neologisms The initial stage involves the creation of the neologism, which, in its nascent form, remains unstable and enters common language Epstein (2005, as cited in Damaskinidis, n.d.) refers to these emerging neologisms as
“protologisms” - new words that have recently emerged and possess limited application, or, as Lieber (2010) suggests, terms defined in the hopes that they will be used but which are not actually in wide use Subsequently, the neologism begins to disseminate but has yet to acquire widespread acceptance Finally, it reaches a stage of broad acceptance and stability, as demonstrated by its inclusion in glossaries, dictionaries, and extensive language corpora
Similarly, Kalinowska's article (2016) underscores the notion that certain neologisms exhibit a close association with transient phenomena Over time, these terms can gradually lose their significance and ultimately fade from
6 common usage Conversely, there exists a distinct category of terms that derive from enduring aspects of society and continue to endure, eventually cementing their place as permanent fixtures in our linguistic repertoire
The importance of neologisms is evident in various scholarly publications and literary works For instance, Roggen (1996) emphasizes their importance by stating that new words or reinterpreting existing words are essential for the development of new scientific disciplines Without the introduction of novel vocabulary and definitions, scholars like Aristotle and Newton would not have been able to advance in their respective fields of study Rejecting neologisms, according to Roggen (1996), is tantamount to rejecting scientific progress Furthermore, Garber (2000, p.139) aptly captures the essence of neologisms by noting: “Yesterday’s neologisms, like yesterday’s jargon, are often today’s essential vocabulary.”
Therefore, neologisms assume a crucial role in fostering the expansion of human knowledge and enhancing our understanding One reason for the evolution of language is the emergence of countless novel concepts that lack specific names Consequently, the demand arises for the creation of new vocabulary to effectively adapt to these evolving circumstances (Sheela, 2001)
2.1.4 Inclusion of neologisms in dictionary
Lexicographers face the difficult task of deciding which newly coined terms should be included in dictionaries This is challenging because there are more invented words than can be added to reference dictionaries According to Stevenson and Soanes (2008), 70% of new words do not make it into a dictionary
In order for lexicographers to come to a decision, Kerremans (2015) suggests that three criteria are often considered Firstly, the frequency of the word’s usage over an extended period is taken into account Secondly, its usefulness and
7 applicability in various contexts are evaluated Lastly, the word’s integration into the common, globally used English vocabulary is assessed This means that the word has been embraced and adapted to a wide range of different circumstances (Kerremans, 2015) Additionally, Tulloch (1991) notes that the word or sense must have gained awareness among the general public
In general, for a word to be considered for inclusion in a dictionary, it must have made a lasting and significant contribution to the vocabulary, demonstrating an established foundation (Kerremans, 2015).
Word formation processes
Peterson and Ray (2013) explain that the creation of neologisms encompasses various methods Within a language system, new words can be derived or expanded through diverse morphological processes, which can be described as word formation or lexeme formation processes
Trask (1999) posits that word formation processes entail the construction of novel lexical units utilizing existing linguistic materials This conceptualization closely aligns with the definitions presented by Yule (2010, as cited in Sihombing, 2021) and Plag (2003), who explicate word formation as the systematic generation of fresh vocabulary, achieved either through modifications of preexisting lexical items or through complete innovation Subsequently, these newly minted terms become integrated into the linguistic system and are recognized as instances of morphological processes Murray (1995) delineates two fundamental mechanisms through which new words enter the English lexicon: borrowing from other languages and the creation of lexical items employing elements already present in the English language Additionally, Hacken and Thomas (2013) assert that the word formation process entails the application of specific linguistic rules to generate novel lexical units
8 Numerous prominent authors have extensively studied morphological processes, including Bauer (1983), Spencer (1991), Murray (1995), Brinton (2000), Malmkjổr (2002), Harley (2006), Yule (2010), and Bejan (2017), among others These prominent authors describe common morphological processes, including affixation, compounding, reduplication, conversion, borrowing, acronymy, clipping, blending, onomatopoeia, antonomasia, coinage, and back formation According to notable authors like Bauer (1983), Huddleston and Pullum (2002), Lieber (2010), Nguyen (2014), and Aarts, McMahon and Hinrichs (2021), word formation processes can be divided into two categories: major or productive and minor or non-productive processes In other words, Finch (2000) points out, processes are productive if they are currently used to produce further instances of the same type Conversely, a non-productive process lacks this synchronic applicability For example, the internal change from foot to feet represents an unproductive process, as it signifies a fossilized plural form limited to a specific set of nouns
In terms of productive morphological processes, Pellicer (2022) identifies affixation, compounding, and conversion as the most productive word formation processes in English Similarly, scholars like Millward and Hayes (2011) concur that in contemporary English, affixation and compounding exhibit high levels of productivity, followed by conversion as the third most significant process On the other hand, minor processes, also known as unproductive word formation processes, include clipping, reduplication, blending, acronymy, onomatopoeia, antonomasia, coinage, and back formation (Bauer, 1983; Huddleston & Pullum, 2002; Lieber, 2010; Nguyen, 2014 and Aarts et al., 2021) This study will explore these processes based on the two aforementioned categories
Derivation, as defined by Brinton (2000), involves the addition of a derivational affix, which can take the form of a prefix, a suffix, or, in certain languages, an infix This process of affixation is achieved through the utilization of numerous discrete linguistic components, commonly referred to as affixes, as expounded upon by Yule (2010) These affixes, constituting small linguistic units, are not typically listed separately in dictionaries Plag (2003) further characterizes an affix as a bound morpheme, which attaches to base forms and can not function independently Illustrative instances of affixation can be found in words that are attached to the affixes un-, mis-, pre-, -ful, -less, -ish, -ism, and -ness, which manifest in words such as unhappy, misrepresent, prejudge, joyful, careless, boyish, terrorism, and sadness, as exemplified by Yule (2010) Affixes can originate from different linguistic sources, including both native and foreign influences Native affixes can be traced back to Old English, while foreign affixes often find their origins in other languages, with French being particularly significant in this regard (Brinton, 2000)
The English language encompasses a range of affixes that exhibit different degrees of productivity, including productive, unproductive, and semi- productive affixes (Brinton, 2000; Crystal, 2008; Lieber, 2010) For instance, Brinton (2000) provides the -able suffix as an example of a productive affix, which can actively generate new instances of the same type, observed in words such as available, unthinkable, admirable, or honorable Conversely, he illustrates the -th suffix as an unproductive affix that lacks the potential to generate new concepts, as exemplified by words like warmth, width, depth, or wealth Additionally, Crystal (2008) introduces the notion of semi-productive patterns, which display limited or occasional creativity For instance, the prefix
10 un- is sometimes applied to words to form their opposites, as in happy to unhappy, but not universally, as in sad but not *unsad
When examining the productivity of affixation, Lieber (2010) identifies three key factors that contribute to its effectiveness: transparency, frequency of base, and usefulness
Transparency refers to the ease with which words formed through affixation can be deconstructed, maintaining a clear correspondence between form and meaning In other words, when an affix is attached to a base, both the phonological form (pronunciation) of the morphemes remains unchanged, and the derived word’s meaning aligns with the expected combination of the affix and base The example provided by Lieber (2010) is the suffix -ness in words like pink => pinkness and hardy => hardiness allows for straightforward identification of the base and suffix The base is pronounced as it would be in isolation, and the suffix consistently imparts a noun denoting the “state of being” associated with the adjective
Another crucial factor is the frequency of available base types This refers to the variety of bases that affixes can attach to, leading to the creation of new words
If an affix is limited in its capacity to attach to a narrow range of bases, it will have a lower potential for generating numerous novel words, thereby reducing its productivity (Lieber, 2010)
The final factor contributing to productivity is the concept of usefulness The productivity of a lexeme formation process is contingent upon the demand for new words of a particular nature within a language community For instance, the ability to form nouns denoting “the state of being X” from adjectives is universally valuable, making affixes like -ness and -ity highly useful (Lieber, 2010) Conversely, consider the suffix -ess in English; previously, it served to designate occupations or roles performed by women (e.g., stewardess, murderess, authoress) However, societal shifts towards promoting gender-
11 neutral language and feminism have resulted in the decline of such words, rendering the need for new words employing this suffix nearly obsolete
Marchand (1969, as cited in Malmkjổr, 2002) describes compounding as the process by which two or more words combine to form a morphological unit Compounding is the most common process of English word-formation (Plag, 2003) Brinton (2000) adds that a compound is the amalgamation of two or more free roots, along with any associated affixes Sheela (2001) asserts that there are no restrictions on the types of combinations between or among free morphemes, indicating that any class of words can participate in this process Examples of compound words include bedtime (noun + noun), swimsuit (verb + noun), intake (preposition + verb), bittersweet (adjective + adjective), and breathtaking (noun + present participle), as provided by Bejan (2017)
Apart from regular compound words, there is another category called neoclassical compounds Neo-classical compounds are formed by combining elements derived from classical languages, such as Greek or Latin (Bauer, 1983) These derived elements, known as combining forms, often function as affixes in some cases (Bauer, 1983) Examples of neo-classical compounds include words like astro- (related to stars), electro- (related to electricity), hydro- (related to water), -crat (referring to someone with power or authority), -naut (referring to someone who travels or explores), -phile (referring to someone with a strong affinity or love for something), and -phobe (referring to someone with a fear or aversion to something) (Bauer, 1983) Neoclassical compounds allow for the creation of new words that make use of the extensive linguistic resources found in classical languages
Compounds can be compositional or non-compositional (Bejan, 2017) In compositional compounds, the meaning can be determined from the constituent parts, while non-compositional compounds lack predictable meanings based on
12 their components For many compositional compounds, the final element conveys the basic meaning, and the first element adds specificity For example, fox-hunter refers to a hunter specialized in hunting foxes, and wolf-hunter denotes a hunter who usually hunts wolves These non-idiomatic compounds contrast with compounds where one component has undergone a change in meaning, like blackboard and football There are also idiomatic compounds, such as ladybird (an insect, not a bird) and tallboy (a piece of furniture, not a boy) (Bejan, 2017)
Conversion, or in other words, zero derivation (Trask, 1999) or functional shift (Trask, 1999; Lieber, 2010), is a highly productive mechanism for the creation of new words in the English language, as assertively pointed out by Bauer (1983) Notably, there appear to be no explicit morphological restrictions on the types of forms that can undergo conversion This implies that compounds, derivatives, acronyms, blends, and clipped forms are all viable candidates for the conversion process (Bauer, 1983) In Bauer’s (1983) terminology, conversion is the use of a form which is regarded as being basically of one form class as though it were a member of a different form class, without any accompanying alteration in its form
Similarly, Bejan (2017) describes conversion as a word-building mechanism that involves the transition of a word from one syntactic category to another, effectively transforming its lexical class The process of conversion exhibits two primary types First, verbification entails the formation of a new verb by deriving it from a noun base For example, the noun email undergoes conversion to the verb to email, microwave becomes to microwave, and bottle transforms into to bottle (Behera & Mishra, 2013) The second type, known as nominalization, involves the derivation of a noun from a verb stem Examples include the noun alert derived from the verb to alert and cry derived from to cry (Behera &
13 Mishra, 2013) Furthermore, Quirk et al (1985) provide an illustrative pair involving the lexeme release to exemplify verb-to-noun conversion They classify constructions such as They released him and They ordered his release as instances of conversion Moreover, Quirk et al (1985) include pairs like a shelf and to shelve within the purview of conversion, despite the discrepancy in spelling and pronunciation between the base and converted forms
Possible factors contributing to the emergence of new words
Vocabulary is a dynamic and influential component of language, and the emergence of new words can be attributed to various factors Harya (2016) emphasizes that language change can occur due to adaptations and developments in social life systems, including changes in education, culture, social dynamics, and technological advancements Language change can be influenced by factors such as immigration, the value and status of a language within a community, and the educational opportunities available to the next generation (Küün, 2015) Buòmann (2002, as cited in Roth, 2020) suggests that neologisms can be created for various reasons These include naming new items and concepts in technology, science, and politics, as well as using language expressly or persuasively, such as in advertising The internet and globalization have also significantly accelerated the spread of new words in today’s interconnected world Abbas (2009, as cited in Colina, 2021) highlights that the internet facilitates the rapid dissemination of new words, while Jiang et al (2021) note that neologisms have become part of daily communication, information-seeking, and opinion-sharing online They indicate that the internet is a primary source for generating new words in contemporary times Gozzi’s survey on New Words and Changing American Culture (1990, as cited in Yu, 2020), reveals that technology accounts for 45% of new words in modern English, while social changes contribute 24%, and political and economic changes contribute 11% Socio-cultural factors, such as the influence of new media, advancements in science and technology, and the impact of democracy, play a role in
21 incorporating new lexical items into the general lexicon, too (Polenz, 2000, as cited in Roth, 2020) Additionally, certain environments, such as advertising, the military, politics, the social sphere, the health sector, and specific domains of life, like the environment and the reunification of East and West Germany, foster the flourishing of lexical innovations (Schippan, 2002, as cited in Roth, 2020) These possible factors that impact the emergence of new words are detailed below
The emergence of new political situations often serves as a catalyst for the creation of neologisms An illustrative example provided by Fontaine (2017) is the term Brexit, which was attested in 2012 to describe ‘Britain’s intention to exit the European Union.’ Initially used in the United Kingdom through print and social media, this neologism has since spread to other languages and countries across the globe (Fontaine, 2017)
The ever-changing world of technology has played a significant role in the constant evolution of the English language (Abbas, 2009, as cited in Colina, 2021) The field of technology has contributed to the creation of new words through the use of jargon vocabulary This has resulted in the development of new coinages, where entirely new words are coined to describe technological concepts Additionally, Abbas (2009, as cited in Colina, 2021) illustrates that some existing English words have been assigned new meanings in the context of technology, such as mouse, a small mobile manual device that controls movement of the cursor and selection of functions on a computer display, and keyboard, a group of systematically arranged keys by which a machine or device is operated
Science and technology have also given rise to numerous neologisms that have become part of people’s everyday vocabulary For instance, terms like e-mail
22 and blog have emerged in the realm of technology, while terms like black holes and quarks have become established concepts in science (Girard, 2007)
Affixation is a common method for creating technological and scientific neologisms For example, the pattern nano-, meaning ‘tiny’, has been used to form words like nanobiology, nanochemistry, and nanoscience (Ramsden, 2016, as cited in Colina, 2021)
Changes in politics, economics, and technology often lead to social changes, and these social changes, in turn, have an impact on language In other words, when society undergoes transformations, language change follows, producing specific effects (Finegan & Rickford, 2004)
The Covid-19 pandemic has sparked a surge in the creation of neologisms Numerous journal articles have focused on the neologisms that have emerged during the pandemic (Asif, Zhiyong, Iram & Nisar, 2021; Nabila & Abdulrahman, 2021; Amiruddin et al., 2021; Al-Salman & Haider, 2021) These studies highlight that the social context surrounding the pandemic has given rise to a plethora of new Covid-19-related words Examples include Coronials, which refers to ‘children conceived during the quarantine period resulting from the Coronavirus.’ These children are typically born after December 2020 and may also be referred to as Covid-kids (Al-Salman & Haider, 2021) Another example is Covidiot which combines Covid and idiot and is used to describe
‘individuals who disregard health and safety warnings or guidelines related to the Coronavirus.’ This term is often used as an insult for those who do not comply with government regulations, such as not wearing masks or maintaining physical distance in public places (Nabila & Abdulrahman, 2021)
The borrowing of words from one language to another often occurs when a speech community needs to refer to new notions or objects that have been
23 recently introduced This borrowing process helps languages adapt and incorporate new vocabulary to describe the evolving world around them (Mantiri, 2010) The example of the word pizza entering the English language is a perfect illustration of this process The Italian word pizza was adopted by
English speakers when the food itself became popular and widely consumed within English-speaking communities
Advertising is another factor that can possibly lead to the emergence of neologisms, as they serve to capture the attention of customers and promote creativity and originality in the field (Chi & Hao, 2013) Often, these neologisms are created specifically for a single occasion or campaign and are referred to as
An example of a nonce-formation provided by Vửrửs (2010) is the phrase rock’n rose, which was used as a marketing case by Valentino, an Italian luxury fashion house This phrase builds upon the well-known expression rock’n roll but replaces the word roll with rose, resulting in the blend rock’n rose This nonce- formation suggests that the fragrance is intended for a modern woman who embodies both edginess and elegance, symbolized by the combination of rock and the elegance associated with roses
Neologisms are frequently encountered and generated within the realm of the news media As the purpose of news is to provide coverage of the latest occurrences in politics, society, culture, economy, and science, among other domains, it becomes imperative for news reporting to keep pace with novel concepts and the corresponding vocabulary required to discuss them Additionally, new words are also created by the news media The neologisms that are found in the news are created through the usual processes, such as shortenings, compounds, derivations, loan words and analogies, among
24 others (Zhou, 2016) Exemplifying this phenomenon, Zhou (2016) enumerates several neologisms that have emerged within news discourse, including terms like celeblog - a term that combines celebrity, and log; incubator, regift, waterscape or opportunivore, etc
METHODOLOGY
Research design
For this study, a mixed methods research approach will be employed to effectively address the research questions The use of a mixed methods approach allows for a comprehensive investigation of the phenomenon under study The quantitative method will enable the identification of the number of new words in contemporary English within a specific timeframe It will also facilitate the examination of word formation processes, their frequency, and enable the researcher to know which word formation process(es) are productive This will be accompanied by the qualitative method, which will provide insights into the meaning and contextual factors associated with each new word, as well as the morphological processes and motivations that contribute to the creation of these new words The combination of both quantitative and qualitative methods ensures a holistic understanding of the research topic, enabling a deeper exploration of the research questions.
Data collection
In the data collection phase of the research, the focus will be on examining a part of the neologisms added to the Merriam-Webster Dictionary and Oxford English Dictionary from 2018 to 2023
The selection of Merriam-Webster Dictionary and Oxford English Dictionary for this study was based on specific reasons Firstly, these dictionaries were chosen due to their extensive lexical coverage, encompassing a vast number of words from various domains This ensures a comprehensive representation of the English language, allowing for a comprehensive analysis of neologisms Secondly, these dictionaries were selected because they provide specific information regarding the year in which new words are added to their respective editions This temporal documentation allows for the examination of the
26 chronological development and evolution of neologisms over time Finally, this study analyzes neologisms added to Merriam-Webster Dictionary and Oxford English Dictionary as these lexical items reflect the last stage of neologisms’ lifespan, where they reach a certain level of acceptability and are likely to remain in use in contemporary English By utilizing these dictionaries, this study aims to gain insights into the dynamic nature of vocabulary expansion and the temporal aspects of new word adoption within the English language.
The decision to focus on the period of six years, from 2018 to 2023, for this study was based on several considerations Firstly, the concept of “newness” for a neologism does not have a fixed duration, as it can vary depending on factors such as frequency of usage, usefulness, and integration into the English language By examining a span of six years, the study aims to capture a range of new words that have emerged during this relatively recent timeframe Furthermore, the choice of the latest years aligns with the objective of investigating recent language trends By focusing on the most recent six-year period, the study aims to explore and analyze the dynamics of language usage and the emergence of new words in contemporary times This approach allows for a comprehensive investigation into the evolving nature of the English language and provides insights into the latest linguistic phenomena
To collect new words from the Merriam-Webster Dictionary, the researcher employed the following methodology Normally, in the middle and at the end of each year, this online dictionary releases an announcement that includes the total number of newly added words and provides a smaller sample of these words An example of such an announcement for the year 2022 can be found at https://www.merriam-webster.com/wordplay/new-words-in-the-dictionary-sept ember-2022 Given the large volume of new words added annually, it is not feasible to track and analyze all of them Henceforth, the researcher concentrated on analyzing the sample provided by the Merriam-Webster Dictionary between
2018 and 2023 It is important to note that the number of neologisms included in the Merriam-Webster Dictionary’s samples varies from year to year
By examining the word formation processes and contextual meanings of these samples, it becomes possible to make inferences about the entire set of words added during those years This analysis can shed light on the factors that potentially contribute to the emergence of these words and their overall word formation patterns
In terms of the Oxford English Dictionary (OED), the researcher utilized the OED website for her study The OED makes a minimum of four updates to their dictionary every year, such as the one for 2023 available at https://www.oed.com/information/updates/december-2023/ The researcher planned to analyze the lists of new English words spanning from 2018 to 2023 using a systematic random sampling approach She randomly selected about five new words as samples for each alphabetical initial category from each year In cases where an alphabetical initial category has an insufficient number of words, the researcher randomly selected words from other initial categories For instance, she chose about five words starting with the letter A, about five words starting with the letter B, and so on This selection allows for a representative sample that captures the linguistic shifts and emerging vocabulary within the English language during that year By studying these carefully chosen words, the research aims to gain insights into the evolving lexicon and the cultural, technological, or societal influences that shape our language.
To facilitate convenient tracking and analysis, the following table will present a comprehensive overview of the neologism counts for each dictionary, enabling a comprehensive analysis of the total number of new words
Numbers of neologisms from each dictionary
Data analysis method
The data analysis for this research will involve a comprehensive, year-by-year examination of the morphological processes of the collected data The analysis will be conducted based on the morphological processes provided by prominent authors in part 2.2 These authoritative sources will serve as the foundation for understanding and categorizing the morphological processes observed in the new words Additionally, to investigate the factors influencing the emergence of these new words, the study will draw upon the knowledge discussed in section 2.3 above.
FINDINGS AND DISCUSSIONS
Statistics of word formation processes in annual dictionary entries
Figure 1 below presents the distribution of word formation processes for neologisms found in the two target dictionaries in 2018 The data reveals the percentages of each word formation process in the total number of neologisms
Word formation processes of neologisms in the two dictionaries in 2018
According to the chart, out of 200 selected neologisms for 2018 (see Appendix
1 for the full list) from the two online dictionaries, the most prevalent word formation process was compounding, accounting for 33.5% of the neologisms Some examples could be included, such as airplane mode, force quit and blockchain Following compounding, derivation was the second most common process, representing 30% of the neologisms Conversion and blending contributed to 2.5% and 7% of the neologisms, respectively Good examples of new words from this group were, among others, scrim (convert from noun to verb), mocktail (mock + cocktail).
30 The process of borrowing, which involves adopting words from other languages, accounted for 16.5% of the neologisms Noteworthy borrowed words included
Mise En Place (borrowed from French ), Chaebol (borrowed from Korean), etc
Clipping, which involves shortening a word, represented 5% of the neologisms Some examples of clipped words from the 200 neologisms were marg (short form of margarita), stimming (clipped from self-stimming), etc
Acronyms, formed by using the initial letters of a series of words, made up 1% of the neologisms One interesting example of an abbreviation was Evoo, which stands for extra-virgin olive oil Antonomasia, the use of proper names as common nouns, also contributed to 4% of the neologisms One example was
Kegel, meaning ‘exercises intended to strengthen the muscles of a woman’s pelvic floor’, are formed from the name of Arnold Henry Kegel, a gynecologist who developed the exercises Lastly, onomatopoeia, which represents sounds through words, constituted only 0.5% of the neologisms There was only one word from the selected data in 2018 that was from this word formation process, which was Hmm, a sound made when considering or puzzling over something.
In terms of affixation, Figure 2 below provides insights into the specific types of affixation used in the formation of new words
Affixations of neologisms in the two dictionaries in 2018
As can be seen in Figure 2, the most common subcategory of derivation was suffixation, accounting for 67.7% of the derived neologisms, in words such as bingeable, bubbliness Prefixation represented the second most prevalent subcategory, constituting 21% of the derived neologisms Some examples could be mentioned like deglobalization, forewheel A smaller percentage, 11.3% of the selected neologisms in the dictionaries resulted from a combination of suffixation and prefixation, in words such as envenomate or embiggen
Table 2 below shows the most productive affixes among the selected neologisms
Productivity of affixation of neologisms in the surveyed dictionaries in 2018
-al; -ate; -en; -ful; -ian; -ism; -ity; -ly; -ness; a-; de-; em-; un- 3%
-able; -atory; -ery; -hood; -ic; -in; -ist; -ize; -like; -o; -ster; co-; down-; dys-; en-; epi-; exo-; fore-; para-; sub-
The analysis indicated that the most productive suffix in the formation of neologisms was -ing, followed by -er, -ed, and -y A word formed by the most productive suffix -ing was asphalting with the meaning of ‘the action or process of surfacing (a road, path, etc.) with a layer of asphalt.’ Some other words formed by other productive suffixes -y, -er, -ed were clucky, gloopy, eveninger, modder, unkeyed Regarding prefixes, the most productive prefix was self-, followed by em-, de-, a- and un- Some examples of productive prefixes were self-abandoning, embiggen, areligious, and unkeyed
Figure 3 displays the breakdown of word formation processes observed in the neologisms from the two target dictionaries during 2019 In 2019, a new label, which is a variant of another lexical item, will be added since it cannot be included under these word formation processes
Word formation processes of neologisms in the two dictionaries in 2019
The data illustrated the distribution of word formation processes among a collection of 171 neologisms (see Appendix 2 for the full list) from two online
33 dictionaries In 2019, compounding and derivation remained the two most productive word formation processes Compounding, which made up 39.2% of the 171 words, is evident in the creation of words like bottom surgery, pain point, pickleball, and neurostimulator Derivation, on the other hand, accounted for 29.8% of the total selected neologisms.
Neologisms from borrowing accounted for 9.4% in total Examples included baggataway, borrowed from the Ojibwa language and aperol, borrowed from
Italian Conversion, blending and clipping also accounted for a plethora of neologisms in 2019 Some examples could be included, such as bastion
(converted from noun to verb), cannabutter (cannabis + butter) and inspo (a short form of inspiration) Acronyms were considered the unproductive processes, representing only 2.3% Examples included BRICS, which stands for
Brazil, Russia, India, China, South Africa and EGOT stands for Emmy, Grammy, Oscar, Tony Antonomasia was also seen as an unproductive process, with only two words, Carlton House and Goldilocks, exemplifying this
In the realm of lexical items, there existed two words, namely peak and purple, that served as variants of other linguistic entities and acquired distinctive senses in their meaning The term peak, derived from pike, denoted a state of utmost prominence, utilization, or focus On the other hand, purple, originating from purpure meant geographical areas where voters are split between Democrats and
In terms of affixation, Figure 4 below provides insights into the specific types of affixation used in the formation of new words
Affixations of neologisms in the two dictionaries in 2019
34 Based on the data, suffixation emerged as the dominant subcategory of derivation, making up 78% of the derived neologisms Some examples of words formed by suffixation were buzzy, colorism The second most common subcategory was prefixation, accounting for 22% of the derived neologisms Words like non-rhotic and amotivational could be taken as examples of prefixation
Table 3 below shows the most productive affixes of the 171 words
Productivity of affixation of neologisms in the surveyed dictionaries in 2019
-ation; -dom; -ery; -ic; -ification; -in; -ism; -ist; -ous; -sie; anti-; de-; ex-; exo-; mis-; non-; on- 2%
35 The analysis indicated that the most productive suffix in the formation of neologisms was -y, followed by -ing, -ed and -er A word formed by the most productive suffix -y was bridey Some other words formed by other productive suffixes -ing, -ed and -er were begrudging, doitered, dead-ender, respectively Furthermore, we could see some quite productive suffixes like -ity, -able, -ly, in some examples like rhoticity, fakeable, squeakily, respectively Regarding prefixes, the most productive prefixes were trans- and a-, with about 4%, followed by some quite productive prefixes like ex-, de-, and non- Some examples of productive prefixes were transload, amotivational, extubate, dejunk, and non-rhotic
Figure 5 presents a comprehensive overview of the distribution of word formation processes observed in the neologisms found in the two target dictionaries in 2020
Word formation processes of neologisms in the two dictionaries in 2020
There was a total of 169 neologisms selected in 2020 (see Appendix 3 for the full list) Compounding and derivation remained the most productive processes,
36 constituting over half of the total neologisms in both online dictionaries, with 41.4% and 28.4%, respectively Examples of compound words included community immunity, social distancing, and microtarget
The year also demonstrated a significant number of borrowed words Examples included bauer borrowed from German, and vuvuzela borrowed from Zulu, showcasing the influence of multiculturalism on language Conversion and blending represented nearly the same proportion in 2020, with 4.7% and 4.1%, in the order given, with examples such as blue light (converting from noun to verb), brinicle (brine + icicle) Acronym and clipping, with 5.3% and 3% correspondingly, formed words such as PPE (personal protection equipment) and agric (clipped from agricultural).
Antonomasia, with 2.4%, generated some words including Chicken Licken or
Kawasaki The least productive word formation process in 2020 was reduplication, with only two words being easy-osy and foo-foo.
Regarding affixation, Figure 6 below provides insights into the specific types of affixation used in the formation of new words
Affixations of neologisms in the two dictionaries in 2020
According to the data, suffixation stood out as the primary subcategory of derivation, comprising 71% of the derived neologisms Some neologisms
37 formed by suffixation could be exemplified like contactless, intensivist, etc Following behind was prefixation, representing 27% of the derived neologisms Some examples of prefixation could be illustrated by words such as delayer, mal-intent A smaller portion, 2%, was associated with derived neologisms formed through suffixation and prefixation, with only one word, univerbation Table 4 below shows the productivity of affixes of the 169 words
Productivity of affixation of neologisms in the surveyed dictionaries in 2020
-able; -al; -ine; -ist; -ize; -ness; -o; a-; co-; de-; self-
-ase; -ation; -ed; -er; -ery; -in; -ish; -ism; -istic; -less; -ly; -oid; -ship; ambi-; mal-; para-; super-; un-; uni-
The analysis indicated that the most productive suffix in the formation of neologisms was -ing, with 10%, followed by -y, with 8% Some words formed by the two most productive suffixes were destigmatizing and clockworky
Contributing factors to the emergence of neologisms
Presented in Figure 21 below is a comprehensive overview of the distinct factors that played a role in the emergence of 200 selected neologisms during the year
2018 For a comprehensive list of these neologisms, please consult Appendix 1
Contributing factors to the emergence of neologisms in 2018
49 The examination of neologism entries in the Merriam-Webster Dictionary and Oxford English Dictionary for the year 2018 revealed that social factors exerted the greatest influence on the emergence of new words, accounting for 65.5% of the neologisms observed This was evident in the case of some words like beerfest - a type of festival, or chiweenie - a dog breed Technological and scientific factors contributed 18% to the generation of neologisms, reflecting the influence of advancements in these domains on lexical expansion The word
Cryptocurrency - a digital currency was a good illustration of how technological and scientific factors affected the emergence of new words Additionally, borrowing words from other languages contributed 16.5% to the formation of neologisms, which could be observed through words like amaro - borrowed from Italian or hammajang - borrowed from Hawaiian Creole
Figure 15 below offers a comprehensive summary of the specific factors that contributed to the appearance of 171 chosen neologisms in 2019 To access a complete inventory of these neologisms, please refer to Appendix 2
Contributing factors to the emergence of neologisms in 2019
50 The analysis of neologism statistics from 2019 revealed several key factors influencing the emergence of new words Social factors continued to account for the highest proportion, contributing to 69% of the observed neologisms This could be illustrated by words such as beachside - the area beside the beach or bridey - like a bride Technology and science factors constituted 17% of the neologisms, highlighting the influence of technological advancements and scientific discoveries on vocabulary expansion One instance was connectome - the nerve cells in the brain and other parts of the nervous system Foreign influence played a role in 9% of the neologisms, which could be observed in words like archicembalo - borrowed from Italian or bealach - borrowed from
Scottish Gaelic Political factors contributed to 5% of the neologisms, an example of this was deep state - an alleged secret network of especially nonelected government officials
Figure 16 presented below provides an analysis of the distinct contributing factors that facilitated the emergence of 169 selected neologisms during the calendar year of 2020 For a comprehensive compilation of these neologisms, please refer to Appendix 3
Contributing factors to the emergence of neologisms in 2020
Examining the neologism statistics from 2020 provided valuable insights into the factors driving the emergence of new words Social factors emerged as the dominant force, contributing to 67% of the selected neologisms A notable example of how social factors impacted the emergence of new words was ambisyllabic - related to language Additionally, it is noteworthy that in 2020, the word landscape was significantly influenced by the COVID-19 pandemic, a severe global health crisis This unprecedented situation served as a motivation to create COVID-related words, many of which have found their way into mainstream dictionaries For instance, Merriam-Webster Dictionary included words such as community spread, contactless, herd immunity, super-spreader, and WFH (working from home), to name but a few This aligns with Part 2.3.3., which indicated that COVID-19 was a social factor that has contributed to a plethora of new words Researchers have even investigated the emergence of neologisms during the COVID-19 pandemic, as seen in studies by Nabila and Abdulrahman (2021) and Amiruddin et al (2021) Technology and science
52 factors accounted for 21% of the neologisms, indicating the ongoing impacts of technological advancements and scientific discoveries on vocabulary expansion For example, we had words like chatterbot - a computer program or deep web - the set of web pages on the World Wide Web Notably, foreign influence factors played a quite significant role, contributing to 10% of the neologisms The evidence of foreign influence factors could be clearly seen in the case of broigus
- borrowed from Yiddish Political factors made a modest contribution of 2%, which could be seen in vote-a-rama - a session of voting following the allotted time for official debate of a budget resolution, in which any remaining amendments to the resolution are proposed and voted on in rapid succession
Figure 17 below displays the different factors that contributed to the emergence of 179 neologisms selected in 2021 For a comprehensive list of the neologisms, please refer to Appendix 4
Contributing factors to the emergence of neologisms in 2021
Upon analyzing the neologism statistics from 2021, it became evident that various factors contributed to the emergence of new words Social factors accounted for 61.7% of the observed neologisms, which could be exemplified
53 by some neologisms like amusical - related to music and bias-free - related to bias Technological and scientific factors constituted 23.5% of the neologisms
A plethora of new words could be taken as examples such as cubesat - an artificial satellite, digital assistant or doorbell camera Foreign influence played a significant role, contributing to about 13% of the neologisms, indicating the importance of cross-cultural interactions and the adoption of words from other languages in shaping the lexicon This statement could be illustrated by some instances like aegyo - borrowed from Korean; chicharron - borrowed from
Spanish and gentiobiose - borrowed from French Conversely, political factors and advertising and news showed a modest proportion, with only 1.7% and 0.6%, respectively An example of political factors was astroturf, which was used to describe ‘political efforts, campaigns, or organizations that appear to be funded and run by ordinary people but are in fact backed by powerful groups.’ Interestingly, there was only one neologism formed by advertising and new factors, which is fluffernutter - a term that an advertising agency created to help market the sandwich
Figure 18 below displays the different factors that contributed to the emergence of 172 neologisms in 2022 Please refer to Appendix 5 for the complete list
Contributing factors to the emergence of neologisms in 2022
The analysis of neologism statistics for the year 2022 yielded insightful findings regarding the determinants of emerging lexical items Social factors emerged as the predominant driver, contributing to around 67% of the observed neologisms For example, the term bullycide was a neologism that arises from social factors and relates to ‘a social problem especially among the youth.’ Technological and scientific factors assumed a significant role, accounting for 18.6% of neologisms, followed by foreign influence, which also exhibited a notable presence, contributing to approximately 14% of the neologisms An example of a neologism influenced by technology and science was dumbphone which refers to ‘a type of phone that lacks advanced features and functions’ and an example of a neologism influenced by foreign influence was Bualadh Bos borrowed from Irish Political factors made a modest but discernible contribution of 0.6% An example of a neologism influenced by political factors was federo, a term related to government structures
55 Figure 19 presented below illustrates the various contributing factors to the emergence of 198 neologisms in the year 2023 (see Appendix 6 for the full list)
Contributing factors to the emergence of neologisms in 2023
Analyzing the neologism statistics for 2023 revealed fascinating insights into the factors behind the emergence of new words It was clear that social factors played a dominant role, accounting for 57% of the observed neologisms For instance, the term divorcing is a neologism influenced by social factors, meaning
‘in the process of divorcing’ and the term flirtationship is a neologism influenced by social factors, describing ‘a relationship that exists between two people where there is a mix of friendship and flirtation.’ The impact of technology and science factors was also notable, contributing 32% to the creation of new words An example of a neologism influenced by technology and science was gene-edited which refers to ‘the process of modifying an organism’s DNA.’ While foreign influence played a relatively smaller role, contributing 8% of the neologisms, it still showcased the impact of cross-cultural interactions and the adoption of words from other languages in shaping the English language Examples included deepavali borrowed from Sanskrit, and e hoa borrowed from Māori Political factors made a modest contribution of 3% Chumocracy was a neologism
56 influenced by political factors, describing ‘a system where political connections and personal relationships play a significant role in the distribution of power and influence.’
4.2.7 Major contributing factors from 2018 to 2023
Figure 20 below demonstrates an overview of the significant contributing factors that played a role in the emergence of a total of 1089 word entries in both the Merriam-Webster Dictionary and the Oxford English Dictionary over a six-year period from 2018 to 2023
Major contributing factors from 2018 to 2023
In conclusion, when we delve into neologism statistics, we could obviously see the profound impact of social factors as the driving force behind the emergence of new words As our societies undergo transformations and cultural dynamics evolve, language adapts to capture and express these shifts It is fascinating to note that Finegan and Rickford (2004) and Crystal (2014) unanimously assert
IMPLICATIONS AND CONCLUSION
Implications
This thesis contributes a comprehensive analysis of lexeme trends in contemporary English, covering a period of six years from 2018 to 2023 It serves as a significant scholarly resource and guide for future research endeavors aimed at comprehending the formation and development of novel vocabulary However, it is essential to acknowledge the inherent limitations of this study, particularly in its reliance on online dictionaries, which may not capture the entirety of neologisms employed in everyday language usage Moreover, given the ever-evolving nature of language, it is imperative to remain abreast of ongoing linguistic advancements to ensure the currency and relevance of our understanding.
Conclusion
In conclusion, this investigation into recent trends in English lexeme formation offers valuable insights into the dynamic nature of the language’s evolution Among the various processes of word formation, derivation and compounding emerge as the most productive mechanisms, likely to continue shaping the lexicon in the future Furthermore, the emergence of new words is primarily motivated by social factors, with technological and scientific advancements also exerting a growing influence on lexical expansion
This research on recent trends in English lexeme formation can holds important theoretical and practical implications From a theoretical standpoint, this study provides valuable guidance for future research directions in this area Furthermore, this research is considered a potential resource to improve English language teaching and learning The insights it provides on how new words are being created or which factors affect the emergence of neologisms can help develop better vocabulary learning resources and materials Studying the
59 formation of new words can help students develop a comprehensive understanding of word origins and structural patterns This can in turn support language learners in building more flexible and appropriate vocabulary skills Building on the findings and implications of this study, potential future directions may include: expanding the scope of investigation to cover language data sources beyond online dictionaries, in order to gain a more comprehensive understanding of the neologism formation processes; conducting comparative cross-linguistic studies on word-formation mechanisms, to explore both the commonalities and differences across languages; or delving deeper into the techological and science factors driving the emergence of new words, since there are more and more new terms coined in the Internet sphere
In light of the conclusions drawn from this research, it becomes evident that exploring new words not only facilitates a comprehensive grasp of the evolving English language, but it also deepens our comprehension of lexical evolution and enhances our language acquisition endeavors By embracing newly coined terms and maintaining an open-minded approach toward the evolving linguistic landscape, we position ourselves as knowledgeable and proficient English speakers This journey of continuous learning and adaptation enables the expansion of our vocabulary, effective communication, and meaningful engagement with the English language
Therefore, it is crucial to recognize the significance of remaining attuned to language developments, appreciating the underlying motivations driving word creation, and embracing the dynamic nature of English By doing so, we empower ourselves as fluent and adept users of the language, well-equipped to navigate the ever-changing linguistic landscape with confidence and competence
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The neologisms added in Oxford English Dictionary and Merriam-Webster Dictionary from 2018 to 2023 are organized in alphabetical order with their word formation process and contributing factors
1 Acquihire (n): An act or instance of buying out a company primarily for the skills and expertise of its staff, rather than for the products or services it supplies, Blending, Social factors
2 Adorbs (adj): extremely charming or appealing, Clipping, Social factors
3 Airplane Mode (n): an operating mode for an electronic device (such as a mobile phone) in which the device does not connect to wireless networks and cannot send or receive communications (such as calls or text messages) or access the Internet but remains usable for other functions, Compounding, Technological and Science factors
4 Amaro (n): Any of a group of bittersweet Italian liqueurs, flavoured with a variety of herbs and roots and typically served as a digestif, Borrowing, Foreign influence factors
5 Antifa (n): a person or group actively opposing fascism, Borrowing, foreign influence factors
6 Apocalypticist (n): A person who believes in, promulgates, or interprets the prophecies of the Apocalypse or a person who foresees imminent disaster, esp on a global scale, Derivation (Suffixation), Social factors
7 Applaudatory (adj): Expressing approval or praise; congratulatory, applauding, Derivation (Suffixation), Social factors
8 Archivism (n): The maintaining of an archive, esp as a policy or profession or the work of an archivist, Derivation (Suffixation), Social factors
9 Areligious (adj): Not influenced by, concerned about, or practising religion; having no religious beliefs, Derivation (Prefixation), Social factors
10 Arse-Kisser (n): A person who flatters another excessively or insincerely, esp with the aim of gaining favour or advancement or a toady, Compounding, Social factors
11 Asexualize (v): To render (a person) sterile or sexually impotent, usually by forced sterilization or castration, Derivation (Suffixation and Prefixation), Social factors
12 Asphalting (n): The action or process of surfacing (a road, path, etc.) with a layer of asphalt, Derivation (Suffixation), Social factors
13 Avo (n): Avocado, Clipping, Social factors
14 Awarding (n): The action of award, the issuing of an award or awards, Derivation (Suffixation), Social factors
15 Balisong (n): A folding pocket knife having a handle consisting of two parts which divide and pivot round to enclose the blade, typically used as a weapon, Borrowing, Foreign influence factors
16 Bandwidth (n): the emotional or mental capacity necessary to do or consider something, Compounding, Social factors
17 Beemer (n): A car or motorcycle manufactured by the company BMW, Derivation (Suffixation), Social factors
18 Beerfest (n): An organized event at which a variety of beers are served, Compounding, Social factors