Mohanraj et al 2022 review on sensor design for cutting force measurement

The indirect monitoring of tool conditions can be performed by measuring various signals like vibration,4,5 cutting force,6–8acoustic emission signals,9–11spindle current,12 temperature,

Review on sensor design for cutting

force measurement

Abstract

The measurement of cutting force is one of the key factors in determining the tool condition and improving machine reliability Therefore, the cutting force measurement becomes crucial to improve the machining process The cutting force can be measured with piezoelectric as well as piezoresistive transducers The force measuring transducers with later ones are cost-effective and can be easily installed in any small/medium-scale enterprise For this approach, the selec-tion of sensing elements is essential The various mechanical ring elements were used for sensing the deformaselec-tion The low-cost device can be affordable in small-scale industries Along with cutting force, it is suggested to measure the vibra-tion signals to analyze the machining dynamics of the process The salient features and diverse force measuring trans-ducers were discussed in this article This paper aims to briefly review the existing design and performance of dynamometers used in modern manufacturing

Keywords

Dynamometer, circular ring, octagonal ring, hexagonal ring, square ring, dial gauge, strain gauge

Date received: 21 December 2021; accepted: 13 May 2022

Introduction

The maintenance cost and timing in manufacturing

indus-tries are raised, and productivity declines due to tool

fail-ures.1The tool life was computed from the wear values of

the previous experiments Life remains functional, and

tool-changing strategies are framed based on this tool

Overutilization or underutilization of cutting tools leads

to loss of capital Therefore, an effective tool condition

monitoring system (TCMS) is essential to replace the

tool at the right time and enhance productivity The

differ-ent sensors and signal processing techniques applied for

the machining process were briefed in.2 During the

initial phase of cutting, the tool is sharp Later, the

mater-ial loss occurs due to high pressure and high temperature

The tool lost its sharp edge and increased the

tool-workpiece contact area, and the material removal

process became complicated There is a need for a

higher cutting force to remove the chip from the

work-piece under the same cutting conditions.3

Moreover, with the increased tool-workpiece contact

area resulting from tool wear, the same pressure generates

more cutting force During the machining process, the

estimation of tool conditions is complicated The indirect

monitoring of tool conditions can be performed by

measuring various signals like vibration,4,5 cutting

force,6–8acoustic emission signals,9–11spindle current,12

temperature,12 and cutting sound7during the machining

process.13 Measurement of cutting force is one of the indirect methods used in TCMS14 and has a significant role in TCMS.13

The cutting force has a massive influence on the gener-ation of heat, wear, dimensional accuracy of the compo-nent, and the surface roughness of the machined component.15,16During the turning with low feed values,

it was noticed that cutting force increases with an increase

inflank wear due to the losing of the cutting ability of tools.12 When the number of passes increases, also tool wear increases, which is indicated by the cutting force value.17It is essential to understand the cutting force and its importance in optimizing the cutting parameters and ensuring the manufacturing of high-quality products at

a low cost.18 The cutting parameters for least cutting force, surface roughness, and tool wear were optimized.19

Coimbatore, India

Australia

Erode, India Corresponding author:

Thangamuthu Mohanraj, Department of Mechanical Engineering, Amrita School of Engineering, Coimbatore, Amrita Vishwa Vidyapeetham, India Email: t_mohanraj@cb.amrita.edu

Proc IMechE Part E:

J Process Mechanical Engineering

2023, Vol 237(2) 455–466

© IMechE 2022 Article reuse guidelines:

sagepub.com/journals-permissions DOI: 10.1177/09544089221106264 journals.sagepub.com/home/pie

The previous work discussed the salient features and

various force measuring transducers.20

The cutting force can be measured with the current sensor,

capacitive, optoelectronic,21,22 strain gauge, load cell,23

flexure displacement,24

and piezoelectric sensor The cutting force acted on the piezoelectric crystal produced the

voltage proportional to the applied load An amplifier

circuit was used to amplify the voltage and then converted

to force Generally, piezoelectric sensors are responsive to

mechanical force and have a wide bandwidth range of over

50 kHz On the other hand, they are costly and require a

sig-nificant concentration while installed in industry Also, they

are exposed to noise from nearby electrical drives.25

Force transducers use strain gauges to measure the

strain when the sensing element is subjected to an external

load.26Typically, ring element was considered a sensing

element The gauges are connected in the form of a

Wheatstone bridge While the applied load is zero, the

bridge circuit is balanced, and the output voltage is

zero Once the transducer is subjected to loading,

balan-cing of the bridge circuit is disturbed, and the voltage is

a measure of applied load.20 Recently, piezoceramic

thickfilm sensor was used to measure the milling force.27

The numerous ring elements like circular ring,28,29

diaphragm type,30 elastic body,31 bending beam,32,33

hexagonal ring,34 square ring,29 modified square ring,35

octagonal ring,25,36–43two extended octagonal rings,44

octag-onal–elliptical ring,45

eight-shaped elliptical ring,46and G &

S-shaped ring47were used as a sensing element for force

transducers The review on cutting force measurement

using different dynamometers is not published to the

author’s knowledge This paper will discuss the various

sensing methods and dynamometer designs for cutting

force measurement

Strain gauge-based turning

dynamometer

Strain gauge has been extensively used to measure the

cutting force, owing to its simple construction, high

reli-ability, and low cost The first strain gauge-based tool

holder dynamometer was designed to measure the

turning force The strain gauge sensors were fixed on

the specific location of the tool holder with a bridge

circuit to increase the sensitivity and decrease the

cross-sensitivity An IR module was used to transfer the data

from the bridge circuit to the data acquisition system

Experimental results show that the dynamometer had a

sensitivity of less than 0.24 mV/N.48The sensitivity was

dependent on the design of the transducer

A dynamometer using a strain gauge and piezoelectric

accelerometer to measure the static and dynamic cutting

forces in the turning process was designed The designed

dynamometer consists of an elastic element attached

adequately with strain gauges, and Wheatstone bridge

cir-cuits were established to measure the cutting force The

cutting force was measured with a 1.4% linearity error

and 0.17–0.92% cross-sensitivity error during machining

The cross-sensitivity is mainly depending on the ring

element and the selection of placement of strain gauges The locations of the strain gauge can be identified throughfinite element (FE) analysis.49

A Micro Electro Mechanical System (MEMS) strain gauge-based dynamometer was fabricated to capture the two-axis force during the turning process An elastic element with two mutually perpendicular octagonal rings (TMPOR) was fixed to the cutting tool The proposed MEMS sensor has optimized sensitivity and natural fre-quency The TMPOR dynamometer sensitivity was 16 times higher than the conventional strain gauge-based dynamometer The sensitivity and natural frequency of the developed dynamometer were 0.31 mV/N and 771 Hz, respectively The strain gauge-based turning dynamometer

is shown in Figure 1.50

A dynamometer with a high-performance sensor for the turning process was fabricated TMPORs were used as a sensing element Static calibration and impact tests show that the dynamometer had linearity of 83% and a natural fre-quency of 1122 Hz The cross-sensitivity values were 2.5%

to 10.5% The higher value of cross-sensitivity is due to the misalignment of strain gauges on the TMPORs.51 It is reduced by bonding the strain gauges in the appropriate location on the sensing element The strain gauge-based tool holder dynamometer52was developed to measure the cutting force (1500 N) and torque (7.5 Nm) during the turning process The FE analysis, calibration, and metro-logical characterization were not performed in this study.53

A strain gauge-based tool holder dynamometer was designed to measure the cutting force (2000 N) during the turning process After calibration, the actual machining test was conducted with the designed and Kistler 9257B dyna-mometer The error percentage between the theoretical and experimental values was less than 5%.54 This one-piece dynamometer can measure the cutting force after performing the calibration The static and dynamic cutting force was mea-sured with a strain gauge and accelerometer55in an ultra-precision lathe The machining test with different process parameters was directed to validate the performance of the designed dynamometer The total cutting force was estimated

by adding the static and dynamic components The authors did not perform the metrological characterization

A strain gauge-based high-capacity tool holder dyna-mometer was developed The stiffness was reduced by adding the two holes symmetrically positioned about the axis They found that this modification increased the sensitiv-ity.56A maximum cross-sensitivity of 4.5% was found in the Z-axis, and cross-sensitivity can be decreased by placing the strain gauges in the proper location Shankar et al.57designed the dynamometer to measure the turning force in two axes The static calibration result shows that the designed dyna-mometer had no hysteresis error The machining test was carried out with a lathe, and the results were at par with the lathe tool dynamometer They did not perform the dynamic calibration and metrological characterization

A strain gauge-based novel dynamometer was designed for the turning process, and cutting parameters were optimized based on the measured cutting force.52 The strain gauge-based turning dynamometer was

developed to measure the cutting force up to 2.9 kN with a

natural frequency of 766 Hz They found that sensitivities

were 31.3× 10−3–172.4 × 10−3mV/N, and it had a low

cross-sensitivity error of below 0.87%.58

Yaldiz and Unsacar59 developed a dynamometer to

measure the static and dynamic cutting force using a strain

gauge and accelerometer Four octagonal rings with strain

gauges were used to measure the static force The designed

dynamometer measured the cutting force up to 3500 N with

a sensitivity of± 5 N and cross-sensitivity of 0.17–0.92%

They suggested using this dynamometer to measure the

cutting force in milling and drilling, and they have not

per-formed any test for the milling and drilling process

Current sensor-based cutting force

measurement

Initially, Taylor proposed the current sensor-based cutting

force measurement system by evaluating the motor

current of the machine tool Since then, all over the world, the number of described initiatives to predict cutting force through current and power measurement has increased significantly Figure 2 depicts the current sensor-based cutting force measurement system The current signals consumed by the machine tool’s spindle motor are used to estimate the cutting force values.60–62 The acceleration and current sensors measured the vibra-tion and spindle motor current to calculate the cutting force during the micro-end milling process.63

A dynamic model was proposed to calculate the cutting force from the spindle motor of a CNC machine tool The proposed model gives the relationship between the cutting force and drives components.64Based on the feed drive control systems, a model was developed to analyze the current signals and estimate the cutting force to predict failures in the milling process The feasi-bility of predicting the cutting force through armature current was discussed.65,66 Hall effect sensor and

Figure 1 Strain gauge-based turning dynamometer.

control system model of a CNC lathe’s spindle and feed

drive system were used to estimate the cutting force

The tangential and axial cutting force was predicted

using an adaptive-neuro fuzzy inference system with

75% accuracy.67,68

The current of the spindle drive motor measured to

estimate the cutting force is an alternate choice of an

expensive dynamometer The dynamics of the cutting

force were measured using a mathematical model

devel-oped with machining conditions and current signals

The maximum root-mean-squared error between the

mea-sured and actual force was 25.99 N The current signals

had limited bandwidth and could not measure the

dynam-ics of the cutting force.69 The relationship between the

spindle motor current and the cutting force is complex The frictional force between the feed table and guideways and the material properties of the workpiece lead to a vari-ation in motor current Hence, it is challenging to charac-terize the relationship between current signals and the cutting force in the machining process

Strain gauge-based milling dynamometer

In general, force transducers use dial gauges to measure the linear deflection up to a certain extent Such transdu-cers can be used only for the continuous cutting process, not for intermediate cuttings The dial-gauged force meas-uring instruments does not have consistent performance

Figure 2 Schematic representation of current sensor-based cutting force measurement.

Figure 3 Strain gauge-based octagonal ring dynamometer.

L9

over a while, and their stability studies were not encour-aging.70Hence, the strain gauges can measure the strain while applying the load Kumar et al developed the ring-shaped milling dynamometer with a strain gauge to measure the cutting force up to 50 N The FE analysis was carried out to analyze the stress–strain pattern and deformation while applying the load The location of maximum deformation was identified, and the strain gauge wasfixed on that location to sense the deformation

of the ring element.28 The computation of stress, strain, and deformation was done based on ring theory,71and the results were matched with FE analysis The metrological investigation analyzed the uncertainty due to zero offset, repeatability, reso-lution, interpolation, and reversibility From the metro-logical analysis, the measurement of uncertainty was found as± 0.10% They have not performed any machin-ing test, which can be used to confirm the accuracy of the dynamometer Kumar et al designed and developed the ring-shaped precision force transducer to measure

50 kN After the metrological characterization, the uncer-tainty error was found as± 0.025%.72,73

The designed dynamometer was not undergone any actual machining test They performed various investigations of force measurements.20

The circular ring-shaped sensing element was modified

to square,35hexagonal, and octagonal rings.74This sug-gested modification significantly improves the net deflec-tion of the ring and the transducer’s sensitivity Kumar

et al.34 compared the metrological performance of hex-agonal and octhex-agonal ring-shaped transducers with 20 kN capacity and measured the deformation using a dial gauge and strain gauge The results show that the maximum uncertainty error for square, octagonal, and hexagonal rings was± 0.15%, ± 0.10%, and ± 0.09%, respectively The hexagonal ring-shaped dynamometer performed better than the octagonal and square ring dynamometer This design can be used to develop the dynamometer to measure the cutting force

The strain gauge-based milling dynamometer was designed to assess the machining force up to 4500 N The ring element dimensions were selected based on the ring theory Totally 16 strain gauges were employed to measure the cutting force in three directions The dynamom-eter was analyzed and found the natural frequency as 192.2 rev/s and cross-sensitivity as 0.05%.39They have not per-formed any metrological characterization or machining tests Figure 3 shows a strain gauge-based octagonal ring dynamometer.19

The circle of the octagonal ring was changed to an ellipse to enhance the ratio of strain to displacement The obtained results show that compared to the octagonal ring, the octagonal–elliptical ring maximizes the sensitiv-ity of about 15% and 26% in axial and tangential direc-tions, respectively The FE analysis was used to detect the maximum stress/strain concentration, and strain gauges were bonded on the respective places The cross-sensitivity error was less than 5% After a metrological investigation, it was found that the overall uncertainty

was 1.78%.45The octagonal–ellipse ring design improves

the sensitivity, and uncertainty error has to be reduced by

proper calibration

A multi-component dynamometer with an extended

octagonal ring was designed and developed to measure

the cutting force in the turning, milling, and drilling

process The vibration analysis was performed, and a

machining test was conducted to ensure the reliability of

the developed dynamometer.75 The calibration and

machining tests were not performed The designed

dyna-mometer measures the cutting force during any machining

process A drilling dynamometer with an extended

octag-onal ring was developed with a sensitivity of± 5 N and a

cross-sensitivity of 0.05% The performance of the

dyna-mometer was examined, and the results were consistent

with theoretical calculations.76Table 1 gives a summary

of various dynamometers for measuring the cutting

force The upcoming section describes the development

of an octagonal ring-shaped dynamometer due to its

better accuracy and sensitivity

Steps in designing a dynamometer

The ring element has to be selected based on the

applica-tion and range of measurement The initial dimension of

the ring element can be chosen based on the numerical

modeling The FE analysis is essential to estimate the

ring’s deformation and stress values under the applied

load The design modification can be carried out based

on the structural analysis After that, the ring elements

have to be machined as per the dimensions

Construction of dynamometer

The critical component of dynamometer design is the

sensing element Piezoresistive MEMS sensors were

used to measure the deformation The strain gauges are

attached to the ring where the maximum strain occurs

The location of maximum deformation has to be identified

with FE analysis The strain gauges must be attached

based on the FEA results and ring theory Before

install-ing the strain gauges, the rinstall-ing element must be coated with

Zinc oxide to avoid corrosion The ring surfaces have

undergone a surface preparation process to achieve better accuracy Later, appropriate adhesive glue was applied to attach the gauges to the ring, andfinally, the bridge circuit was designed to measure the cutting force

Dynamic analysis The natural frequency of the dynamometer must be four times larger than the exciting vibration frequency during the material removal process to eliminate the influence of machine tool vibration.39The dynamometer is viewed as

a small mass supported by ring elements Based on the dynamometer’s ring constant, the dynamometer’s natural frequency is computed The stiffness of an elastic member is called a dynamometer ring constant The stiff-ness of a thin circular ring was given by the following equa-tion71:

Kr= Ebt3

1.8r3 The natural frequency of the dynamometer, which is assumed as a small mass supported by ring elements, can

be obtained from the following equation:

fd = 1

2π

Kr m



where

Kr—ring constant (N/mm),

m—mass of the dynamometer (kg),

fd—dynamometer’s natural frequency (Hz)

The impact test must be carried out to identify the natural frequency experimentally

Data acquisition After designing and developing the dynamometer, it has

to be interfaced with the data acquisition system to acquire the cutting force during the machining process Proper amplification and signal conditioning circuits must convert the strain/voltage signals into cutting force data A computer connection must be established with a data acquisition system to acquire the cutting force and

Figure 4 Schematic representation of data acquisition system.

log into the computer The strain signals are initially

cap-tured from the strain gauge sensor and converted into

voltage using the Wheatstone bridge circuit The voltage

signals are at millivolt level and unable to process

further Therefore, amplifier circuit is required to

amplify the voltage level After processing, the boosted

voltage signals can be converted into appropriate cutting

force and stored in the computer for more analysis The

typical representation of the data acquisition system is

shown in Figure 4

Discussion

Piezoelectric material-based force sensors such as the

Kistler dynamometer are widely used It has good

sensi-tivity, and machining dynamics can be easily measured

The drawback of the piezoelectric dynamometer is

rigidity and requires recalibration due to regularly

changing workpiece material and machining conditions

Furthermore, the cost of the device is more and unable

to afford in small- and medium-scale industries Hence, the researchers’ interest is the strain gauge-based dyna-mometer with different designs of sensing elements Therefore, various designs like square, hexagonal, octag-onal, S-shaped, and G-shaped rings were considered for

FE analysis The EN8 material is chosen for the FE ana-lysis The base was fixed, and a load of 5000 N was applied at the center point The responses were recorded and is shown in Table 2 On comparing the results, it is noticed that the eight-shaped ring with a circular hole has higher displacement for a given axial load However, in the case of the eight-shaped rings with a cir-cular hole, they cannot withstand the applied shear force and reaches the yielding point Therefore, the eight-shaped rings with an elliptical hole are chosen The dimensions of the ring element can be finalized based

on the stress values, and the induced stress value should

be less than half of the yield strength to avoid yielding

Table 2 Results of comparison of different shapes when a normal load is applied.

Displacement

Stress (MPa)

Displacement

Stress (MPa)

Figure 5 Milling dynamometer with eight-shaped elliptical ring.

This can be obtained by increasing the thickness of

the material at the shear zone by modifying the

circular ring into an elliptical ring element, as shown in

Figure 5.46

During the fabrication of the ring element, the

dimen-sional accuracy has to be appropriately maintained to

enhance the performance The essential characteristics

are sensitivity, cross-sensitivity, accuracy, and linearity

The maximum sensitivity and minimum cross-sensitivity

are crucial to the dynamometer The elliptical design

increases the strength of the ring element to withstand

the shear load and increases the sensitivity of the ring

The sensitivity mainly depends on the deformation of

the ring element The cross-sensitivity can be minimized

by bonding the sensor in the appropriate location by

matching the sensor’s axes in both directions The

natural frequency of the dynamometer can be increased

by increasing the stiffness of the ring element and by

decreasing the mass of the ring element

The metrological characterization has to be performed

as per the ISO standard The errors in measurements

are unavoidable while performing the calibration tests

Therefore, uncertainty analysis is required to validate

the accuracy of the designed dynamometer An ISO

376:2011 standard procedure has to be followed for

uncertainty analysis.29 According to ISO 376-2011, six

uncertainty components were considered

It was found that an octagonal ring with an elliptical

section performed better than an octagonal ring with a

cir-cular section in terms of sensitivity and uncertainty

values The designed dynamometers are more suitable

for measuring the cutting force components and cannot

measure the cutting force’s dynamics The dynamics of

the cutting force have a significant role in TCMS The

dynamics can be analyzed using an accelerometer and a

dynamometer in the future

Challenges and future outlook

The selection of ring elements and their dimensions

require significant attention to enhance the sensitivity

The sensitivity analysis is essential to confirm the

dimen-sions of the ring element The dimensional accuracy has

to be maintained during the machining of rings The

loca-tion of strain gauges has to be marked clearly to reduce the

cross-sensitivity error Additional safety measures have to

be incorporated to safeguard the sensor from the coolant

Proper calibration is required to design a signal

condition-ing unit

The designed dynamometers can be affordable in

small- and medium-scale industries to measure the

cutting force and develop TCMS Moreover, the

facil-ity to perform cloud computing or edge computing

for supporting Industry 4.0 or digital manufacturing

is a value addition It can be accomplished through

additional interfacing and connectivity (Wi-Fi,

BlueTooth, etc.) It is helpful deploying the Industrial

Internet of Things (IIOT) to enhance the effective

machining process

Conclusions This paper reviews cutting force measurement using a strain gauge with various sensing elements The different sensing methods and ring elements were used for measur-ing the cuttmeasur-ing force Based on the discussion, the follow-ing results have arrived

• The indirect measurement of cutting force seems to be low cost and reliable Therefore, different types of ring elements have been used, and the results are consistent

• The deformation measured through the dial gauge is suitable for only a narrow range For better measure-ments, strain gauges can be effectively used

• Dynamometers can be designed with G- and S-shaped rings However, they have a higher value of stress, which is not suitable for higher load

• The circular ring element was suitable for low-load applications only

• For higher precision measurement, modified ring elements can be used The hexagonal and octagonal ring elements are most suitable for cutting force measurement

• The octagonal–ellipse ring with MEMS-based sensors and proper location of sensors will be the better option to enhance the sensitivity of the dynamometer

• Additionally, the dynamics of the cutting force can be analyzed through the measurement of vibration signals

• The measurement of cutting force can be used to monitor the tool condition in real time

• The force measurement can be integrated with connect-ivity to push the data to the cloud and enable the intel-ligent manufacturing process

Declaration of conflicting interests

respect to the research, authorship, and/or publication of this article.

Funding

authorship, and/or publication of this article.

ORCID iDs

0000-0002-4167-9166

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