Learner autonomy: The roles of teachers and peers

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INTRODUCTION

General context of the study

Vietnam is a developing country whose history was heavily related to fighting for independence Its turbulent history explained why different foreign languages were taught in the country This section describes English’s role in society, the learning and teaching process of English, especially at the tertiary level, and the challenges that educators and learners face This piece of information will set up the context of the study

1.1.1 The history of English teaching and learning in Vietnam

The foreign languages taught in Vietnam throughout history have reflected its socio-political and economic frameworks (Le, 2013) English has been held in high regard since the country embarked on its economic reform known as Doi Moi

(Renovation) in 1986 (Ngo, 2021) The history of English language teaching in Vietnam undergoes these main milestones: before 1954, 1954–1975, 1975–1986, and from 1986 to the present

In the first period, foreign language teaching was under the influence of controlled countries Mandarin Chinese was the first foreign language in Vietnam during the Chinese occupation and influence period After that, the six decades of French colonialism from 1884 to 1945 made French the second primary foreign language taught in schools in Vietnam English also made its first presence in Vietnam as a minor foreign language (Hoang, 2020)

After the end of the French colonisation and from 1954 to 1975, Vietnam was divided into two parts (the North and the South), and each part was allied with different world superpowers The Soviet Union provided economic assistance to North Vietnam; meanwhile, the United States began to replace France as the principal foreign power in South Vietnam The support from the Soviet Union and American involvement in Vietnam added Russian and English to the choices of foreign languages taught in schools besides Chinese and French Notably, the North promoted learning Russian and Chinese, and the South emphasised the study of English and French as the main foreign languages in secondary and post-secondary education (Hoang, 2010)

After the end of the Vietnam War and the independence of the country from 1975 to

1986, Russian was the language that dominated the foreign language scene in Vietnam; other foreign languages, such as Chinese, French, and especially English, were relegated to an inferior status (Hoang, 2020) In 1986, Vietnam initiated an overall economic reform commonly known as Doi Moi (Renovation), opening the door of Vietnam to the world, especially to Western and non-Communist Asian countries The implementation of the open-door policy has strongly supported the teaching and learning of English as a significant foreign language, turning it to become the key to international communication Additionally, Vietnam joined different international organisations in the region and all over the world, such as the United Nations (UN) in 1977, the Association of Southeast Asian Nations (ASEAN) in 1995, the Asia-Pacific Economic

Cooperation (APEC) in 1998, the World Trade Organisation (WTO) in 2007, the Trans- Pacific Strategic Economic Partnership Agreement (TPP) in 2015

It can be said that Doi Moi has been of great significance, as the future economic wellbeing and success of the nation entrusts in no small part to the English language capabilities of its citizens (Vu, 2020) Singh et al (2002, pp 53–54) underscore this by stating that enhancing citizens’ competence in English is viewed as “a way of securing economic advancement, elevated status and prestige, and trans-national mobility of a country.” Post-1986, English has become the dominant foreign language in the Vietnamese education system, playing a pivotal role in shaping the country’s educational landscape and its international engagements (Hoang, 2020)

1.1.2 The current situation of English teaching and learning in Vietnam

1.1.2.1 The vital role of English in Vietnamese education

Good command of English has become the passport to well-paid jobs in Vietnam and the advanced education systems of prestigious universities worldwide (Hoang,

2018) A qualified workforce with strong English proficiency is essential for the nation’s rapid transformation to a modern, globally integrated, middle-income country (World Bank, 2018) Because of its vital role, many legal documents from the Ministry of Education and Training (MoET) stressed the importance of improving students’ English levels The Government’s Vietnamese Education Strategies document stated that one of the essential attributes that Vietnamese students must possess is English competency (Vietnamese Government, 2005) The Vietnamese Education Law required that the foreign language taught in the national education system be “widely used in international communication” (Vietnamese National Assembly, 2005, p 2) In 2008, the approval of the National Foreign Language Project entitled “Teaching and Learning Foreign Languages in the National Education System, Period 2008–2020” (with a budget of up to 450 million US dollars) proved that English teaching and learning is one of the priorities in the government’s investment strategies and education policies (Vietnamese Government, 2008) The Project specified English as the foreign language taught at all education levels in Vietnam It stated that Vietnamese students need to acquire a certain level of English after completing each education level to communicate and work in a global working environment (Vietnamese Government, 2008) Even though in the framework of the Vietnamese Constitution 2013, English was a foreign language with six other foreign languages, it has a special status, second only to Vietnamese (the national language) in terms of time and training outcomes The vital role of English is displayed in its dominant status in a student’s learning process in Vietnam

1.1.2.2 English teaching and learning from primary to high school education

School education takes 12 years for students aged six to 18 years, including primary education (five years), secondary education (four years) and high school education (three years) (World Bank, 2015) Vietnam has joined the move to begin teaching English at the primary level English can be taught at the third year of primary education with four periods of 50 minutes per week (Moon, 2009) On December 26,

2018, MoET issued the two-year optional curriculum entitled General School Education Introductory English Curriculum for Grades 1 and 2, with two periods per week and 70 periods per year (MoET, 2018c) Vietnamese children, therefore, have contact with English earlier and earlier Some even have their first contact with English during their time in kindergartens of big cities (Tran, 2020)

After primary education, English is taught three periods per week at the secondary education, and three periods at the high school education (MoET, 2018a, 2018b) The General School Education Curriculum (GSEC) required English to be taught nationally as a compulsory subject for seven years from secondary through high school with a total number of 700 periods (400 periods more than it was from 1982 to 2002) (Hoang, 2020) The time allocated to English accounts for over 10 percent of the total time designed for all general school education subjects in Vietnam (MoET, 2018a, 2018b) Further, English is one of the three compulsory examinations (Mathematics, Vietnamese, and

English) that a high school student must take to get a high school graduation certificate to proceed to tertiary education

1.1.2.3 English teaching and learning at tertiary level

Vietnamese students have various higher education options in Vietnam, such as universities, senior colleges, junior colleges, professional secondary schools, vocational schools, and research institutes (World Bank, 2020)

Higher education training in Vietnam has specific characteristics Firstly, most students tend to study away from home when they go to university, being attracted to universities in big cities such as Ha Noi, Ho Chi Minh, and Can Tho for better training quality, forming the knowledge clusters in the North and South of Vietnam (Evers & Bauer, 2011) Hence, classes at university typically consist of students from different provinces with different educational backgrounds, even though they have achieved similar scores in the high school graduation examinations Secondly, training at the tertiary level follows the central credit-based system When students select the course they want, they can exercise their active role in learning The students’ freedom to make selections also maximises the flexibility of teachers’ teaching methodologies to meet the programmes’ objectives and the learners’ demands Next, technology is gradually being applied in the training process in Vietnam, and the digital transformation of education has sped up through the pandemic of COVID-19 Educators fully know the importance of ICT (Information and Communication Technology) implementation but ICT facilities and instruction on ICT use were underinvested (Nguyen, 2021)

There are two main categories of English language training in tertiary education in Vietnam: non-English majors and English-majors (Hoang, 2020)

Non-English majors must study English as a compulsory subject from undergraduate through doctoral level (MoET, 2014) The amount of time allocated to English teaching may vary in universities and colleges, but in general, undergraduate students must accumulate 14 over 120 credit hours (equivalent to 630 learning periods); at seven out of 50 credits (equivalent to 315 learning periods) at graduate (master) level and four credit hours (equivalent to 180 learning periods) One of the requirements for non-

English major students’ graduation is English at Level 3 for undergraduate students as defined in MoET’s Six-level Foreign Language Competency Framework for Vietnam (equivalent to CEFR Level B1) or Level 4 (equivalent to CEFR Level B2) for doctoral level (MoET, 2014) Non-English major students can submit international English certificates such as TOEIC and IELTS to shorten the time of English training at the institution Non-English majors whose instructors use English as a means of instruction may need to achieve a higher level of English to graduate

The second division is the training programme for students who choose English as their major They can study at departments or faculties of English language in universities and colleges The training programme lasts four years, and the requirement for graduation is advanced English level (level 5) as defined in MoET’s Six-level Foreign Language Competency Framework for Vietnam (equivalent to CEFR Level C1) (MoET, 2014) English major has attracted many students to enroll, requiring them to have high scores in high school graduation examinations (Vnexpress news, 2023) English majors with a passion for education can pursue careers in teaching and training Others can find jobs in translating and interpreting sections or work for jobs that require Business English Following the requirements of MoET, the learning outcomes of English major graduate include the qualities and competencies for general and specialized knowledge, skills, degree of autonomy and accountability (MoET, 2021) Overall, the effort allocation for helping the students throughout their time studying at different levels of education to have a good command of English has proven the vital role of English in the Vietnamese context However, over the past decades, the country’s English teaching sector has consistently been underperforming (Ngo, 2021) The challenges encounter in the English teaching and learning process are factors contributing to the constraints on the teaching quality

1.1.3 The challenges of English language teaching and learning in Vietnam

The challenges of the English teaching and learning in the context of the Vietnamese education system are from systematic issues, resource constraints and learners’ passivity

The first systematic issue is the high centralism of the educational system in Vietnam (Hoang, 2020) MoET takes the initiative for curriculum design, development, revision and review, and textbook writing and assessment It adopts a one-size-fits-all approach to centrally mandated curricular changes, and teachers are expected to implement those changes in their classroom teachings faithfully Besides the possibility of reaching a consensus in the teaching process, this approach leads to the fact that most of the teaching focuses on dealing with the content of the coursebook rather than the specific conditions of students or the ability to use English for real-life communication (Ton & Pham, 2010)

The statement of problem

Having discussed the history, the current situation of English teaching and learning in Vietnam as well as its challenges, this part presents the problem of English teaching and learning at tertiary level, the main context of this study

Tertiary education is a valuable period for students to be nurtured, supported, and matured in knowledge and generic skills This stage is crucial as it prepares students to refine their skills and knowledge for future employment Because of its importance, the Vietnamese government has invested much more money in tertiary level training than other levels (World Bank, 2020), expecting students not only understand and utilise existing technologies and business practices but also to innovate and contribute to the development of new technological solutions and business strategies Once higher education is successful, the quality of the workforce can be improved, which contributes to the sustainable growth of the country’s economy

Even though tertiary students have learned English for many years from primary to high school education, and they belong to Generation Z, the generation born after 1995, who tend to be digital natives, fast decision-makers, and highly connected (Dauksevicuite, 2016), their learning outcomes are also not very promising They fail to achieve the required language level to graduate (Nguyen, 2017) and they must rely on extra language training, such as at the training centre in the long term, to meet the graduation requirements, which takes them much time and money (Dtinews, 2017) Graduates also face mounting criticism from employers about their English competence when they join the workforce (Tran & Marginson, 2018; Vo et al., 2016)

To enhance learning outcomes, many reforms have been taken for English teaching and learning at tertiary level To name a few are to renovate the tasks of teaching and learning within the national education system, enhance the capacity of the training force through an ecology of professional development (Le, 2020), and improve the infrastructure of teaching and learning at institutions throughout the country (World Bank, 2020) These overarching actions have been done at different levels, along with specific teaching and learning situations, but the solutions that target the students themselves, to be specific promoting their control in learning, are more in need The importance of being independent in learning and from that, get ready for lifelong learning, gives rise to the need to promote learner autonomy for this specific group of students

Learner autonomy was typically considered a Western construct, which is difficult for Vietnamese students to fully master due to the strong influences from Confucian cultural features (Bui, 2018; Dang & Robertson, 2010) Despite these cultural factors, supporting learner autonomy has received more concerns in the Vietnam education system in recent years From the policy level, national policies on tertiary-level education reform state in Article 40 that “students need to be provided opportunities to develop positiveness, self-awareness, activeness, creativity and self-study ability to meet the country’s demand for industrialisation, modernisation, and international integration” (Vietnamese National Assembly, 2005) Promoting students’ ability to self- study first was considered the primary responsibility of high school and tertiary level training (Vietnamese Communist Party, 2013) Moreover, the policy issued in 2017 stressed that autonomy needed to be encouraged for learners of all ages (Vietnamese Government, 2017) Most recently, the regulations required that any training programme’s learning outcomes clearly define a graduate’s degree of autonomy besides the requirements for knowledge, skills, and accountability (MoET, 2021)

Regardless of these efforts, Vietnamese tertiary students still exhibited low and reactive learner autonomy (Dang, 2012; Nguyen, 2009; A N T Le, 2019), indicating the need of fostering actions While autonomy training can be done in the classroom with the support of teachers and peers (Nguyen, 2009, Nguyen, 2018), classroom teaching is constrained by prescriptive exams and traditional teaching methods (Roe & Perkins, 2020) The focus on promoting learner autonomy, then, may need to shift to out-of-class learning

To sum up, fostering learner autonomy can help Vietnamese tertiary students gain greater control over their learning, which in turn leads to improvements in their English proficiency (Dafei, 2007; Lin & Reinders, 2018) Out-of-class learning is the learning context suitable for developing learner autonomy, but it is under research in the Vietnamese context As a result, the problem that persists is the inadequate discussion and understanding of EFL tertiary students’ learner autonomy in out-of-class learning, along with the factors influencing it.

Rationale of the research

The researcher has three main reasons to conduct the current research to explore EFL tertiary students’ learner autonomy in the out-of-class learning context and its associations with teachers and peers’ roles in the classroom

First, it is necessary to investigate EFL tertiary students’ learner autonomy because it positively correlates with learners’ English proficiency (Phuong & Vo, 2019) Learner autonomy is the premier goal of education and a core value of lifelong learning (Gavrilyuk, 2015) However, previous research shows that educators and learners at tertiary may appear psychologically, but not behaviourally ready for autonomy (Lin & Reinders, 2019) Specifically, learner autonomy is a fluid construct for students to master in Vietnamese context (Dang, 2012; Nguyen, 2009; A N T Le, 2019) Thus, research about EFL tertiary students’ learner autonomy is significant for the understanding of this construct in the local context

Second, EFL tertiary students’ autonomy in out-of-class learning contexts has not been considered adequately Learning beyond the classroom, such as learning at the self- access centre where learners could access necessary learning materials to learn independently, has been considered the ideal place for learner autonomy to develop (Morrison, 2008) Learners can also get together outside the classroom in social learning spaces to socialise and learn (Murray, 2014) With the advancement of technology, out- of-class learning context is no doubt flourishing more than ever Vietnamese students also reported that their learning not only occurs in the classroom but also outside the classroom (Q H T Le, 2019) Despite its essential role, the out-of-class learning context often receives insufficient attention (Lai et al., 2018) as it is out of the responsibilities of teachers Research about Vietnamese EFL tertiary students’ learner autonomy in the out-of-class context remains scattered, giving little information about students’ out-of-class learning Therefore, research on learner autonomy in this specific learning context is particularly needed

Third, considering the associations between learner autonomy in out-of-class learning context and the roles of teachers and peers in the classroom is significant because it can bridge in-class and out-of-class learning (Reinders, 2021; Sockett, 2022) Learner autonomy is a social construct; students develop their learner autonomy when interacting with other social factors Teachers and peers are the two external factors that influence the development of learner autonomy Research about learner autonomy in the Vietnamese context showed that teachers’ interventions in the classroom, such as strategy training (Nguyen, 2009), mentoring (Le, 2013), portfolio writing (Duong,

2015), or online learning platforms designing (Nguyen, 2018) could promote learner autonomy Peers can also help students become more autonomous through peer assessment (Phan, 2015) However, classroom training in Vietnam is typically constrained by prescriptive examinations and traditional learning methods (Roe & Perkins, 2020), which provide no space for learner autonomy promoting activities Hence, the focus should be on opportunities to promote learner autonomy within routine tasks of in-class learning These opportunities have been proven to exist but very delicate (Wang & Ryan, 2020) Research, therefore, is needed to understand how learner autonomy in out-of-class learning is associated with teachers and peers in the classroom.

Research aims, objectives, and research questions

The research aims to contribute to understanding EFL tertiary students’ learner autonomy in the out-of-class learning context and its mediating factors

The research has two objectives: to find correlations between EFL tertiary students’ learner autonomy in the out-of-class learning context and the perceived teachers’ and peers’ roles in the classroom and to explain these correlations through the mediating factors Parallel with the objectives, the research has four research questions (RQs) RQ1 To what extent does EFL tertiary students’ learner autonomy in out-of-class learning correlate with their perceived teachers’ roles in the classroom?

RQ2 To what extent does EFL tertiary students’ learner autonomy in out-of-class learning correlate with their perceived peers’ roles in the classroom?

Significance of the research

First, the current research gives necessary insights into the construct of learner autonomy in the out-of-class learning context from local students’ perspectives Although learner autonomy is regarded as one of the primary outcomes of education at all levels in Vietnam, it remains a fluid construct for learners and educators Hence, this understanding contributes directly to the understanding of learner autonomy in Vietnamese context

Second, the research provides understanding about associations between students’ learner autonomy in out-of-class learning and two external factors: perceived teachers’ and peers’ roles in the classroom The findings are significant in identifying how external factors such as teachers and peers influence learner autonomy development, even when learner autonomy and teachers and peers’ roles are discussed in different learning contexts.

Scope of the research

The research focuses on learner autonomy in tertiary education within universities in Ho Chi Minh city, Vietnam over the academic year 2021–2022 To be specific, it targets EFL students at three institutions that offer training for English majors in different district in Ho Chi Minh city The study explores the associations between EFL students’ learner autonomy in out-of-class learning context and the perceived roles of teachers and peers in the English language classroom Employing the sequential mixed methods design, including surveys and interviews, to gather quantitative and qualitative data to get empirical data about the associations between learn autonomy and perceived teachers’ and peers’ roles, as well as factors that mediate these correlations Finally, from the understanding of how EFL students’ learner autonomy in out-of-class learning associates with the roles of teachers and peers in the classroom, the study provides implications for stake holders and the learners support learner autonomy development.

Dissertation organisation

This dissertation is organised into six chapters

Chapter 1 is the introduction of the dissertation It first describes the general context of study by going through the history of English teaching and learning in Vietnam, its current situation, and the challenges it is facing It then provides the problem statement about EFL tertiary students’ learner autonomy, one of the goals of the higher education reform agenda After presenting the research rationale, it formulates the research objectives and questions Finally, the significance, scope of the study, and the dissertation organisation are presented

Chapter 2 includes a literature review of learner autonomy in out-of-class learning context, perceived teachers’ roles, and perceived peers’ roles in the language classrooms First, learner autonomy’s conceptions and models are discussed to finalise the operational definition of learner autonomy It then continues with the importance of learner autonomy, its degrees, factors influencing learner autonomy development, and approaches to fostering learner autonomy It ends with learner autonomy in out-of-class learning context, the focus of the research Next, it documents and analyses the perceived roles of teachers and peers in the classroom Having defined the main constructs, the chapter presents the theoretical framework to explain for the potential associations between learner autonomy in out-of-class learning and the perceived teachers’ and peers’ roles in the classroom It then concludes with the conceptual framework of the research

Chapter 3 describes the methodology of the investigation It first develops a research perspective consistent with the conceptual framework proposed in Chapter 2 It then argues for employing mixed methods to align with the research perspective and generate necessary data for the investigation A set of procedures for implementing these phases is also reported together with the data integration method Accordingly, the researcher describes the participants, objectives, instrument design, data collection procedures, data analysis, and issues of reliability and validity of each method The chapter finishes with ethical considerations

Chapter 4 reports the findings of the quantitative and qualitative research conducted in the current investigation Quantitative data generated from the questionnaire answers the three research sub-questions and the first two research questions Qualitative data from the semi-structured group interviews answers the last two research questions Chapter 5 discusses the findings from integrating different data sets about EFL tertiary students’ learner autonomy in out-of-class learning context, its correlations with perceived teachers’ and peers’ roles in the classroom, and mediating factors of these associations

Chapter 6 includes the conclusion and implications of the investigation It starts with a research summary, highlighting significant results and critical analyses The chapter continues with the research contributions to promote learner autonomy in EFL education in the local and regional contexts It then addresses the study’s limitations, considers the possibility of generalising the study findings, and puts forward directions for further research.

Summary

The chapter has provided the study context, the problem remains, leading to the rationale for conducting the research The researcher then presented the objectives and the research questions The chapter also presents the significance of the research and the scope of the study The chapter concludes with a definition of the key terms and the dissertation organisation with six chapters

The next chapter reviews the relevant literature on learner autonomy in out-of-class learning and the perceived teachers’ and peers’ roles in the classroom The theoretical frameworks explain the potential correlations between learner autonomy and perceived teachers’ and peers’ roles Previous research is reviewed to point out the research gap for the current research before providing the conceptual framework of the study.

LITERATURE REVIEW

Learner autonomy

2.1.1.1 Concepts of learner autonomy in language learning

Learner autonomy has been one of the foci in educational practices and research for over four decades (Nguyen & Stracke, 2020) The term autonomy traces its roots to the Greek word auto-nomos, where auto signifies self, and nomos denotes rule or law (Voltz, 2008) Auto-nomos, in essence, describes a state in which an individual establishes their own rules or laws (Dang, 2012) The classical Greek philosopher Plato further shaped its human-centric interpretation, defining autonomy as the independence and freedom of an individual, a concept applying in various fields such as philosophy, medicine, and psychology (Marshall, 2006) In the realm of education, the term autonomy is often used for schools, teachers, and learners, referred to as school autonomy, teacher autonomy, and learner autonomy While the first two constructs are related to education policies and teachers’ professional development, the third, and the focus of this research, is on students’ learning attributes

Learner autonomy in foreign/second language learning is widely recognised as a complicated (Little, 2003), complex (Paiva & Braga, 2008), and multifaceted construct (Smith & Ushioda, 2009)

Holec, the father of language learner autonomy, defined learner autonomy as “the ability to take charge of one’s learning” (Holec, 1981, p 3) An autonomous learner can

“determine the learning objectives, define the contents and the progressions, select methods and techniques to be used, monitor the procedure of acquisition (rhythm, time, place ), and evaluate what has been acquired” (Holec, 1981, p 3) The control ability is similarly expressed through how learners would make decision regarding “setting goals, choosing materials and tasks, planning practice opportunities, monitoring, and evaluating progress” (Cotteral, 1995, p 5) The term “ability” could be replaced by different terms such as “skill” (Littlewood, 1999) or “skill and technique” (Oxford,

2003) to control one’s learning, but “ability” is a more popular term Le (2019) defined learner autonomy as the ability to set goals, plan autonomous activities outside the classroom, manage time, materials, and resources, and self-assess

The conception that learner autonomy is the ability to undertake a series of actions to make decisions regarding various elements of the learning process has faced criticism for not sufficiently integrating the cognitive dimensions of how learner autonomy develops (Little, 1991) Learner autonomy was then conceptualised as “a capacity for detachment, critical reflection, decision-making, and independent action” (Little, 1991, p 4) Wenden (1991) also stressed learners’ attitudes and awareness when stating that learner autonomy refers to how students reflect on their learning and evaluate the effectiveness of their learning options From these definitions, an individual’s

“willingness” was added to the conceptions of learner autonomy alongside a learner’s ability to control their learning behaviours

Benson (2001) substituted the terms “ability” and “take charge” with “capacity” and

“control,” respectively, to define learner autonomy as “the capacity to take control of one’s learning” (p 47) He suggests that learners will actively self-direct their learning if they have the ability, the desire to control their learning, and if they are not hindered by learning materials, social, and psychological constraints Benson (2006) and others (Freire, 1974; Illich, 1971) advocate for autonomy in learning contend that freedom is essential for the development of autonomy, implying that educational environments should support this freedom for autonomy to flourish

The term “capacity” compiling of “ability, desire, and freedom” has become the overarching concept to depict the individual learner taking control of their learning (Benson, 2011) Researchers have based on this conception to form their own definition of learner autonomy in the specific research context Nguyen (2018) described learner autonomy as learning strategies, motivation, and attitudes in learning English, focusing mainly on ability and desire Nguyen and Habók (2019) defined learner autonomy as a construct with teachers’ roles, motivation, metacognitive knowledge, metacognitive skills, desire to learn English, and freedom, covering

In summary, the notion of learner autonomy has undergone significant development, reflected its complexity and how it has adapted to evolving learning environments Initially characterised solely by a learner’s ability to take charge of learning, the concept has expanded to encompass the desire of learning, including learners’ attitudes, awareness, and willingness Additionally, learner autonomy now involves not only the ability and desire to learn but also the element of freedom in the learning process

In the context of this study, Benson (2011)’s definition of learner autonomy, highlighting learner autonomy as the capacity of learners to take control of their own learning, is aptly chosen This conceptualisation resonates with the out-of-class learning context where learners not only exhibit their ability but also be mentally ready to learn on their own Furthermore, learners manage their learning processes effectively underscores how learners navigate the freedom they have outside the classroom By adopting this definition, the study acknowledges the multifaceted nature of learner autonomy and its relevance to the specific context of out-of-class learning

Benson (1997) introduces three perspectives of learner autonomy: (a) technical, encompassing skills or strategies for unsupervised learning, (b) psychological, involving the individual’s attitudes and cognitive abilities which enable the learner to take responsibility for his/her own learning, and (c) political, dealing with empowerment of learners by giving them control over the content and processes of their learning

Learner autonomy is socially conditioned and constrained; therefore, it is impossible to ignore the social interactions in the development of learner autonomy (Oxford, 2003) She added adds the sociocultural perspective of learner autonomy, consisting of Sociocultural I and II (Oxford, 2003) The first one refers to Vygotskyan approaches, which focuses on mediated learning, stating learning begins from the starting point of the child’s existing knowledge and experience and develops through social interaction (Oxford, 2003) The second one relates to ‘situated learning’ theory, discussing learning as participation or learning is the process of becoming a full participant in a sociocultural practice (Bloch et al., 1994)

All in all, research about learner autonomy needs to take into consideration all four perspectives (technical, psychological, political, and socio-cultural) to have a thorough view of learner autonomy (Oxford, 2003)

Regarding areas of control, there are three main models of learner autonomy

The first one is Littlewood (1997)’s three-aspect model of learner autonomy The model includes language acquisition, learning approach, and personal development In the area of language acquisition, learner autonomy is “the ability to operate independently with the language and use it to communicate personal meanings in real, unpredictable situations” (“autonomy as a communicator”) (Littlewood, 1997, p.81) In the area of classroom organisation, learner autonomy involves the “ability to take responsibility for their learning and to apply active, personally relevant strategies” (“autonomy as a learner”) (Littlewood, 1997, p 81) In the broadest dimension, learner autonomy is “a higher-level goal of greater generalized autonomy as individuals” (“autonomy as a person”) (Littlewood, 1997, p 81)

The second one is the model that Macaro (1997) develops, which consists of three dimensions: autonomy of language competence, autonomy of language learning competence, and autonomy of choice and action The first dimension refers to communicative ability after mastering second language rules at a certain level The second dimension refers to the ability to reproduce the language skills gained and transfer them to other similar situations The third dimension refers to the ability to decide about learning options, such as short-term and long-term objectives and preferred personal learning strategies It also includes performing higher-order thinking skills in the target language, such as constructing argumentative essays and providing justifications for a particular matter This model seems to be similar with the model of Littlewood (1997) but is more specific in terms of outcomes

In the third model, Benson (2011) describes the capacity of control of a learner in three dimensions: learning situations (situational dimension), learning behaviour (behavioural dimension), and psychology of learning (psychological dimension) The control of learning situations is a learner’s capacity to control the learning content and their right to do so The control of learning behaviour is the student’s capacity to control the learning management, emphasising learning skills and strategies in the self-study process The control of psychology of learning is the control of the cognitive processes, referring to the learners’ internal mental capacities, attitudes, and readiness that enable the learner to take responsibility for his/her learning The development of control in one dimension can support the performance of the others Effective control over learning content can lead to positive attitudes and appropriate learning strategies The level of cognitive awareness of learning promotes the level of control over the learning management process

The three models under discussion each addresses different aspects of learner autonomy The first two models primarily emphasise the learner’s control over a specific language skill, then language learning processes, and finally being an autonomous person not only in their learning, but also in their daily life On the other hand, Benson’s

(2011) framework of three dimensions of control – situational, behavioural, and psychological – focuses on providing a comprehensive lens to view learners’ capacity to control a whole learning process This model captures the multifaceted nature of learner autonomy by considering how learner autonomy can be exercised over the learning situation, the learning actions, and their mental states These three dimensions can depict students’ learning, especially in the context of out-of-class learning when the learners need to control not only their learning behaviours, but also the learning situations and psychology of learning It is the reason for the selection of this model in this research The three dimensions of control will be elaborated upon in the following sections

Perceived teachers’ roles in the language classroom

First, perceptions and roles are defined The existence of objects and events stimulates the physical energy to act on sense receptors The sense receptors create nerve impulses that travel to the brain and form perceptions Therefore, perception is one’s view or interpretation of something (Chambers, 1979) Bodenhausen and Hugenberg

(2009, p 2) based on social cognition to define perception as “essentially the interface between the outer and inner worlds.” McShane and Von Glinow (2010, p 68) clearly show that “perception is the process of receiving information about and making sense of the world around us.” Therefore, perceptions of students are the way the students understand or interpret existence in the surrounding environment

Role theory can be traced back to before 1900, although the use of the term “role” only became common in the 1930s (Biddle, 1986) Banton (1996) defines a role as “the expected behaviour associated with a social position” (p 749) According to the Encyclopedia Britannica, a role is a position or status that somebody or something has in a situation, organisation, society, or relationship (Britannica, n.d.) It is a uniform pattern of behaviour specific to a particular position, social situation, or social relation Each role is defined by a pattern or patterns of behaviours which are familiar to those who perform the roles “Role performance” is defined as a pattern of behaviour manifested by a person while performing as an occupant of a socially designated function (Beezer, 1974) Dửrnyei and Murphey (2003) described teachers’ roles in language teaching as the shared expectation of what teachers should do in learning contexts Richard and Rodgers (2014) defined teachers’ roles as carrying out the teaching tasks and maintaining the social and interpersonal relationships among participants Combining these terms, students’ perception of teachers’ roles in the classroom or the perceived teachers’ roles in the classroom is how students understand or interpret different patterns of the behaviours that their teachers have in the classroom

Second, teachers are perceived to hold different roles in the classroom Learners will feel demotivated if the teacher’s method is unsuitable and the lessons are boring (Takase et al., 2019) The teacher’s personality may also affect his/her students as it affects the teacher – student relationship An approachable, enthusiastic, and unbiased teacher may encourage students to learn more (Harmer, 2015) In the language classroom, teachers’ roles cover leadership, tutoring, managerial, counselling, and team working roles (Eka,

Researchers have suggested different sets of teachers’ roles in the classroom As seen in Table 2.1, the seven teachers’ roles: a controller, an instructor, a facilitator, a resource, a co-learner, an evaluator, and an explorer cover the roles of teachers in the classroom discussed in the literature

Table 2 1 Roles of teachers in the language classroom

Controller Instructor Resource Facilitator Co-learner Evaluator Explorer Harmer

Controller Tutor Resource Organizer Co-learner

Manager x x Facilitator Co-learner Evaluator x

Harmer (2001) suggested that teachers played the role of a controller, an organiser, an assessor, a prompter, a participant, a resource, an observer, and a tutor In that set, the role of a tutor was described as instructing students with new knowledge and skills This role is equivalent to delivering new knowledge and equipping the necessary skills of an instructor The term instructor is also more suitable for describing teachers’ classroom actions The roles of an observer and organiser describe the actions of a facilitator who gets students ready for the task and checks whether the task is going well as planned The actions of a participant and prompter can be covered as a co-learner because when working with students, teachers can listen to students’ ideas and concerns and support students in using English

Similarly, in Arafat’s (2005) scale, the role of a tutor is equivalent to the role of an instructor, the role of a prompter is combined into the role of a co-learner, the role of an organizer is part of the role of facilitator, and the role investigator describes the role of an explorer Finally, paralleling with Koca et al (2021), the role controller is the shorter term for a manager and leader, an instructor for the role of a scholar, a resource for an information provider and coach, a facilitator for a facilitator and mentor, a co-learner for a role model and teacher practitioner, an evaluator for an assessor and diagnostician, and an explorer for a researcher

Overall, the seven teachers’ roles selected for the current research can comprehensively describe how teachers conduct the teaching and learning tasks and maintain the social and interpersonal relationships among learners

Teachers are traditionally expected to have the utmost control in the classroom In traditional teaching, teachers are usually imagined as the great sage sitting amidst his disciples, explaining the way, and occasionally asking questions to check his disciples’ comprehension (King, 1993)

In more modern teaching situations, even though the learning materials are more accessible to students, the role of a controller of a teacher is still prevalent in the classroom When playing that role, teachers are the centre of focus and are responsible for all activities that occur in class (Harmer, 2001) Arafat (2005) describes the actions of a controller in the classroom: having complete control of what students do and being the one to determine when students speak and use the language; attracting, motivating, and inspiring students; being the critical source of roughly tuned comprehensible input; and pointing out the students’ mistakes and correcting them Harden and Lilley (2018) and Koca et al (2021) describe the role of a manager and leader of a teacher as engaging with the decision-making process, managing elements in the curriculum, supporting change, and overcoming obstacles

The current study argues that by acting as a controller of the classroom, teachers have the utmost control in all aspects of the classroom, from how to impart the curriculum, the activities to conduct, the materials to use, and the ways of assessment A controller must also hold the student’s attention and maintain the class’s atmosphere

Whatever teaching methods the teachers apply, they need to impart knowledge well (Koca et al., 2021) They think of different approaches to give exciting activities to make the lesson attractive to the students (Arafat, 2005) To do that, teachers must ensure they have updated their teaching methods to organize the lesson effectively

Instructors also teach learning strategies and methods to develop students’ skills (Xu

& Xu, 2004) Students are sometimes only familiar with a narrow range of study methods They may use methods unsuitable to their personalities or skills simply because they are unaware of alternatives Therefore, teachers also suggest approaches to language learning that students might not have previously considered (Arafat, 2005) Teachers can do that more quickly if they understand students’ needs and are open to adjusting the teaching procedure to fit with students’ expectations

In the current research, as instructors, teachers impart knowledge well They make lessons enjoyable to follow and conduct suitable activities Teachers listen to students’ ideas about the lesson during the teaching process to modify it if necessary Besides imparting knowledge, teachers also equip students with the necessary learning skills to scaffold them necessary learning skills

The tendency towards student-centeredness since the popularity of Communicative Language Teaching (CLT) has dismissed the sole focus on teachers in the classroom CLT regards teachers as the facilitator rather than the controller of the learning process happening in the classroom (Larsen-Freeman & Anderson, 2013) As a facilitator, teachers set up communicative activities, which help the students to interact a great deal with one another in pair and group work (Larsen-Freeman & Anderson,

2013) They also help students sense that their teachers are concerned about them, supporting them in learning for themselves as self-explorers (Archana & Rani, 2017)

Perceived peers’ roles in the language classroom

Another essential factor of the learning process that can influence learners in the classroom is peers While teacher – student relationships tend to deteriorate during adolescence, adolescents invest significantly more time and value in peer relationships (Goodnow, 1993) Perceived positive peer relationships were strongly and positively related to students’ self-concept, interest, and well-being (Liu et al., 2022) Like students’ perception of teachers’ roles in the classroom, students’ perceptions of peers’ roles in the classroom or the perceived peers’ roles in the classroom are defined as how the students understand or interpret different patterns of the behaviours that their peers may have in the classroom

However, research about the roles of peers in the classroom is scattered compared to research about teachers’ roles Peers’ roles in the classroom can be assigned officially by the teacher or emerge from the class’s activities Dửrnyei and Murphey (2003) described the roles that peers could play in the classroom to achieve the class dynamic into two categories: dealing with tasks and not task assigning

When the students work together to finish the task, the roles of peers can be divided into task roles and group maintenance roles (Dửrnyei & Murphey, 2003) Task roles include the roles of an initiator/contributor, an information seeker/provider, an opinion seeker/giver who elicits the member’s feelings and reactions and provides their own; an elaborator/clarifier, a coordinator, an evaluator/critic, an energizer, and a secretary/recorder (Dửrnyei & Murphey, 2003) Group maintenance roles consist of an encourager/supporter, a harmoniser, a compromiser, a feeling expresser, and an equalizer (Dửrnyei & Murphey, 2003)

When not assigned group tasks, they also study together and play the roles of facilitator, encourager, harmoniser, checker, and resource person (Dửrnyei & Murphey,

2003) Newton and Ender (2010) listed the roles of peers in the classroom as a helper, a facilitator, an advisor, an instructor, an aider, an assistant, and a leader Peers’ roles in small group discussions include the roles of a facilitator and an assessor (Ningrum,

The roles of peers described in previous research are argued to fit into four roles: the role of a co-learner, a supporter, an encourager, and an assessor The role of an initiator/ contributor, an information seeker/ provider, a secretary/ controller, a compromiser, or an equalizer can be put under the role of a co-learner because the actions of initiating the work, contributing to the task, providing opinions and information, clarifying, and elaborating on the group ideas, keeping suitable working pace, noting down the group’s ideas are the actions of peers when working together The roles of a coordinator, facilitator, resource person, helper, facilitator, advisor, aider, and assistant suggest the role of a supporter Energising peers, encouraging them, and pushing up their feelings are the actions of an encourager The actions of giving a check and feedback on peers’ performance suggest the role of an assessor Therefore, the four roles of a co-learner, a supporter, an encourager, and an assessor can cover peers’ actions in the classroom

Class time spent with peers is beneficial because peers are proven to help each other engage more with learning (Manning, 2014) Peers are usually the same age and have similar training backgrounds, so it is easy for them to work together They are better positioned to identify and understand the other student’s situation (Lockspeiser et al., 2008), so learners feel more comfortable asking simple questions when learning together

Working with peers also provides more learning choices, offers better opportunities for negotiation, and increases the use of metalanguage, which triggers more reflections on learning (Voller, 2005) They can share ideas, collaborate, interact in the target language (Phan, 2015), and improve their language competence When they can learn comfortably and share ideas to complete the tasks, the learning results are better

In this research, a co-learner is described as a peer who works together with friends to do class assignments in a comfortable learning atmosphere Working together, a co- learner shares his/ her ideas for the task and raises new ideas to explore Aco-learner must also finish his/her part well because it motivates the other friends to try harder and fulfill the task as they do When learning together, peers ask each other for help when needed This interaction can make students more engaged in the learning process 2.3.2 A supporter

Peers can help each other achieve self-efficacy Peers raise each other’s learning awareness (Voller, 2005), support each other in identifying learning goals, increase motivation (Aoki, 2001), maintain an appropriate working pace, and effectively implement and evaluate learning outcomes (Smith, 2003) Peers share the in-class materials and other sources of materials (Dửrnyei & Murphy, 2003) They are reported to improve students’ learning strategy use (Irvine et al., 2018), develop students’ critical thinking, and increase students’ use of learning resources (Shi & Han, 2019) When teachers use technology in class, students can support each other’s digital literacy skills and increase interaction in online settings (Peeters & Mynard, 2019) Peer help also can support students to gain better grades and tackle public examinations, increasing their instrumental motivation Students can negotiate present and future self-identity through discussions with friends to obtain peer recognition and group memberships (Chan et al.,

2019) However, to support each other effectively, peers also need to learn how to support each other to guarantee positive interdependence, individual accountability, and social skills (Olsen & Kagan, 1992)

The current study defines a supporter as a friend who can instantly support their friends, especially by sharing learning resources and skills As a supporter, peers give help when their friends are in need, and the assistance is more instant than when they may need to wait for their teachers, who must deal with many students Peers share the materials they have with each other; it can be from the sources that teachers have given to the class or their own resources to solve the tasks that teachers have given The learning resources and peers can also show or recommend the strategies they find adequate for their learning while working together Peers may not give advice directly, but students can look at their peers’ learning behaviours and try the ones they think might work for them

The learning process can be challenging; students must try hard, or they will give up halfway Affective factors, learners’ feelings and emotions, are crucial for learning (Larsen-Freeman & Anderson, 2013) Besides giving mutual support about learning ways and materials, learners expect to give and receive encouragement from their peers, focusing on the health of their mental state Therefore, the role of an encourager is discussed separately from the role of a supporter (Dửrnyei & Murphey, 2003)

Acting as an encourager, peers can encourage each other to talk about their problems and never allow giving up From that, they can solicit contributions from other members

In this way, peers are reported to boost learning motivation (Kimura, 2014), the most critical factor in sustaining learning Peers can reduce learners’ anxiety in the language classroom (Bekleyen, 2004; Huang et al., 2010) and help them properly adjust their emotions for learning (Valiente et al., 2020) Peers’ hard work also can boost students’ eagerness to learn because they do not want to be behind their friends (Johnson et al.,

2007) Through working together, peers can encourage each other to be open to new things, regarded as peer coaching (Little, 2007)

In this research, an encourager is defined as a friend who gives spiritual encouragement while they study together in the classroom An encourager encourages each other to keep trying and not allow ‘put-downs’, soothes out the problems each learner is facing, solicits their contributions, and gives a try to new things Peers’ hard work also inspires other learners to study harder

Peer assessment or peer evaluation, peer ranking, peer rating, and peer feedback are defined as a process whereby students assess or are assessed by their peers (Van Zundert et al., 2010) Peer assessors can help students recognize their weaknesses (Phan,

2015) Many people may criticize that peer assessment or feedback is not valuable because students need more experience and knowledge However, three methods of peer assessment: peer nominations, peer ratings, and peer rankings can be reliable and valid, and it is best used as part of a multisource approach to performance assessment (Kane

Theoretical framework

The theoretical framework of the present study relies on Sociocultural Theory (SCT) and Community of Practice (CoP) to establish the conceptual relationship between students’ learner autonomy in the out-of-class learning context and the perceived teachers’ and peers’ roles in the classroom

Given the lack of consensus as to how many and which perspectives are learning theories, the three main traditional learning theories that explain the learning process would be behaviourism, cognitivism/mentalism, and constructivism (Merriam et al., 2007; Merriam & Bierema, 2014)

Behaviourists believe that learning is a change of behaviour and learning a foreign language as an adult is much like a baby’s acquisition of a mother tongue (Merriam & Bierema, 2014) Both processes require learners to imitate, practice, receive feedback on their success, and form habits However, behaviourism cannot explain how learners can produce the language that no one has ever taught them; their acquisition of more complex grammatical structures requires a different explanation (Nor & Ab Rashid,

Cognitivists or mentalists regard learning as a mental process in which learners think about and trying to understand what they see, feel, and hear (Merriam & Bierema, 2014) Learners were born with an innate blueprint for language to answer why learners could figure out language rules and produce new bits independently (Merriam & Bierema,

2014) Cognitivism strongly emphasises internal mental processes and assumes that knowledge exists independently of the learner (Merriam & Bierema, 2014) This focus neglects the social, cultural, and contextual that influence cognition and learning (Rosenthal & Zimmerman, 2014) This criticism has led to the introduction of constructivism

Constructivists depict the learning process more closely to learners, defining learning as creating meaning from experience (Merriam & Bierema, 2014) Learning is a process in which learners actively build up their knowledge and continually rebuild it to account for information that does not fit the old knowledge (Merriam & Bierema,

Constructivism is considered a suitable foundational theory for learner autonomy (Little, 2007) Autonomous learners take charge of their learning and actively engage in sense-making, just like learners are responsible for their learning and constructing their knowledge and understanding through experiences, interactions, and reflection (Little,

2007) Constructivism is divided into two main branches: individual cognitive constructivism (with Jean Piaget as the representative) and social constructivism (with Lev Vygotsky as the representative) (Rovegno & Dolly, 2006) The focus of the former is on how the individual learner understands things in terms of development stages and learning styles, while the latter emphasises how meanings and understandings grow out of social encounters Unlike Piaget’s notion that children’s development must necessarily precede learning, Vygotsky argued that social learning precedes development (Vygotsky, 1978)

Social constructivism explains the social aspect of learner autonomy (Murray, 2014) Even though learner autonomy is an individual capacity, it cannot be promoted by a learner separated from the learning context, to be more specific, the social connection in that context (Ushioda, 2011) In other words, the individual’s internal cognitive process cannot account for learner autonomy development However, it depends on the relationship between learners and others in that learning context, which can promote or slow down the learner’s development

In essence, constructivism is the foundational theory for learner autonomy, and social constructivism can explain the associations between learner autonomy and other social factors, such as teachers and peers

SCT is based on the concept that “human forms of mental activity arise in the interaction we enter into with other members of our culture and with the specific experiences we have with the artifacts produced by our ancestors and our contemporaries.” (Lantolf, 2000, p 79) SCT regards that the cognitive cycles of human beings originate from the social plane (at the interpersonal level, i.e., between people) and afterward are internalised in the intrapsychological plane (at intrapersonal level, i.e., within a person’s mind) (Vygotsky, 1978) In other words, learning and development are embedded in social events and occur as a learner interacts with others, objects, and events in a collaborative environment (Le, 2003) Then, at the individual level, the learner uses the results from the social interactions they have just done to support the cognitive development inside their mind to have higher mental functions such as problem-solving, voluntary attention, and logical memory (Vygotsky, 1978)

Language plays a primary role at both social and individual levels (Vygotsky, 1978)

It is regarded as a mediational and cultural tool and has two functions: inner speech is used for mental reasoning, and external speech is used to converse with others (Vygotsky, 1978) Social interactions following cultural norms, values, and social practices also greatly influence the development of mental abilities because the environment in which learners grow up will influence how they think and what they think (Vygotsky, 1978)

One of the factors that has drawn language educators to SCT is its emphasis on mediation in the process of learning (Le, 2003) According to the Vygotskian view, knowledge becomes refined and viable through social mediation and gains coherence Mediators, which can be objects, symbols, and persons, help transform natural, spontaneous impulses into higher mental processes In the case of language learning, mediators can be a textbook, visual material, classroom discourse, instruction, or other kinds of teacher assistance (Le, 2003) Social mediation can occur as expert–novice mediation or as peer mediation

Mediation is argued to explain the associations between learner autonomy and teachers’ and peers’ roles through two main components: the Zone of Proximal Development (ZPD) and scaffolding

The first component of mediation, ZPD, is defined as the distance between the actual development level as determined through interdependent problem solving and the level of potential development as determined through problem-solving under adult guidance or in collaboration with more capable peers (Vygotsky & Cole, 1978) It is seen as the primary activity space where learning happens, and its construction depends mainly on the quality of interactions between people, typically learners and teachers (Corden,

2000) The assistance provided should be grounded in and complementary to the learner’s existing ability and should only go slightly beyond the learner’s current competence (Vygotsky & Cole, 1978) Therefore, from the ZPD perspective, teachers and more capable peers play a significant role in an individual’s learning and development (Vygotsky, 1978) It is argued that rather than limiting the interaction in ZPD to that between the novice and the expert as Vygotsky first developed, this interaction should be viewed as being multilateral, involving multiple agents (Lier,

2007) In other words, meaningful interaction is not only between teachers and learners but also between students and equal or less capable peers

The second component of mediation, scaffolding, refers to structuring interactions between an adult and a child based on what the child already knows and the potential of what it can do with the adult’s assistance (Kao, 2010) In education, scaffolding refers to the assistance of teachers or more capable peers offered to students so that they can do what they otherwise could not (Le, 2013) Scaffolding is temporary by its nature and gradually disappears as the students’ competence grows until finally, they can perform a task or master knowledge independently (Vygotsky & Cole, 1978)

Learner autonomy and perceived teachers’ roles

2.5.1 Perceived teachers’ roles in learner autonomy development

Teachers play different roles in promoting the development of students’ autonomous learning The teachers’ roles that are discussed most in fostering learner autonomy are facilitators and counselors because teachers need to step aside to give students more spaces to control (Han, 2014; Knowles, 1975, Voller, 1997) As facilitators, teachers initiate and support decision-making processes and a counselor respond to the ongoing needs of individuals and makes their knowledge and expertise available to the learners when needed (Chiu, 2005) Nunan (1993) required teachers to work closely with their students’ language learning and help students develop, doing the role of active participants and monitors Teachers are also regarded as a resource who is not only the source of information but also capable of developing learners’ ability to use learning resources effectively and efficiently (Shi & Han, 2019) As resources, teachers are expected to recommend a variety of technological resources and share metacognitive and cognitive strategies for effective use of these technological resources (Lai et al.,

2017) The role of a classroom organiser to organise a supportive and stimulating learning environment for learner autonomy development is discussed (Fumin & Li,

In the Vietnamese context, in research about conducting a portfolio-based writing course to foster learner autonomy, teachers are expected to have three prominent roles: an instructor who introduces learner autonomy knowledge to students, presents necessary learning strategies, guides students to create a good study plan, and gets learners involved in their learning activities through presentations; a feedback giver who gives feedback and suggestions to students; an encourager who encourages learners to overcome difficult situations through their own experience and assists learners in finding solutions (Duong, 2015) Phan (2015) focuses on the roles of teachers as advisors and guides who motivate and help students deal with language issues, outline, or structure their learning tasks, and give valuable comments

2.5.2 Mediating factors of learner autonomy and perceived teachers’ roles

Mediating variables play a prominent role in better understanding the relationship between two variables (Sidhu & Bhalla, 2021) In the current research, finding the mediating factors of the associations between learner autonomy and teachers’ roles is to find the factors that explain the process through which learner autonomy and teachers’ roles associate Through careful research of the mediating factors between learner autonomy and teachers’ roles in Google Scholar, Springer Nature, and Elsevier databases, the current research claims that the factors that can explain the correlations between teachers’ roles and students’ learner autonomy can be motivation, trust, and teachers as role models

Firstly, motivation can be a mediating factor for the connection between learner autonomy and teachers’ roles because teachers can motivate students to learn through their roles in the classroom, and when students are motivated, they start learning and have more opportunities to exercise the control of their learning

Students are motivated extrinsically or intrinsically, and the motivation scale is on a continuum from the lowest to the highest levels, with amotivation and intrinsic motivation at opposite ends (Ryan & Deci, 2000) Intrinsically motivated learners may determine to participate in an activity for pure interest, enjoyment, and satisfaction, whereas extrinsically motivated learners act for utilitarian benefits such as passing an examination (Ryan & Deci, 2000) Extrinsic motivation is often regarded with a degree of caution because students are primarily driven by external rewards and their motivation to engage in learning may be contingent upon the attainment of these external factors (Bear et al., 2017) In contrast, intrinsic motivation arises from inherent interest or personal satisfaction derived from the learning process itself (Bear et al., 2017) Therefore, it is important to nurture both intrinsic and extrinsic motivations and learners can move from extrinsically to intrinsically motivated on the motivation scale, the concept of motivation intensity

Teachers’ roles in the classroom, expressed through different actions such as the selection of cooperative learning methods and their connection to the students’ world have a positive effect on students’ motivation (Thoonen et al., 2010) Teachers’ strategies to keep the class’s discipline also increase students’ motivation (Rahimi et al.,

2015) Motivation then in turn has connection with learner autonomy (Ushioda, 2011) There have been arguments on which comes first: motivation or learner autonomy (Spratt et al., 2002) This relationship, however, could be dynamic and operate in different directions depending on the kind of motivation involved (Spratt et al., 2002)

On the one hand, learner autonomy can lead to motivation (Noels, 2001) On the other hand, motivation is the critical factor that influences the extent to which learners are ready to learn autonomously (Chan et al., 2002), and motivation effectively contributes to predicting autonomy (Liu, 2015)

Secondly, trust can be a factor that goes between teachers’ roles and learner autonomy The trust in their teachers’ suggestions when they act as a resource or an instructor can ignite learners’ learning, helping them trying out the learning resources or learning ways their teachers have suggested In a study about the use of blogs to foster learner autonomy, the findings emphasise that from students’ perceptions, the teacher’s sharing of their knowledge and beliefs can foster learner autonomy, and learner can study a second language autonomously if being guided by a knowledgeable teacher (Arıkan & Bakla, 2011) With the advancement of technology, students can participate in many physical and virtual learning spaces, both formal and informal Students are reported to tend to accept the learning spaces suggested by their teachers (Dang & Le,

2021) If it suits their preference, they will actively work on it and exercise control over it If it is not their preference, they still stay on it, but peripherally (Dang & Le, 2021) Therefore, students’ learning place control can initiate from the trust in the teachers’ suggestions in the classroom (Dang & Le, 2021)

Finally, the factor that can mediate the connection between teachers’ roles in the classroom and learner autonomy is the fact that students regard their teachers as their role models Teachers’ open mindset and abilities to plan and implement their professional activities within certain restrictions of the teaching environment make students admire them and regard them as role models (Dửrnyei & Ushioda, 2011) The actions of teachers encouraging students to do better next time, and teachers’ actions based on the desire for each student also have made students take teachers as a role model (Bashir et al., 2014) As a role model, teachers show students how they themselves, with their colleagues’ support and cooperation, collect data through classroom observations, their own journal, reading the students’ journals, and talking to them, to find the evidence to help students develop students’ learner autonomy (Yahong,

2009) Students look at their teachers’ professionalism and try to improve their learning

To summarise, teachers have different roles in learner autonomy development activities Motivation, trust, and teachers as role models are the factors that can explain the connection between teachers’ roles and students’ learner autonomy.

Learner autonomy and perceived peers’ roles

2.6.1 Perceived peers’ roles in learner autonomy development

Peers have a strong impact on learner autonomy development, especially through peer learning and peer assessment

Peer learning is the general term to describe learners studying together, which can have more specific terms, such as peer-mediated, cooperative, collaborative, peer assisted learning and peer tutoring (Rinto, 2017) Voller (2005) reports that peer learning can help raise each other’s learning awareness and provide students with more opportunities for negotiation, increasing interaction, and using meta language These trigger more reflections on learning, an essential stage of learner autonomy Peer assisted learning also gives students more chances to negotiate present and future self- identity to obtain peer recognition and group memberships (Carlson et al., 2019) Forming learners’ identity is a showcase of learner autonomy development (Benson,

The increasing interest in interactive, cooperative, and self-directed learning has made peer assessment more widespread (Edwards et al., 2014) Peer assessment is “an arrangement of peers to consider the level, value, worth, quality, or success of the products or outcomes of learning of others of similar status” (Topping et al., 2000, p.15) Students can negotiate meanings, ask for clarification, give suggestions, and practise various language skills (DiGiovanni & Nagaswami, 2001) Peer assessment can help students recognise their weaknesses and improve their competence and self-learning skills through peer response, peer review, peer check, and peer feedback, even though friends cannot be as professional as teachers (Phan, 2015) When students review and set their criteria based on teachers’ guidelines to reflect and comment on their peers’ work, they develop reflexive learning to understand the matter deeper using their higher- order thinking skills These actions are opportunities to develop learner autonomy (Lindblom-Ylọnne et al., 2006) Peer assessment can also motivate students by empowering them through the assessment process, encouraging them to take ownership of learning and assessment (Edwards et al., 2014)

In essence, besides teachers, peers are proven to be an important social factor that could influence the development of learner autonomy Interactions among peers can have better results in learner autonomy development if peers receive training from educators (Phuong et al., 2018)

2.6.2 Mediating factors of learner autonomy and perceived peers’ roles

In the current research, finding the mediating factors of the associations between learner autonomy and peers’ roles is to find the factors that explain the process through which learner autonomy and peers’ roles associate Through careful research of the mediating factors between learner autonomy and peers’ roles in Google Scholar, Springer Nature, and Elsevier databases, the current research suggests that the factors that can explain the connection between peers’ roles and students’ learner autonomy are the positive emotions, interdependence, and responsibilities they have when working with their friends These factors have linked their learning in the classroom and outside the classroom, leading to the potential development of learner autonomy

First, the positive emotions learners gain in the classroom can make them study harder outside the classroom to achieve the mutual learning goals Angelaki and Mavroidis

(2013) state that quality tutor-student and student-student communications lead students to experience positive emotions such as excitement, satisfaction, and relief, which can help them insist on learning to achieve their learning goals Dửrnyei (1997) stressed the roles of affective domain of peer learning in the promotion of learning gains and learner autonomy Therefore, with different roles as a co-learner, a supporter, an encourager and an assessor in the classroom, students can create a relaxed and comfortable learning atmosphere, caring and supporting each other The learning vibes can continue, helping students to keep going with their out-of-class learning and giving chances for learner autonomy development

Second, the interdependence formed in the classroom helps peers work together towards a mutual goal both in and outside the classroom Kreinovich et al (1998) state that collaborative learning only works when the students are interested in improving the other members’ performance, which means they are dependent on each other There are a range of ways in which interdependence can be set up, including goal interdependence (learners share a common goal for the activity), resource interdependence (learners have partial resources such that they cannot complete the activity without combining resources), identity interdependence (learners collectively choose a team name or slogan for their group); and even outside enemy interdependence, whereby the teacher sets up competition (‘negative interdependence’) between groups (Kreinovich et al., 1998) It is essential for the approach’s success that the learners in a group are aware of and embrace these conditions (Kreinovich et al., 1998) Palfreyman (2018) states that a culture of ‘promotive interaction’ (mutual help and support) can create a supportive environment, the foundation of learner autonomy development

Finally, responsibilities in their peer work in the classroom also matters Learners take different roles when they work together with peers in the classroom and these roles usually goes with responsibilities (Dửrnyei & Murphey, 2003) Shen et al (2020), in their research about the influence of peer assessment on learner autonomy, stated that when they have responsibilities, i.e., to be an assessor to assess their peers’ assignments, the students start to take more control of their learning With the decent guidance of teachers, students can step by step take over the roles and responsibilities of teachers, becoming more independent learners (Edwards et al., 2014).

Related studies and research gap

Out-of-class learning has the potential to broaden the social ecologies of language learning (Palfreyman, 2014; van Lier, 2004); therefore, it plays a vital role in one’s learning Out-of-class learning does not exclude classroom learning but connects with it in many ways, such as classroom learners engaging in learning beyond the classroom, autonomous learners taking classroom-based language courses, and self-study learners using textbooks designed for classroom use (Reinders & Benson, 2017) Even when out- of-class learning is gaining more significance, the classroom is likely to remain one of the settings that make up the most affordances for but also constraints on language learning beyond the classroom As a result, in-class and out-of-class learning should support each other for better learning results for learners

Lamb (2004) investigated the relationships between provincial Indonesian junior high school students learning in the classroom, after-school lessons at school, and private institutions, and their use of resources in their daily environment outside schools From the questionnaires, interviews, and classroom observations, the study found that even with younger learners, much of their learning took place outside their formal English classes at school The classes at school, however, were still essential due to the relationships that students established with teachers rather than the lesson content The study also pointed out that a widening gulf can exist between in-school and out-of- school learning if teachers are burdened by a heavy curriculum set by the national government and insecurities about their communicative competence in English

In another research, Lai (2015) investigated how learners perceived their language learning experiences inside and outside the classroom and how they bridged learning in the two contexts Data from individual interviews with 11 Hong Kong undergraduate language learners showed that, in their perceptions, the two learning contexts had distinct functions However, they could combine each context’s affordances to create complementary and synergetic learning experiences Moreover, their tendency to use the affordances was mediated by the features of the resources (demanding little time, convenience, and having learning support) and the dispositions and abilities of the learners (learning needs, beliefs, abilities to make use of the resources, and learning historicity) To help learners benefit from out-of-class language learning, educators may need to build mechanisms to enhance their capacity to perceive and act on the affordances of out-of-class learning and to bridge their learning experiences inside and outside the language classrooms

In the same vein of bridging in-class and out-of-class learning, particularly in the Vietnamese context, Nguyen and Stracke (2021) focused on students’ learner autonomy in and out-of-class Data was collected through a multi-case study with four successful tertiary EFL learners in a blended language learning environment The findings suggested that students perceived their actions differently in the two contexts Students thought that they mostly played a passive role in their learning practice for in-class learning They preferred teacher-led learning and evaluation and test-oriented practice For out-of-class learning, they actively and creatively generated practice opportunities through part-time jobs, social activities, and hobbies because they were more targeted at developing language skills than at high test scores Therefore, to bridge in-class and out-of-class, how students regulate their learning outside the classroom should be acknowledged by educators From the understanding of what students are learning outside the classroom, how effective their learning is, and the problems they face, teachers can build up a mechanism in the classroom to support students with their out- of-class learning The specific solutions mentioned are towards (1) getting students more involved when making decisions in class, such as the ways of giving assessments and choosing learning materials, (2) making classroom learning close to real-life practices, and (3) individualising classroom learning to provide opportunities for personal hobbies and interests, and (4) encouraging students to work outside the classroom through the use of project-based and flipped learning

Also focusing on promoting learner autonomy in the classroom, Wang and Ryan

(2020) discussed teachers’ practices that could facilitate or hinder the control shift from teachers to learners, the key to developing learner autonomy The study included nine teachers within one English department of a Chinese secondary boarding private foreign school involved in multi-case studies The analysis of classroom practices, interviews, and post-lesson discussions highlighted that opportunities to promote the development of learner autonomy are available, even though delicate, within routine classroom tasks The teachers’ practices conducive to language learner autonomy were divided into class presentation, collaborative group learning, student-led peer teaching, and reported practices Some teachers’ particular actions, such as letting team members decide on presenters and materials for presentations, team teaching, peer assessment, and intragroup exercise explaining are beneficial to scaffold learner autonomy Students are given opportunities to practise different autonomous learning skills and strategies, so their learner autonomy can be fostered

Finally, Seppọnen (2014) explored the roles of individual learners, peer groups, and teachers in fostering autonomous language learning behaviour Data collected from twenty-five undergraduate students of an advanced English course at a university in Finland suggested that teachers and peers could assist the learning process of individual learners The research participants went through an initial goal-setting task and three working cycles, each starting with a strategy development activity and culminating in a writing assignment Strategies introduced during the course were exploiting online resources, expanding vocabulary, creating do-it-yourself language development tasks, and reflecting on the effectiveness of their practiced strategies Each cycle of work was finished with a writing task so that the students could incorporate their latest learning into a complete piece of writing The writing tasks included the TED talk task, an article based on a guest lecture task, and a blog-post task Teachers, peers, and individual roles were explained clearly in different stages of the learning process: (1) choosing aims, purposes, and setting goals; (2) choosing materials, methods, and tasks; (3) exercising choice and purpose in organising and carrying out the chosen tasks; and (4) choosing criteria for evaluation It could be said that teachers and peers should be involved more in preparing for learners’ autonomous learning, and learners themselves are still the ones who decide to avail themselves of the opportunities to become more autonomous learners

In the specific case of promoting learner autonomy, the understanding of students’ learner autonomy in out-of-class learning and ways to support its development, especially in the Vietnamese context, is still scattered Exploring the correlations between students’ learner autonomy in the out-of-class context and the roles of teachers and peers in the classroom can strengthen the understanding of learner autonomy in the out-of-class context and its mediating factors It also fills the gap of bridging in-class and out-of-class learning contexts, looking at how each dimension of learner autonomy in the out-of-class context correlates with each role of teachers and peers in the classroom.

The conceptual framework of the study

Having carefully reviewed the literature about learner autonomy in the out-of-class context, perceived teachers’ and peers’ roles in the classroom, perceived teachers’ and peers’ roles and learner autonomy development, the mediating factors that link perceived teachers’ and roles in the classroom and learner autonomy in out-of-class learning context, and related studies about the associations between in-class and out-of- class in promoting learner autonomy, the study’s conceptual framework is presented in Figure 2.2

There are three constructs in the study: (1) learner autonomy in the out-of-class context, which is defined as a learner’s capacity to control three dimensions of learning: situational, behavioural, and psychological (adapted from Benson, 2011); (2) perceived teachers’ roles in the classroom with seven roles: a controller, an instructor, a facilitator, a co-learner, a resource, an evaluator, and an explorer (adapted from Arafat (2005) and Koca et al (2021); and (3) perceived peers’ roles in the classroom with four roles: a co- learner, a supporter, an assessor, and an encourager (adapted from Dửrnyei and Murphey (2003))

Based on sociocultural theory and community of practice as theoretical framework, the study explores the associations between learner autonomy in out-of-class learning context and perceived teachers’ roles in the classroom and whether motivation, trust, and teachers as role models mediate these correlations The study also finds out if other factors besides these three factors mediate the correlations between learner autonomy and perceived teachers’ roles In addition, the study also collects data to determine whether there are correlations between learner autonomy in out-of-class learning context and perceived peers’ roles in the classroom and whether positive emotions, responsibilities, and interdependence mediate these correlations The study also expects any other factors to mediate the correlations between learner autonomy in out-of-class learning and perceived peers’ roles in the classroom

Figure 2 2 The conceptual framework of the study

Adapted from Benson (2011); Arafat (2005); Koca et al (2021); Dửrnyei and Murphey (2003)

Summary

This chapter has discussed the relevant literature of learner autonomy in out-of- class learning, the perceived teachers’ and peers’ roles in the classroom, and the conceptual association between them to build up the literature foundation of the study The chapter started with the theoretical background of learner autonomy, which included its conceptualisation, significance, degrees, mediating factors, approaches to foster learner autonomy and previous studies about learner autonomy in out-of-class learning Then, knowledge of teachers’ and peers’ roles in the classroom was addressed The conceptual associations between learner autonomy and teachers’ and peers’ roles were established using Vygotsky’s SCT with mediation through ZPD and scaffolding and Wenger’s CoP The chapter ended by summarizing previous studies to justify the research gap and the study’s conceptual framework The research methodology will be presented in the next chapter.

METHODOLOGY

Research paradigm

As learner autonomy is a complex and dynamic construct, employing a single paradigm is insufficient for its investigation On the one hand, to depict an overall picture of learner autonomy in the out-of-class context and students’ perceptions of teachers’ and peers’ roles, researchers have suggested that learner autonomy or the roles that teachers and peers play in the classroom is only one reality, suggesting the assumptions of positivism On the other hand, to find out how particular teachers’ and peers’ roles in the classroom can promote students’ learner autonomy with some students but may not work with others, or in other words, the way these roles can influence students are different from one to another, it is argued that multiple realities exist, supporting the assumptions of interpretivism Therefore, the current research proposed applying a multiple-approach research design rather than a single data set to increase the confidence level in answering the research questions The researcher calls for a theoretical position of pragmatism because it allows a multidimensional view of real-world practices, asserting that learner autonomy and its mediating factors can be both a singular reality and many realities under different perspectives, and knowledge can be examined using scientific designs or interpretations to measure or interpret Because of its characteristics, pragmatism is frequently (but not exclusively) associated with mixed methods research (Creswell, 2014) The next part will continue to explain the application of mixed methods design in this research.

Research design

Mixed methods research design generally involves quantitative and qualitative research methods in a single study (Johnson & Onwuegbuzie, 2004) There are three reasons why mixed methods design is the choice of pragmatism First, mixed methods research can combine the strengths of both quantitative and qualitative methods The quantitative research method has the strengths of conceptualising variables, profiling dimensions, tracing trends and relationships, formalising comparisons, and using large and representative samples The qualitative research method brings the strengths of sensitivity to meaning and context, the in-depth study of small samples, and great methodological flexibility, which enhances the ability to study process and change (Punch, 2013) Second, mixed methods design can provide richer data than a single method design because “words, pictures, and narrative can be used to add meaning to numbers” (Johnson & Onwuegbuzie, 2004, p 21) Creswell and Clark (2011) echoed this view when combining quantitative and qualitative approaches may provide more evidence and a better understanding of research problems and complex phenomena than either approach alone Third, mixed methods research bridges quantitative and qualitative research by dealing with questions that cannot be answered alone by quantitative or qualitative approaches

Regarding this research, the research aim is to understand EFL tertiary students’ learner autonomy in out-of-class learning and how it is impacted by two social factors: teachers and peers The research first needed to draw a general picture of Vietnamese

EFL tertiary students’ learner autonomy in out-of-class learning and their perceptions of the roles that teachers and peers play in the classroom to find the correlations between them From the findings, the researcher tries to explain more about the bidirectional associations between learner autonomy and teachers and peers’ roles through the mediating factors Parallel with the objectives of the research, the research questions also illustrate the requirement of distinct types of data, making implementing either a quantitative or qualitative method alone would not have been effective Therefore, combining both methods in a mixed-methods design was essential to provide a richer and more complete understanding of the research problems

There are six primary mixed methods designs: the convergent parallel design, explanatory sequential design, exploratory sequential design, embedded design, transformative design, and multiphase design (Creswell, 2014) In this research, the quantitative research collected quantitative data of the correlations between learner autonomy and perceived teachers’ and peers’ roles From the results of the quantitative research, the qualitative research collected qualitative data to explain more these bidirectional associations through the mediating factors Therefore, the sequential explanatory design was chosen because it is in line with the research’s objectives and the research questions, satisfying the most important criterion for selecting the research design (Johnson & Onwuegbuzie, 2004) The two methods are described briefly below: The quantitative research investigated the correlations between Vietnamese EFL tertiary students’ learner autonomy in out-of-class learning and perceived teachers’ and peers’ roles in the classroom The quantitative data was collected from a questionnaire administered online via Google Forms It was then analysed using descriptive and inferential statistics to answer the first two research questions

Based on the quantitative data collected, the qualitative research explained more about the correlations through the factors mediating the associations between learner autonomy in the out-of-class learning and the perceived teachers’ and peers’ roles in the classroom The qualitative data was collected from in-depth semi-structured group interviews The researcher conducted a thematic analysis of the qualitative data obtained to answer the last two research questions that guided this phase

The quantitative and qualitative results were then integrated into the discussion to provide an insightful profile of learner autonomy and the roles of teachers and peers in the investigated contexts and enable implications to be drawn

Designing the questionnaire Based on literature review, designing, and validating the questionnaire

Selection of institutions Seeking approvals from three institutions Principal approvals from three institutions

Piloting the questionnaire Delivering the questionnaire survey via Google Forms

Quantitative data analysis Descriptive statistics

Inferential statistics Findings for RQs 1–2

Connecting quantitative and qualitative research

Based on the result of quantitative research, designing, and piloting the interview questions

Recruiting participants Inviting students from three institutions to participate the qualitative research

Semi-structured group interviews 6 group interviews

Qualitative data analysis Thematic analysis Findings for RQs 3–4

Integration of results from quantitative and qualitative data

Integration of quantitative and qualitative results Interpretation and discussion of quantitative and qualitative results Discussion

The quantitative research

This section presents quantitative research in detail The description includes objectives, participants and the recruitment process, instrument development, data collection procedure, data management, and data analysis

The quantitative research investigates the relationship between Vietnamese tertiary EFL students’ learner autonomy in the out-of-class learning context and the perceived roles of their teachers and peers in the classroom First, the descriptive data about the participants’ learner autonomy in the out-of-class learning context and the roles of teachers and peers in the classroom as the students perceived them is analysed

It helps to understand the level of students’ learner autonomy and the prominent roles of teachers and peers in the language classroom Then, the inferential analysis is conducted to find the correlations between learner autonomy and the perceived teachers’ and peers’ roles The results collected answer the first two research questions: “To what extent does EFL tertiary students’ learner autonomy in out-of-class learning correlate with their perceived teachers’ roles in the classroom?” and “To what extent does EFL tertiary students’ learner autonomy in out-of-class learning correlate with their perceived peers’ roles in the classroom?”

3.3.2.1 Rationale for choosing English majors

The study’s target population was Vietnamese tertiary undergraduate English majors in Ho Chi Minh City The choice of undergraduate English majors for the study was made based on several considerations: (1) higher education gives more freedom for teachers and students in the teaching and learning process, and promoting learner autonomy to prepare students for lifelong learning is considered the primary outcome of training at this level; (2) students at the tertiary level are mature enough to give decisions about their learning, to describe their learning process in detail, and to evaluate their learning’s effectiveness; and (3) full-time students of English have English as their primary concern As a result, the data collected from this group of students could give a rich picture of a dynamic construct of learner autonomy

As the requirement of the quantitative phase for reliability and validity, parts of the scales used in this research were required to run exploratory factor analysis to identify themes Therefore, the study aimed to survey 400 to 600 participants as the requirement for a particular number of cases in exploratory factor analysis (Cohen et al.,

2011) Nearly twenty institutions in HCMC have full-time training programmes for English majors, divided into different sub-majors such as English Language Teaching, English Translation and Interpretation, English for Tourism and Hospitality, and Business English Even though each institution has its modifications to the training programme, they need to follow the training curriculum framework from the Ministry of Education and Training; therefore, the variance among institutions is limited The researcher randomly chose three institutions (more than 10% of twenty) to participate in the study, with the target number of participants from each institution being about 200–250 students in all four years

The names of twenty institutions were written separately on small pieces of paper, folded into four, and then put together into a box The researcher randomly picked three pieces of folded paper, and these institutions were chosen to participate in the research After randomly choosing three universities, initial contacts were made via email with the potential universities’ Deans of the English/ Foreign Languages Faculty A letter of participation invitation and a short description of the research stating two phases were sent to them The researcher also asked to visit them briefly in the office to receive official permission (see Appendix 3A for the University participant invitation letters) One university of three selected institutions refused to participate because they were busy with external audits The researcher selected another university by picking a piece of paper in the box and then contacted the Dean of that university and got the acceptance this time Acadia, Big Valley, and Columbia pseudonyms were given to the three institutions that participated in the study

Specifically, Acadia is part of the public sector and is managed by MoET It has various majors and specialisations in Economics-Technology, Cultural-Social, Law, Politics, Art, and Pedagogy The Department of Foreign Languages (DFL) is one of the most critical units of Acadia DFL offers two undergraduate programmes in English language teaching and English Linguistics (Commerce-Tourism) for more than 1700 students and General English and English for Specific Purposes programmes for non- major students

Next, Big Valley is one of the first private universities in Vietnam under the administration of MoET The institution has over 40,000 students enrolled across more than 61 academic majors Among the majors of Sector VII of the institution, including Humanities, Social and Behavioural Sciences, Journalism and Information, Social Services, Hotel, Tourism, Sports and Personal Services, Transportation Services, Environment and Environmental Protection and National Security and Defense, the Faculty of Foreign Languages (FFL) is a strong one With more than 2500 undergraduates, FFL has two majors for the undergraduate level: Chinese Language and English Language Students can choose one of five orientations, including Business English, Teaching English, English Translation-Interpretation, and Tourism English Finally, Columbia is a public higher education institution, also under the management of MoET Established in 1990 and become a public university in 2006, it now appears to be one of the high-ranking public universities in Vietnam It offers a variety of programmes ranging from on-site to distance learning, such as Business Administration, Economics & Law, Finance-Banking, Accounting-Auditing, Biotechnology, and Civil

& Electrical Engineering The Faculty of Foreign Languages (FFL) is also one of the strong faculties of the university It offers undergraduate curricula in English, Chinese, and Japanese English Majors include English Language Teaching and Methodology, Business English, and Translation-Interpretation FFL accepts more than 400 students each year to pursue a major in English and the total number of English majors of the four school years is more than 1800 students

Even though one private and two public institutions were selected to participate in the study, they are all under the control of MoET The training programmes and outcomes in these institutions strictly follow the standard programmes regulated by MoET, so the research participants have many commonalities in teaching and learning activities in the classroom and students’ out-of-class learning context, guaranteeing the integrity of the research sample

The teaching and learning practices of the DFL/FFL at the three institutions are similar to those of other public universities in Vietnam The classrooms are equipped with a blackboard, chairs and tables, a projector, and a microphone with or without air- conditioning Teachers use various techniques to teach, following strictly the approved detailed guidelines of the department and the official agreement on the subject content and ways of assessment among teachers who teach the same subject Each session is generally of three periods of 50 minutes

The number of students in each class is from 35 to 50 students They are from different parts of the country, and most are well-behaved Students are often required to work in groups during class time to finish an in-class task or an assigned project Students study up to ten periods per day, depending on the timetable they have registered for Students work independently or with groups of friends outside the classroom They can study in self-study areas, libraries, closed coffee shops, and more Students usually work on classroom assignments first and then continue to improve the skills they think they could be more assertive or learn something for their pleasure They can be required to do some assignments on the learning platforms of their university, which may or may not account for the accumulating score

Once the institutions have been chosen randomly, the researcher randomly chose two classes of each school year on the class list with an interval of one out of five to deliver the questionnaire This way of sampling guaranteed the target number of participants in the shortest time, even though it made sampling not randomly selected

3.3.3.1 Rationale for choosing the questionnaire format

A questionnaire was chosen as the instrument of this phase for several reasons First, considering the performance of learner autonomy is one reality that is true for everyone, a questionnaire was considered an appropriate instrument for research that sought information about learners’ characteristics, perceptions, beliefs, feelings, attitudes, opinions, values, or habits (Creswell, 2014; Fink, 2017) Second, using a Third, a questionnaire enables the collection of information from a large population, so it would help provide a general description of the participants’ beliefs, and from that generalisation about the population could be claimed (Dửrnyei & Taguchi, 2010)

An online questionnaire was chosen instead of paper form because of its environmental friendliness, fast distribution, automatic compilation of data, and the avoidance of data entry and coding errors (Varela et al., 2016) Google Forms was chosen as the online data collection tool because Vietnamese students are familiar with working with different products in the Google ecology The main problem with online survey questionnaires is the lower response rate However, this drawback was overcome when the researcher came to the sites and encouraged the participants to complete the survey

The qualitative research

This section details qualitative research, describing objectives, rationale for adopting semi-structured in-depth group interviews, participants and recruitment process, instrument development, qualitative data collection procedure, qualitative data management, and qualitative data analysis

The qualitative research aims to explain more about the associations between learner autonomy in out-of-class learning context and perceived teachers’ and peers’ roles in the classroom by the understanding of the mediate factors The data collected helps to answer the third and fourth research questions: “What factors mediate the correlations between EFL tertiary students’ learner autonomy in out-of-class learning and their perceived teachers’ roles in the classroom?” and “What factors mediate the correlations between EFL tertiary students’ learner autonomy in out-of-class learning and their perceived peers’ roles in the classroom?”

3.4.2 Rationale for adopting semi-structured in-depth group interview

The semi-structured in-depth group interview was chosen for the qualitative phase to explore how the participants conducted their out-of-class learning and how teachers and peers could promote that learning through their roles in the classroom Interviewing can delve deep beneath the surface of superficial responses to obtain true meanings that individuals assign to events and the complexity of their attitudes, behaviours, and experiences A group interview brings together a small group of people to answer questions in a moderate setting The social gathering format was also expected to help the participants reveal their attitudes, feelings, and beliefs more easily A list of fixed questions and additional questions that emerge during the discussions could help explore the matter deeper Group interviews work well with groups from six to twelve participants for each interview (George, 2022), and forming groups with six members was the researcher's choice because it guaranteed that she could set up the interview time and venue and manage the discussion comfortably

3.4.3 Participants and the recruitment process

Most scholars argue that saturation is crucial when mulling over sample size decisions in qualitative research (Mason, 2010) Saturation is defined by many as the point at which the data collection process no longer offers any new or relevant data (Dworkin, 2012) There is no guarantee to reach saturation after interviewing how many students; therefore, interviews may continue if new ideas come up and finish when saturation has been reached Saturation is suggested to occur with twelve participants in homogeneous groups (Guest et al., 2006), but some research requires 25 to 30 participants to be the minimum sample size (Dworkin, 2012) Because of the small scope of the study, the researcher decided the first number of students participating in the qualitative phase of the research was 36, divided into six groups More participants could be invited if saturation was not reached

To recruit participants for the qualitative research, the systematic random sampling was used First, the researcher made lists of all the students in each institution who were voluntarily willing to participate in the qualitative phase of the study There were 320 students from three institutions: 92 from Acadia, 104 from Big Valley, and 124 from Columbia, who volunteered to participate in the group interviews The researcher wanted to invite 12 students from each institution, so she randomly picked 12 volunteers (the interval of one every five) and sent an invitation to them The interview student participation invitation letter (Appendix 3C) gave details about the group interview they would participate in It was also clear that their voluntary participation did not impact their learning results, and they could withdraw from participation at any time The inviting process continued until the researcher got the acceptance to participate from 36 students (12 students in different school years at each university) When they agreed to participate, the interview student participation consent form (Appendix 3D) was sent to them The participants could return the consent form with electronic signature via email if possible or they could give the signed consent form on the day of interview The participants then were invited to join chat groups to discuss the date, time, and location of the interviews They gave the consent form signed on the date they come for group interview One student could not come to the interview because of family issues, so the number of participants in the qualitative research was 35, and they were given codes S1 to S35 Table 3.5 provides information about the participants in the qualitative research, referring to their code, gender, year of study and institution

Table 3 6 Description of participants in the qualitative research

Code Gender Year of study Institution Code Gender Year of study

Group interview 1 (GI1) Group interview 2 (GI2)

S1 F 4 th year Acadia S7 F 2 nd year

Group interview 3 (GI3) Group interview 4 (GI4)

S13 M 2 nd year Big Valley S19 F 1 st year

Group interview 5 (GI5) Group interview 6 (GI6)

S25 F 3 rd year Columbia S31 F 1 st year

The interview protocol consisted of four main sections:

Section A – General information to collect general information about the participants’ codes, the place, date, and time of the interview, and the interview session code Section B – Rapport establishment by asking the interviewees to introduce themselves, explaining the outline of the interview, reaching a consensus on the language to be used, reminding the participants that the interview is audio recorded and the possibility of withdrawing from the interview at any time, and the manner the interviewer is going to ask the questions

Section C – Core information with two main parts to determine factors that mediate the correlations between learner autonomy and the perceived teachers’ roles, and factors that mediate the correlations between learner autonomy and the perceived peers’ roles The guided questions were based on the attributes of teachers’ and peers’ roles and how those attributes influenced students’ out-of-class learning

Section D – Interview closing to thank the interviewees, explain what the interviewer will do with the data, and ask if they wish to share any further information before leaving

The guided questions were written based on the objectives of the qualitative phase and the quantitative research results The researcher also emailed the list of guided questions to the two experts who had participated in the quantitative phase to seek feedback The feedback received suggested focusing students on speaking about the roles that were found prominent from the quantitative results rather than exploring the roles one by one The list of questions was modified and sent back to the experts for comments Then, the questions were translated into Vietnamese because the language for the interviews was also Vietnamese It is easier for the participants to express their ideas using their native language The interviews were recorded, and the researcher transcribed them right after each interview The instrument for the interview is presented in Appendix 3H

The questions for the focus group interview were written based on the objectives of the qualitative phase and the results of the quantitative phase A pilot phase was conducted with three students who did not participate in the two main phases of the research to see how the interview went The pilot checked whether the questions could withdraw information to meet the research phase’s objectives, to determine whether the questions might cause any difficulty for the interviewees, and to estimate the length of time needed for each interview It also allowed the researcher to get used to the nature of the interview

The results from the pilot showed that the interviewees loved to talk about their out- of-class learning and could talk off-topic Practising with the pilot interview process helped the researcher understand that the interviewer should notice the turn-takings when interviewing in groups As the data collected was rich with the initial analysis, the qualitative data collection started afterward

Once the researcher received the participants’ consent form, she asked for their Zalo contacts Six groups were formed on Zalo to discuss a suitable interview date, time, and venue Three group interviews were conducted at the canteen of their institutions, and another three interviews were at the coffee shop near there after class The researcher asked permission to record the interviews and explained again that the data collected was only for research purposes The participants were given food and drink vouchers to use during the interview and a pair of cinema tickets as a token of appreciation Before conducting the interview, the participants were briefed quickly about the results of the quantitative phase that they participated in and how the researcher would explore more about those correlations The group interviews lasted for

1 hour and a half each After the fifth interview, the researcher felt saturation was nearly reached because ideas were repeated, and new ideas were no longer arising The sixth interview proved that saturation had reached, and the researcher decided to stop the qualitative data collection

Thematic analysis was used to identify, analyse, and report patterns (themes) within data (Braun & Clarke, 2006) It was considered suitable for describing structures and processes in routines and practices and for discovering the subjective experiences of a group of learners The flexibility of the thematic approach allowed the analysis to focus on individual cases, their distinctive features, and the links among them Both deductive and inductive approaches to thematic analysis were adopted in this project The deductive approach was employed for coding the factors that have been reported to mediate the relationship between the teachers and peers and students’ development of learner autonomy, and the inductive approach was employed for coding the new factors that emerged from the interviews

The recorded data was transcribed and sent back to the participants to check whether the researcher understood correctly what the participants meant when speaking After receiving the feedback, the transcription was translated into English Because the students are English majors, the researcher sent them the translation to give feedback about the rightness of the translation

When there was no more change to be made, the researcher started the analysis procedures following the six steps: familiarisation, coding, generating themes, reviewing themes, defining and naming themes, and reporting (Braun & Clarke, 2006)

Ethical considerations

Research ethics focuses on the specific contexts of planning, conducting, communicating, and following up research Codes of ethical practice prompt researchers to be concerned about ethical issues like avoiding harm, informed consent, privacy protection, confidentiality, and anonymity of the participants who provide data Conventional ethical issues also require researchers to ensure voluntary participation and avoid deceiving the participants (Punch & Oancea, 2014) Fully aware of the ethical issues, the researcher followed the ethical concerns discussed in social sciences

In the quantitative phase, consent was obtained from the institutions participating in the research and individual participants The researcher sent the institution participation invitation and the project information sheet to the potential institution leaders and met them to receive approval The researcher went to each classroom to give a brief introduction about the research and how the information they provided would be used and stressed that their participation was completely voluntary When opening the survey by clicking the link, potential participants could first choose to participate or withdraw from the study The survey questionnaire was anonymous, and only participants who decided to join the study’s second phase provided their email addresses for the researcher to contact at the end of the survey The contact information would not be used for any other purposes

In the qualitative phase, the participants were randomly selected Then, the student participant invitation letter and the qualitative information sheet were sent to the voluntary participants Consent forms were subsequently signed by those who agreed to participate before the interviews were conducted During this process, the researcher explained and answered all the questions raised by participants very carefully and in detail Also, all the rights of participants in the participant information sheet and elements in the consent forms were explained carefully It was made clear that there was neither harm nor risk in participating (or not participating) in the research They also had the right to withdraw from participating or withdraw the information they had provided and the guarantee of confidentiality To guarantee participants’ anonymity and confidentiality, the researcher assigned and used pseudonyms for the entire qualitative process, which meant that the participants’ responses were untraceable, and no information was disclosed to third parties (Dawson, 2009) The interview sessions took place in a comfortable environment and in a friendly manner During the interviews, the researcher avoided questions that might irritate the participants, for example, recalling awkward experiences (Flick, 2007) The interviewer and other participants also showed respect to other participants and protected them from losing face Questions were asked in diverse ways to help participants express themselves clearly Disruption was minimised during the discussion; any embarrassment was avoided, and no further questions were asked about any issues participants did not want to discuss The safe storage of data was ensured The soft-copy data (e.g., audio files, interview transcripts, and data entry into SPSS) is password-protected in the researcher’s computer All the data is safely kept for five years, after which it will be destroyed.

Summary

This part has discussed the study’s methodology, starting with pragmatism as the appropriate research paradigm Then, the sequential explanatory mixed methods design was explained, and the rationale for this methodological choice was presented With this foundation, the chapter gave a detailed description of the quantitative and qualitative phases of the research, including the participants, instruments, data collection procedures, data management, and data analysis, as well as the concern about issues of the reliability and validity of the quantitative phase and the trustworthiness of the qualitative phase The two phases in the research complemented each other to answer the concerns about EFL tertiary students’ learner autonomy in the out-of-class learning context, how it correlates with the perceived roles of teachers and peers in the classroom, and what factors mediate those correlations.

DATA ANALYSIS

Results of the quantitative research

From 709 valid responses, the descriptive statistics showed more females than males in the sample, with 71.8% and 26.8%, respectively, reflecting female dominance in the EFL context in Vietnam The students in Acadia, Big Valley, and Columbia were approximately the same, at 38.6%, 35.5%, and 25.8%, respectively The number of students in their third and last year at the university was slightly less than that in their first and second years, reflecting the tendency for the bigger class size of the junior students Most participants had good learning results, at 50.1% Although the imbalanced distribution of gender in the sample was not ideal, it reflected the contemporary realities of EFL training Table 4.1 gives details about the demographic information of the participants

Table 4 1 Demographic information of the participants

Total participants Variables Divisions Percentage

Does not want to say 1.4%

Years of university study 1 st year 28.5%

4.1.2 EFL students’ learner autonomy in out-of-class learning

4.1.2.1 Internal consistency reliability measure of learner autonomy scale

As summarised in Table 4.2, Cronbach’s alpha values for the construct were from 709 to 864 Each item was then examined using the if item deleted method, the results indicated that these scales produced the highest possible alphas for their respective factors

Table 4 2 Cronbach’s alpha values of nine constructs of learner autonomy scale

Dimensions Factors N 0 of items Cronbach’s Alpha

4.1.2.2 Descriptive statistics of learner autonomy

The situational dimension of learner autonomy in out-of-class learning measures the students’ capacity to control the learning situation It is expressed through their awareness of the influence of the authorities in their learning process and their freedom to make decisions about learning Table 4.3 shows the descriptive statistics of the participants’ control of the situational dimension of learner autonomy in out-of-class learning context

Table 4 3 Descriptive statistics of the situational dimension of learner autonomy

Items/ Factor N Min Max Mean SD

I follow the expectations of the society 709 1.00 5.00 3.23 1.060

I have the freedom to choose what I want to learn 709 1.00 5.00 4.15 924

I have the freedom to make decisions about my learning 709 1.00 5.00 4.23 887

I have the freedom to choose the materials for learning 709 1.00 5.00 4.11 1.025

I have the freedom to choose the learning ways for learning 709 1.00 5.00 4.06 1.068

I have the freedom to decide my own goals in learning 709 1.00 5.00 4.01 1.066

The participants were highly aware of the influence of teachers and the institutions’ regulations the most (Mean (M) = 4.09 and 4.00 respectively), while their parents’ wishes played a minor role (M = 2.80) Friends’ influence and the expectations of society had a similar average influence on students’ learning (M = 3.29 and 3.23) Overall, the participants averagely (M=3.48) considered others’ influence when they conducted their learning on their own outside the classroom The standard deviations among the scores were from 671 to 1.090 With standard deviations slightly more than

1, the participants had quite different ideas about the society’s expectations and parents’ wishes

The participants highly agreed that they were free to make decisions about their learning outside the classroom (M= 4.23) The freedom to choose what they wanted to learn outside the classroom had the second highest score, slightly more than the freedom to choose the learning ways for learning outside the classroom (M=4.15 and 4.11) The freedom to choose the learning materials and decide their own goals in learning outside the classroom was also elevated (M=4.06 and 4.01) The cluster’s overall high mean score (M=4.12) indicated the participants had the freedom to make decisions in their learning The standard deviations were from 772 to 1.068 The participants had slightly different ideas about their freedom about their learning materials, learning ways, and goals when studying outside the classroom

Overall, for the control of the situational dimension, teachers, institutions, and peers influenced them the most in their learning outside the classroom, and they averagely had the freedom to control their learning outside the classroom, in terms of learning content, learning ways, as well as learning materials

The behavioural dimension described participants’ capacity to control their actions during five stages of learning outside the classroom, from getting ready to transcending to new learning They managed the learning steps from a moderate to a prominent level

An extract of the descriptive statistic of the behavioural dimension of learner autonomy is provided in Table 4.4, and the whole table is presented in Appendix 3I

Table 4 4 Extract of the descriptive statistics of the behavioural dimension

Items/ Factor N Min Max Mean SD

I know which learning ways suits me best 709 1.00 5.00 3.64 959

I initiate my learning as plan 709 1.00 5.00 3.47 986

I arrange time to study as much as possible 709 1.00 5.00 3.76 976

I create the conditions under which I can study best 709 1.00 5.00 4.28 895

In the getting ready stage, the students were most confident in identifying their strengths (M=3.78) They could identify their weaknesses and their learning goals and know which learning ways best suited them (M=3.73, 3.63, and 3.64) The ability to plan the learning steps was lower, only at a moderate level, with M=3.23 The overall control of the participants in the getting ready stage was high with M=3.61 The standard deviations were from 704 to 1.055 With standard deviations slightly more than 1, the participants had quite different ideas on their capacity to identify learning goals and plan the learning steps

When conducting their learning, the participants got the highest mean score on creating the best conditions to study (M=4.20) They also tried different learning materials and strategies and arranged as much time as possible to study (M=3.95, 3.76, and 3.70) They found initiating learning the most challenging in this stage (M=3.46)

On average, with the overall mean score of 3.40, the study’s participants demonstrated a moderate level of control of this learning stage The standard deviations were from 725 to 986

In the monitoring stage, the highest score was seeking help when needed (M=3.93) and adjusting their learning to the help they received (M=3.79), these scores were at moderate level They also averagely adjusted their learning process to reach their learning goals (M=3.74) They had more difficulty monitoring if their studies followed their plans and reflecting on whether the selected learning routine was effective (M 3.46 and 3.27) Overall, the participants’ control over the monitoring stage of learning was high (M=3.53) The standard deviations were from 729 to 1.028 Only the capacity to reflect on the effectiveness of the selected learning routines had standard deviations more than 1, suggesting that the participants had quite different ideas about this capacity

In the self-evaluating stage, they could evaluate whether they had achieved the goal (M=3.74) They moderately evaluated if their planning was realistic (M = 3.49) and whether their learning was effective (M= 3.71) They needed to be more confident in their abilities to draw a conclusion on the level of their learning success and select criteria to evaluate their learning outcomes (M=3.46, and 3.36) In general, the participants averagely controlled the self-evaluating stage (M=3.38) when conducting their own learning outside the classroom The overall mean score of self-evaluating stage was the lowest in comparison with other learning stages The standard deviations were from 760 to 1.097 With standard deviations slightly more than 1, the participants had quite different ideas on their capacity to select criteria to evaluate learning outcomes and draw conclusions on the practical of their planning and its success

When transcending to the next learning activity, students were confident using the acquired skills in similar contexts (M= 3.85) The ability to find opportunities for new learning activities and ensure the retention of the newly acquired skills was at a prominent level (M=3.81 for both) They needed to be more confident in integrating their newly acquired knowledge into their knowledge and ensuring the retention of the newly acquired knowledge (M=3.72 and 3.64) The overall mean score of the transcending stage was high (M=3.82), being the highest mean score in the behavioural dimension The standard deviations were from 702 to 975

Overall, the participants were averagely confident in regulating their learning behaviours in the out-of-class context They could do moderately well in specific learning actions, such as creating the best conditions for learning, seeking help when needed, and finding new learning opportunities However, other essential learning actions, such as planning the learning steps, initiating learning, selecting criteria for evaluation, and retaining the newly acquired knowledge, remained a challenge for them 4.1.2.2.3 Psychological dimension

The control of students in the psychological dimension was expressed through their mental readiness to take responsibility for their learning and the capacity to control their emotions in learning The participants were highly ready for their learning outside the classroom, and they could also control their emotions effectively during the learning process An extract of the descriptive statistics of the psychological dimension is provided in Table 4.5, and the whole table can be found in Appendix 3I

Table 4 5 Extract of the descriptive statistics of the psychological dimension

Items/ Factor N Min Max Mean SD

I only rely on me as far as my studies are concerned

I seek alternative solution when a difficult problem emerges

I adapt to the difficult situations 709 1.00 5.00 3.96 858

I am positive towards learning difficulties 709 1.00 5.00 3.62 954

I manage any problem that may arise in my studies

The participants agreed they could seek alternative solutions when a problem emerged and adapt to the demanding situations (M=3.96 and 3.81) They also believed they would manage problems in their studies (M=3.81) They were positive towards learning difficulties (M=3.62) but were less confident about relying only on themselves in learning (M=3.35) Overall, the participants were mentally ready for learning on their own outside the classroom (M=3.83) The standard deviations were from 568 to 1.024 With standard deviations slightly more than 1, the participants had quite different ideas on the capacity to take fully responsibility for their studies and manage any problems that may arise in learning

Results of the qualitative research

The qualitative phase of the research aims to explain the correlations between the participants’ learner autonomy in out-of-class learning and the perceived teachers’ and peers’ roles in the classroom through the factors that mediate these associations The data collected helped to answer the third and fourth research questions: “What factors mediate the correlations between EFL tertiary students’ learner autonomy in out-of- class learning and their perceived teachers’ roles in the classroom?” and “What factors mediate the correlations between EFL tertiary students’ learner autonomy in out-of- class learning and their perceived peers’ roles in the classroom?”

The interviews collected information about the factors that have linked the six roles of teachers and four roles of peers in the classroom with the participants’ capacity to control their out-of-class learning The data is divided into two themes: factors that mediate the correlations between learner autonomy in out-of-class learning and perceived teachers’ roles in the classroom and factors that mediate the correlations between learner autonomy in out-of-class learning and perceived peers’ roles in the classroom Each central theme has four sub-themes, as presented briefly in Table 4.28 The detailed summary table of each theme is in Appendix 4E and Appendix 4F

Table 4 28 Summary of themes and sub-themes generated from data analysis

Theme 1: Mediating factors of perceived teachers’ roles and learner autonomy

1 Motivation 2 Trust 3 Role model 4 Care

Theme 2: Mediating factors of perceived peers’ roles and learner autonomy

1 Positive emotions 2 Interdependence 3 Responsibilities 4 Face value

4.2.1 Mediating factors of learner autonomy and perceived teachers’ roles

The results from the quantitative phase have suggested that the participants’ learner autonomy in out-of-class learning positively correlated with six roles of teachers in the classroom: a resource, an evaluator, a controller, an instructor, a co-learner, and a facilitator The qualitative phase continued to explain these associations through the factors that connect the perceived teachers’ roles and the learner’s capacity to control their learning outside the classroom In other words, these mediating factors explained how teachers’ actions in the classroom could influence the participants’ capacity to control their learning outside the classroom

Four sub-themes have emerged from the data analysis: motivation, trust, role model, and care Among them, the first three mediating factors were reported in the literature The fourth factor was suggested to be a new factor that mediates the association between learner autonomy in out-of-class learning and teachers’ roles in the classroom The sub- themes are presented in detail in the following parts

The analysis reveals that teachers’ roles as a controller, an instructor, and an evaluator motivated students extrinsically, intrinsically, and gradually shifting from extrinsically to intrinsically motivated to learn outside the classroom

Particularly, the students were specifically affected by the teachers’ roles as controllers and evaluators As evidenced in the data, the participants were motivated to initiate their out-of-class learning to accumulate bonus points, meet deadlines, and achieve decent learning results, all of which were regulated by teachers’ requirements

I prepare before going to class to get the bonus or bonus points (S6)

If I finish all the exercises on e- learning, answer the questions in class correctly or my team wins, I get a bonus point So, I spend time preparing for the lesson using the detailed outline (S19)

They also tended to study harder when teachers were more demanding

When teachers are demanding, I study more eagerly to get good scores (S12)

Also, they were intrinsically motivated to learn when teachers introduced the subject in an inspiring way Teachers gave students an interest in learning by organising and facilitating interesting and meaningful lessons in class More specifically,

My studies outside the classroom stem from what teachers introduced to us in class I usually touch on the part I find interesting (S1)

They [Teachers] make the lesson very interesting , and I want to explore more to understand more about it (S2)

The requirements of teachers for the subject teaching could transform students from only studying to pass the course into having an interest in that subject, which made them spend more time studying for it outside the classroom Motivation intensity is exhibited in the following behaviours:

At first, I studied because I wanted to prepare for the test When doing that, I found some points interesting, so I worked more on them (S24)

My teachers required each group to do a lot I spent a lot of time on it and realised I did like it [the subject] more than I thought (S28)

To be concise, teachers, when fulfilling their roles in the classroom as a controller, an instructor, a facilitator, and an evaluator, have motivated students to initiate their learning and learn harder outside the classroom Table 4.29 presents an extract of the summary of motivation as a mediating factor sub-theme The whole table is presented in Appendix 4E

Table 4 29 Extract of summary table of Motivation as a mediating factor

S6– I prepare before going to class because I want to get the bonus or plus points

S1 – My studies stem from what teachers introduced to us in class I usually touch on the part I find interesting

S13 – I cannot find the motivation to learn, but when teachers require us to do something as class assignment, I do it and I feel it interesting to me

S16 – After each lesson, they give us more questions and when

I try to find the answers for those open questions, I like it [the subject] more

Teachers’ roles as a controller, an instructor, a resource, a facilitator, aco-learner, and an evaluator enabled trust – building in students, helping them control their learning better outside the classroom

Students strongly believed in the teachers’ capacity to understand what they need to do and should do As a controller and instructor of the course, teachers could help students figure out clearly what they should do and what to expect from the course, and they followed that orientation to study on their own outside the classroom:

Teachers have much experience, and they used to be English majors like us, so they know what we should do (S1)

Teachers usually stress for us the important contents and the challenging issues students should overcome to master the course These explanations gave me the orientation to set up my learning (S2)

Acting as a resource, teachers introduced the required textbooks and supplemental books for students Students had complete trust in the sources that teachers have introduced:

I usually rely on that list [the list of online resources and extra materials] and start searching and start searching Those resources suit me the most (S3)

As a co-learner and a facilitator in the classroom, teachers could understand students’ needs and support them effectively

Because I am familiar with the guidance of teachers during our 12 years at lower levels, detailed guidance is what I need the most When I have difficulty, I will ask for their suggestions I try them out, and the problems can be solved most of the time (S27)

As an evaluator, the detailed feedback teachers gave for personal assignments or group projects helped students navigate their learning, knowing their strengths and weaknesses

My teachers give detailed feedback, and based on that, I can improve my work much faster (S18)

Overall, students’ trust in their teachers helped them orientate, monitor, and improve their own learning outside the classroom Table 4.30 presents an extract of the summary table of Trust as a mediating factor The whole table is presented in Appendix 4E

Table 4 30 Extract of summary table of Trust as a mediating factor

S1 – Teachers have a lot of experience, and they were English majors like us, so they know what we should do

S2 – Teachers usually stress for us the important contents, the challenging issues that students should overcome to master the course These explanations gave me the orientation to set up my learning

4.2.1.3 Role model as a mediating factor

Summary

The chapter has presented quantitative and qualitative research data analysis to answer four research questions The analysis helped to understand the associations between EFL tertiary students’ learner autonomy in out-of-class learning and two important variables, namely perceived teachers’ and peers’ roles in the classroom The factors that mediate these associations were also explained These results will be discussed in the next part concerning the previous research findings in learner autonomy in foreign language education.

FINDINGS AND DISCUSSIONS

EFL tertiary students’ learner autonomy in out-of-class learning

While the notion that learner autonomy was considered a Western construct that Asian students could not master has been disproved (Littlewood, 2000), it remains a challenging concept to address in the Vietnamese context The findings from the current study highlighted that EFL tertiary students still faced many challenges when they controlled the situational, behavioural, and psychological dimensions of their learning outside the classroom

Discussed first were how other factors influenced students in controlling the learning situation outside the classroom In the group influence, teachers, the institution where the students were studying, and peers had more influence on them than society and their parents

The findings that teachers and institutions had a great impact on students’ control of learning content could be explained by the characteristics of Vietnamese education system Although the influence of Confucianism has somehow faded over time, the hierarchy in Vietnamese classrooms in which teacher has the utmost power is still maintained Because of that hierarchy, students are still under the dictation of teachers, especially in lower level of education Therefore, it is hard for them to be completely independent in learning when going to tertiary education Regarding the role that institutions play in training, students at tertiary level can acknowledge that all the activities that take place at school are under the direct control of the institution Even though teachers are closer with students in their learning process, the institutions’ importance could not be dismissed Apart from teachers and the training institution, peers also had an impact on students’ learning It can be explained because the time tertiary students spend with peers both inside and outside the classroom increases a lot The influence from social norms was slightly less due to society’s strong trust that training is the mission of teachers and institutions Finally, for students at higher education, the roles of parents in their children’s learning seem to be less prominent in comparison with other factors This situation also applied for the current study’s participants

These five factors have been reported to influence learner autonomy development in previous research The teacher is believed to have a vital role in helping students develop learner autonomy both inside and outside the classroom ( Little, 2004; Toffoli & Sockett, 2015; Reinders, 2021) Nguyen (2018) stressed the importance of teachers when he added teachers’ roles into his model of learner autonomy, which consisted of motivation, attitudes, and language learning strategies Aoki (2001) pointed out that learner autonomy can stem from the institutional environment that surrounds the place where real learning takes place, confirming that institution could support students to be more autonomous from institutional setting and policy levels Peers are also a crucial factor that can enhance learners’ sense of autonomy by decreasing their dependence on their teachers (Shen et al., 2020) Swatevacharkul and Boonma (2021) stated that students preferred collaborative learning to the teacher as an authority, which means that peers were more critical in their autonomous learning than teachers Society and family are grouped into the general culture, both of which are considered to influence students’ learner autonomy Social characteristics can influence learners’ readiness (Ahmad & Majid, 2010) for autonomy, and learner autonomy can be intentionally promoted or hindered under different community constraints (Dang, 2010) Parents had the slightest influence on tertiary students’ control of the learning situation in the current study but had a strong impact on Vietnamese high school students’ learner autonomy (Ho et al.,

Based on the previous research provided, the findings about how the participants were aware of the influence of other factors in their learning aligned with other research about the factors that could have an influence on their learning outside the classroom The research has attempted to rank the influence of these factors to have a better understanding of EFL’s learner autonomy in the out-of-class context

Turning to the freedom in learning, the participants reported being free to make decisions about their learning outside the classroom They could choose what they wanted to learn and how they conducted their learning They were slightly less confident about choosing the learning materials and their learning goals This freedom aligned with previous research in the Vietnamese context, stating that students were more active with learning outside the classroom than their performance in the classroom (Nguyen, 2009; Nguyen & Stracke, 2021) However, these findings contradicted the situation of students in the Mekong Delta, who did not make their own decisions on their learning, could not choose what they should learn to serve their study, and just learned or found out information according to their teachers’ instructions (A N T Le, 2019) Another research in the Japanese context stated that students spent time studying outside the classroom to complete the work assigned by teachers and prepared for class (Kimura,

To summarise about the control of students in the situational dimension, students acknowledged the influence of other factors when they controlled the out-of-class learning situation, in which teachers, the institution they were going to, and friends played the most critical roles The reason for this influence could be explained by the bond to Confucianism, which stressed the hierarchy in the Vietnamese classroom as well as the growing importance of peers in one’s learning when students enter higher education Despite this influence, EFL tertiary students expressed the freedom to make learning decisions outside the classroom These findings reflect the move towards better control of learning situations outside the classroom of students in the research context 5.1.2 The behavioural dimension

Moving to behavioural dimension, students expressed their average level of control in all the learning stages; however, they needed to be more confident in many autonomous learning behaviours

The participants were, on average, confident with the getting – ready stage Even though they could identify their strengths and weaknesses, they found it challenging to plan the learning steps Planning is considered one of the most critical stages in learning because only when they can plan well can they stick to the plan and achieve the learning goal However, Vietnamese students were reported to have difficulties with this learning step Humphreys and Wyatt (2013) reported that nearly three – quarters of the participants in their research lacked confidence in identifying their own strengths and weaknesses Over 80 percent of participants in the same study were either unsure about how to plan their own learning or felt they were unable to do so Planning was also reported as a difficult step for non-English majors when they self-regulated their learning because they had yet to have that habit of learning (Le & Nguyen, 2022)

In the initiating stage, participants showed the most confidence in creating the best conditions to study However, they needed more confidence in arranging time to study as much as possible They tried different learning resources until they found the ones that suited them the best They were more flexible in trying different learning resources than learning strategies They could have been more confident about arranging time to study as much as possible The action that had the lowest score in this stage was initiating learning It aligned with other research that pointed out that students were aware of the importance of self-regulated learning and appreciated the ability to look for learning opportunities but failed to initiate real learning (Dang, 2012; A N T Le, 2019) Learning outside the classroom could only happen with a kick start, requiring students to save enough time for learning as well as to have the skills to select suitable learning resources and strategies

In the next stage, the participants showed that they could, on average, monitor their learning outside the classroom They reported being able to seek help when needed, which could be good because they could sustain their learning thanks to the help they received This tendency has been reported in other research when researchers found that EFL tertiary students wanted to discuss more with teachers about their self-regulated learning and asked for their comments during class time (Q H T Le, 2019) Despite reaching out for help when needed, students needed help reflecting on whether the selected learning routine was effective Reflection on the learning process is essential to developing proficient learners because it helps students evaluate the results of their learning effort and be aware of effective learning strategies to use in other learning situations (Ertmer & Newby, 1996)

In the next stage of learning– self-evaluating, the participants achieved the lowest range score They found it the hardest to select criteria for evaluation, which led to a lack of confidence in concluding the level of their learning success and the effectiveness of their learning plan They were more confident to evaluate whether they had reached their learning goal and whether learning was effective The students’ difficulties when doing the self-evaluation were depicted in previous research Humphreys and Wyatt

(2013) stated that three quarters of the participants in their study expressed doubt about their ability to measure their own progress Nguyen (2018) said students needed more capacity to do it effectively The self-evaluation stage is usually overlooked because the students believe that teachers should be responsible for evaluating their performance under the influence of Confucianism (Bui, 2018) Another reason students are unfamiliar with self-evaluation is that they are familiar with receiving summative assessments, good scores from teachers rather than formative assessments, and comments on the learning processes and experiences (Dang, 2012) It does not mean that students are incapable of self-evaluating their learning When self-evaluation was organised as a practice in a writing classroom, EFL students showed active engagement utilising reading strategies and assistive technology tools to assess their essays (Huynh, 2023) Therefore, students needed more opportunities to practice them in the classroom The last stage of the learning process was the transcending stage when learners looked for new learning activities to apply the learned knowledge and skills The participants were more confident using the acquired skills in a similar context They found the actions of finding opportunities for new learning activities, ensuring the retention of the newly acquired skills, and integrating the newly acquired knowledge into their language doable However, the retention of the newly acquired knowledge was the hardest Retention could only happen if students put effort into ‘practice’ and ‘drill’ the new knowledge (Ausubel, 2000)

To restate, students’ capacity to control the behaviroural dimension of learner autonomy in out-of-class learning was moderate The participants were not confident doing significant actions of autonomous learning, such as initiating learning, setting up the learning plans, reflecting, and selecting the criteria for self-evaluation The control of behavioural dimension is closely related to language learning strategies, and planning, monitoring, and regulating belong to the metacognitive capabilities Difficulties with learning behaviours and strategies can confound students’ capacity for learning control and their learner autonomy development (Nguyen, 2009; Lin & Reinders, 2019) Even though metacognitive strategies were reported to be the most utilised strategies for Vietnamese EFL high school students (Ngo, 2019), they had many difficulties with them when entering university, such as they could not effectively set up specific learning goals and learning plans and could not effectively implement those plans (A N T Le,

2019) Therefore, the current research’s findings aligned with previous research and indicated a need for more scaffolding actions to support students’ better control of the behavioural dimension

Regarding the mental readiness for self-learning outside the classroom, the participants were moderately ready to be responsible for their learning outside the classroom They could seek alternative solutions when a problematic issue emerged, adapt to challenges, and manage any problems in their studies However, they found it harder to accept that their learning solely relied on them, and the difficulties in their studies were only a positive challenge These results showed that students were mentally ready for learning outside the classroom, but they needed to be more confident to be the only ones in charge of their learning and accept the challenges in learning This tendency echoes previous research stating that students understood that learner autonomy was significantly substantial during university life (Le, 2018) However, they needed more time to be ready to take responsibility for their learning (Ahmadi, 2013)

Concerning how they paid attention to their emotions when learning, the participants said they paid attention to their feelings, tried to relax when having negative ones, and gave themselves a reward or a treat when they did well However, they needed to be more confident to make learning enjoyable Attention should be given to raising students’ understanding of separate ways to deal with feelings Affective factors such as motivation and anxiety bothered learners with low English levels more than learners with high English levels, and there were countermeasures against students’ affective problems (Qian, 2022) In the Vietnamese context, students’ anxiety level was significantly negatively correlated with English competence (Le, 2023) However, affective strategies were reported to be used the least in comparison with other language learning strategies in Vietnamese context (Ngo, 2019) Therefore, there should be more attention to affective factors to ensure students pay enough attention to their feelings when learning

Perceived teachers’ roles in the classroom

Teachers in the language classroom were perceived to play six roles: a resource, an evaluator, a controller, an instructor, a co-learner, and a facilitator

The fact that the role of a resource was the most significantly perceived role of teachers in the language classroom expressed the high demand for guidance on learning materials The participants also stressed the importance of teachers being knowledgeable about the subject of teaching It aligned with other research stating that subject matter knowledge improves the capacity of teachers to work with different groups of students (Howard & Aleman, 2008) They need to master theoretical and practical knowledge to prepare students better With the ubiquitous Internet and abundant learning resources, students still need teachers’ guidance in dealing with the enormous resources available, especially with specialized materials It shows the students’ complete trust in teachers’ introduction of learning materials (Dang & Le, 2021).

The role of an evaluator stresses the significance of constructive, fair, and gentle feedback from the teachers It aligned with other research in which students expected their teachers to be mindful, stressing the importance of affective factors in learning (Skinner & Beer, 2016) Teachers can assess in diverse ways, focusing on helping students recognize their own mistakes in learning (Arafat, 2005) Monitoring students’ progress suggested the combination of summative and formative assessments, aligned with research stating the crucial roles of the latter assessment form (Lau, 2016) However, the large class size is a big challenge for teachers to give assessments in the language classroom, especially with productive skills.

The participant’s perception of the role of a controller of teachers has depicted their reliance on the arrangement and dictation of teachers in the classroom Making decisions on how to impart the curriculum was the most agreed – upon item Teachers must follow the detailed teaching plan designed based on the institution’s training programme adherence the requirements of MoET; however, each teacher has their way of imparting it, which decides the success of their teaching To do that, they need expertise, experience, and an understanding of the student’s needs and current levels How the teacher decides ways of assessment is especially important, too, because every student wants to pass the course The participants also stressed the teachers’ decision on the learning materials and learning activities to conduct in class Choosing suitable supplement materials could be helpful for students because they tend to be overwhelmed by the abundance of materials and resources online Teachers would have different activities to keep the students’ concentration and make the classroom atmosphere more attractive, another essential action in this role Nguyen and Habók (2021) also showed that students need much guidance in learning English, and teachers should have control over the learning materials, learning content, and learning activities Similarly, Trinh and Mai (2018) reported that students expect teachers to know everything and to manage the class More actions should be taken to give students opportunities to have a voice in various aspects of the learning process

As instructors, teachers were perceived to impart knowledge well and equip students with the necessary learning skills To be able to do that, teachers need to join different professional development activities to update about different teaching methods in teaching The data also stressed that teachers would be open to receiving feedback to modify their lessons It suggests the link to the call to apply constructivist teaching, namely eliciting prior knowledge, creating cognitive dissonance, applying new knowledge with feedback, and reflecting on learning (Baviskar et al., 2009) Students should have opportunities to reflect when learning, forming the habit of reflection when learning

With the role of a co-learner, teachers understand students’ concerns, respect them, consider their ideas, and connect with the class members At the tertiary level, as the requirement of credit-based training, students do not study altogether in one class from the first semester to the last semester, but they join distinct groups every term; therefore, good rapport in the classroom can help students break the ice and work better together The rapport between the teachers and students is the strong bond that connects them It again stressed the importance of affective factors in teaching and learning, forming mutual respect between teachers and learners (Beatty, 2000).

Finally, as a facilitator, teachers ensured the task was going well and students knew how to do the task To motivate the task-doing process, teachers clarified the learning outcomes and scaffolded students step by step It aligned with previous research stating that the acts of a facilitator can help students sustain their motivation in learning and transform from extrinsic to intrinsic motivation (Brown et al., 2015) Facilitating actions can also help with classroom engagement (Kolopack et al., 2015).

To sum up, the perceived roles of teachers in the language classroom: the roles of a resource, an evaluator, a controller, an instructor, a co-learner, and a facilitator have proven the critical and indispensable position of teachers in the language classroom While doing the typical teachers’ actions in the classroom, there was a tendency for teachers to move towards respecting students’ voices and supporting their independent learning, adapting to changes towards learner-centredness in the teaching and learning process.

Perceived peers’ roles in the classroom

As a co-learner, the action that students perceived the most was exploring things together They could learn more doing that compared to the thought that helping is sharing the answers that their friends are looking for Other actions of collaborating with peers were doing class assignments together, learning comfortably, finishing each other’s part, and asking each other for help The descriptions of the role of a co-learner aligned with previous research, describing the actions of peers working together to consolidate some knowledge they already developed, practice the target language they learn from their partners, experiment with current linguistic knowledge, and co- constructing new knowledge (Vo, 2020)

Acting as an encourager, the participants perceived that peers encouraged them to keep trying and were able to smooth out the problems they were facing They also valued the encouragement from their peers to try new ways of learning and the solicitation of each other’s contributions The characteristics of big class size has prevented teachers from giving encouragement to each student in the classroom (Hoang, 2020) Therefore, the companionship of friends would be the source of motivation for learners to keep going on their learning journey The role of an encourager in the current research focuses on the affective factors; in comparison, previous research focused more on encouraging output, reflection on the language, and noticing gaps (Swain & Lapkin, 2001)

With the role of an assessor, peers most appraised the various suggestions the participants gave and listened to their feedback respectfully Even though peers do not have expert knowledge and pedagogical ways to give feedback, friends still expect to receive constructive comments from their friends on their performance, stressing the respect they should have for each other Shen et al (2020) stated that when teachers require students to assess their peers’ assignments, they take more charge of their learning The descriptions of an assessor in the current study did not focus on correcting and suggesting the proper use of the target language, which aligns with previous research because the ability to correct language required more significant support from the teacher (McDonough, 2004) Students need to be trained to do the role of an assessor well For example, they can learn to provide helpful feedback in the form of questions that help to improve communication, such as clarification requests (‘Can you say that again?”) and confirmation checks (“Do you mean…?”) These may benefit both the providers of feedback and those who observe it, as much as the receiver, leading learners to focus on form and meaning as they notice problematic utterances (Mackey, 2012)

In the last role of peers in the classroom–a supporter, the action that participants perceived the most was instant support from their peers The guidance from teachers could be delayed, so students tend to expect it from their peers to overcome the difficulties they are facing The assistance was with the learning resources: sharing their outside resources and finding suitable materials Previous research also depicts the focus on increasing students’ use of learning resources (Shi & Han, 2019) but also on students’ learning strategy use and critical thinking (Irvine et al., 2018)

In short, peers are companions who can study comfortably together with learners, encourage each other to try their best, give constructive comments, and provide help as much as they can Based on the findings, it can be concluded that in the research context, EFL tertiary students place a higher value on the companionship and encouragement provided by their peers than on the academic aspects.

Learner autonomy and perceived teachers’ roles

5.4.1 Correlations between learner autonomy in out-of-class learning and perceived teachers’ roles in the classroom

Data analysis has pointed out that learner autonomy in out-of-class learning correlated with the different roles of teachers in the classroom The roles of a facilitator and a controller correlated most with factors of learner autonomy, especially with learners’ mental readiness and behavioural control in the carrying out the plan and transcending stages of the learning process Other roles, such as resource, co-learner, instructor, and evaluator, correlated positively with all aspects of learner autonomy The research findings, therefore, aligned with previous research but have gone more profound in the associations between aspects in three dimensions of learner autonomy in the out-of-class learning and teachers’ roles in the classroom

The role of a facilitator is well mentioned in the literature on promoting learner autonomy development because, as a facilitator, teachers support students’ decision- making process (Voller, 1997) and help them activate their initiative and motivation to learn on their own (Shi & Han, 2019) As a facilitator, teachers create a variety of learning opportunities in the classroom and scaffold students with steps involved in approaching a learning task such as understanding the learning outcomes, figuring how to do the task, and getting prepared for it When students have many opportunities to practice these task preparation steps, they can apply the skills learned to their independent learning outside the classroom

The literature has also confirmed the correlations between learner autonomy and the roles of a teacher as a resource, an instructor, and an evaluator (Duong, 2015; Shi & Han, 2015) By providing students with valuable learning resources as resources, teachers enable students to initiate their learning and enhance learning effectiveness As instructors, teachers’ intriguing lessons could encourage students to explore more about the learning matters Students could plan to improve their weaknesses from teachers’ beneficial feedback as evaluators The correlations between the role of a co-learner and learner autonomy in the current research expressed students’ desire to engage more with teachers in classroom activities

The correlation between learner autonomy and the role of a controller may appear contradictory to autonomy development principles Learner autonomy thrives on freedom, and students need opportunities to practice making decisions about what they want and need to study and how they study it in alignment with their circumstances However, for Vietnamese students facing challenges in self-initiating and self- regulating their learning, as discussed by Nguyen (2009), and exhibiting reactive learner autonomy, as discussed by Le (2019), it becomes essential for teachers to take the lead to help them initiate and foster their learning beyond the classroom Consequently, when teachers adopt a controlling role, they can still effectively nurture and motivate learner autonomy By making well-informed decisions regarding curriculum delivery, material selection, assessment methods, classroom engagement, and cultivating a supportive learning environment, a controller can still support learner autonomy development These findings aligned with research which stated that teachers’ roles such as classroom regulators and organizers also contributed learner autonomy development (Fumin & Li,

In summary, the findings have established the statistical associations between learner autonomy in out-of-class learning and teachers’ roles in the classroom The mediating factors presented in the next part could explain how teachers cultivated students’ awareness of the significance of learning beyond class, imparted essential skills and strategies for self-directed learning, and motivated them to take initiation in learning

5.4.2 Mediating factors of correlations between learner autonomy in out-of-class learning and perceived teachers’ roles in the classroom

The qualitative data from the research showed that the mediating factors of the correlations between learner autonomy and perceived teachers’ roles were motivation, trust, teacher as a role model, and care

First, motivation has been the critical factor influencing the extent to which learners are ready to learn autonomously (Spratt et al., 2002) Nguyen (2018) stated that students in the Vietnamese context were motivated intrinsically and extrinsically by seven primary sources of motivation: personal interests, success in language learning, career, examinations, travelling, studying abroad, and pressure from parents and teachers In the current research, teachers’ roles in the classroom motivated students both extrinsically and intrinsically, as well as facilitating the transition from being extrinsic to intrinsically motivated to learn outside the classroom Extrinsically, students reported that they learned outside the classroom to prepare the lessons to perform better in class the next lesson, which helped them accumulate bonus points They tried hard to review to achieve a decent score at the end of the course Teachers’ requirements have ignited students’ desire to learn outside the classroom, and the stricter their teachers were, the harder they learned to fulfill those requirements They also reported that because their teachers were demanding, they had to try hard, and as they were trying to meet these requirements, they developed an interest in the subject for several reasons Some found the subject matters more interesting than they thought, while others discovered their skills were significantly improved when they spent time and effort on doing class assignment Consequently, they became intrinsically motivated to learn With intrinsically motivated students, they explored more from the interesting lessons teachers gave in the classroom Students were motivated to learn outside the classroom from teachers’ actions in the classroom Once they are motivated to learn, they have chances to develop their learner autonomy (Ushioda, 2011)

Second, students believed that a teacher’s knowledge and beliefs could help them, so they wholeheartedly trusted their guidance Teachers have gone through the difficulties of learning and achieved satisfactory results; therefore, students assumed that teachers knew what is good for them They were eager to ask and listened to teachers’ orientation on their studies, especially learning resources and strategies The trust on teachers’ suggestion aligned with previous research In the Vietnamese context, students were familiar with the dictation of teachers from primary to high school, so it was reasonable for them to put much trust in teachers’ orientation and guidance Le (2019) stated that students in the Mekong Delta had to trust their teachers’ directions because they themselves did not think that they could make decisions on their learning Dang and Le

(2021) emphasised that when teachers created learning spaces, students embraced them unconditionally and begin learning within those environments Later, if they found the space unsuitable, they might choose to abandon it In other contexts, learners also believed they could study a language autonomously if guided by a knowledgeable teacher (Arıkan & Bakla, 2011) In short, the trust that students had with their teachers’ orientation and support has helped students to orient and conduct their learning outside the classroom more easily However, this trust can prevent students from being proactively autonomous if they only wait for teachers to tell them what to do

Third, the admiration of students for teachers’ professionalism, valuable knowledge, skills, and ability to create quality instructions has made teachers role models for learners to follow (Yu, 2006) The participants reported that teachers have inspired them to learn to be as successful and competent as their teachers The factors that they admired from their teachers were not only their knowledge but also their classroom management skills and their critical thinking Hence, they tried hard outside the classroom to sharpen their skills and knowledge to be like their teachers in the future Institutions should provide more opportunities for teachers and students to collaborate, allowing teachers to demonstrate their abilities and commitment to continuous learning and self- improvement as educators

Fourth, the qualitative data added another mediating factor that students found meaningful: the care they received from their teachers Students appreciated teachers’ care for their learning It could be teachers remembering students’ names, giving them time to share their concerns, reminding them of the upcoming deadlines, asking about their learning progress, how they could support them and more This care gave them the courage to kick-start learning and not put down their learning efforts, especially when facing challenges Students’ appreciation of the care from their teachers could give Vietnamese teachers a dilemma in the classroom because it contradicted the power and dictation of teachers in the Confucian classroom (Bui, 2018) Students had a different understanding about the controlling roles of teachers in the classroom The role of a controller does not mean that teachers dictate that learners follow their directions Their dictation only works if it is based on their learning care, which is rooted in understanding students’ backgrounds, concerns for students’ thoughts, and respect for students’ contributing ideas Similarly, as an evaluator in the classroom, giving only summative feedback is not enough because students highly appreciate teachers’ contributing feedback on the progress of learning and expect teachers to give them chances to defend their point of view The finding of care as a mediating factor between learner autonomy in out-of-class learning and teachers’ roles in the classroom has given rise to the importance of affective factors in language teaching and learning in the Vietnamese context

Overall, the quantitative and qualitative research results suggested that students’ learner autonomy in the out-of-class context correlated with roles of teachers in the classroom, stressing the roles of a facilitator and a controller Motivation, trust, teachers as role models, and care mediate the correlations between them These findings have reinforced the vital role of teachers in promoting learner autonomy even when teachers are not conducting a direct learner autonomy training activity for their students This conclusion aligned with research stating that conventional classrooms can foster learner autonomy (Chang, 2007; Wang & Ryan, 2020) and further detailed the associations between teachers’ six roles in the classroom: a controller, an instructor, a resource, an evaluator, a co-learner, and a facilitator and learner autonomy Teachers should assume multiple roles in the classroom rather than solely focusing on imparting knowledge to create a learner autonomy fostering environment (Fumin & Li, 2012)

Even though Vietnamese students are gradually more confident in controlling their learning outside the classroom, they still need the support and guidance of teachers The current research stressed the importance of affective factors in learning, making care one of the factors mediating teachers’ roles and learner autonomy, along with motivation, trust, and teachers as role models Students have gradually accepted their prominent role in transitioning from teacher-centeredness to student-centeredness However, they still believed that teachers should be more proactive in supporting autonomous learning practices, assisting with goal setting, and suggesting ideas for resources and self-study (Humphrey & Wyatt, 2013; Smith, 2003) These strong forms of autonomy support could be done right in the classroom with the support and care of teachers That is why the role of a facilitator and a controller of the teachers correlated with their learner autonomy the most They appreciate teachers clarifying the learning outcomes, helping them figure out how to do the tasks, preparing them, and checking if everything is going well as a facilitator They also hope that teachers make the right decisions on what activities to do, the materials for class’s use, the ways of assessment, and how to impart the curriculum to the class Teachers’ decisions should be based on their understanding of students’ concerns so they can balance the dictation of the training programme, the desires of students, and the reality of the classroom These actions form the foundation that allows students to regulate their learning outside the classroom more confidently The control in the classroom can be shifted to students by giving more opportunities for learner involvement in classroom procedures (Wang & Ryan, 2020) Overall, despite the heavy workload and other limitations in the teaching and learning process, such as the large class size and limited teaching resources, teachers can still foster the development of learner autonomy for their students from their actions in the classroom through the support and care they give to students.

Learner autonomy and perceived peers’ roles

5.5.1 Correlations between learner autonomy in out-of-class learning and perceived peers’ roles in the classroom

EFL tertiary students’ learner autonomy also showed statistically significant correlations with the four perceived roles of peers in the classroom, in which the correlations between factors of learner autonomy and the roles of a co-learner and an encourager were found to be the most statistically significant

Group influence and freedom of the situational dimension of learner autonomy correlated the most with the role of an encourager of peers, which stressed the importance of mental encouragement The other roles, the roles of a co-learner, a supporter, and an assessor also correlated with factors in the situational dimension of learner autonomy With the large classroom size as in the Vietnamese context, teachers may not be able to support each student’s learning; therefore, students can switch to their peers as a resort for mental support Once peer collaboration has been well established, their reliance upon teachers may be mitigated, thereby fostering greater self- reliance (Swatevacharkul & Boona, 2021)

For the behavioural dimension, learner autonomy in different learning stages (getting ready, carrying out the plan, monitoring, self-evaluating, and transcending) correlated most with the role of a co-learner Only in the self-evaluation stage the correlation with the encourager role was stronger More specifically, the capacity to control learning behaviours increased when peers could do well in the role of a co-learner This result aligned with previous research about the influence of peer learning on the development of learner autonomy Peer learning helped to raise each other’s learning awareness, provided students with more opportunities for negotiation, and triggered more reflections on learning (Voller, 2005) Carlson et al (2019) confirmed that peer learning gave students more chances to negotiate their identity Reflecting on learning and forming identity are showcases of learner autonomy development The two other roles: the role of a supporter and assessor also correlated with students’ behaviours in different learning stages outside the classroom The findings suggested the importance of training students in different types of collaboration, such as peer tutoring/ cooperation/collaboration (Damon & Phelps, 1989), to ensure students can get better results when learning together

For the psychological dimension, the role of an encourager correlated with a large size with the affective control In addition, the role of a co-learner correlated the most and at a medium size with the students’ mental readiness to learn independently outside the classroom The roles of peers as supporters and assessors also correlated with students’ mental readiness and capacity to control affective factors when learning Mental readiness and affective factors are the most relevant predictors of human behaviour (McAdams & Olson, 2010), and students with more positive attitudes when learning have shown higher academic achievement gains over time (Stipek et al., 2010) Thus, the findings have given rise to the importance of giving more attention to students’ psychological factors such as mental readiness and affective factors control in learning outside the classroom

To conclude, the findings aligned with previous research about the roles of peers in learner autonomy development Peers’ roles as co-learners, encouragers, supporters, and assessors statistically correlated with factors of learner autonomy in out-of-class learning The participants demonstrated a preference for collaborative endeavors and the encouragement proffered by their peers over the quality of their friends’ support and assessment The clarification of these associations shall be further refined through the mediating factors presented in the subsequent section

5.5.2 Mediating factors of correlations between learner autonomy in out-of-class learning and perceived peers’ roles in the classroom

The perceived peers’ roles in the classroom could lead to students triggering or prolonging their learning outside the classroom, the condition for them to develop their learner autonomy Four factors, positive emotions, interdependence, responsibilities, and face value were found to explain how peers’ roles in the classroom have triggered learners’ desire to learn and the capacity to control their learning outside the classroom First, students’ positive emotions from learning with friends made them want to explore more outside the classroom The participants reported that as co-learners, students comfortably learned together and expressed their ideas The feelings of working cooperatively together and not being judged made them continue trying outside the classroom The encouragement from their friends, the instant support they offered, and the constructive, relaxed feedback their friends gave made learning with peers comfortable and engaging It aligned with previous research stating that quality student- student communications lead students to experience positive emotions such as excitement, satisfaction, and relief, which can help them insist on learning to achieve their learning goals (Voller, 2005) Learning with peers can also reduce anxiety and develop a non-judgmental attitude to mistakes (Philp & Mackey, 2010) The findings suggested forming positive student relationships to create productive learning climates in the classroom

Second, when peers worked together in the classroom and played the roles of co- learners, encouragers, assessors, and supporters, the sense of interdependence with peers motivated each of them to learn harder outside the classroom The findings suggested that students experienced goal interdependence, sharing the common goal to achieve the best result for the group The participants also reported their resource interdependence when each student had partial resources such that they could not complete the activity without combining those parts of resources (Johnson et al., 1998) Group members are open to being influenced by each other, and a culture of ‘promotive interaction’ (mutual help and support) should be fostered when students are working together (Palfreyman,

Third, collaborating with peers has given rise to the sense of being responsible, which has made them learn on their own outside the classroom Students would have different responsibilities when collaborating with their peers in the classroom The responsibilities would be assigned explicitly or implicitly among peers in the learning process The students did the role divisions themselves, based on the understanding of their strengths and weaknesses and the commitment they wanted to contribute to the task Once the responsibilities were assigned, students tried hard to fulfill their parts The responsibilities could also come from teachers, such as requiring students to be assessors for their peers’ work in peer assessment Once they have a specific role, students begin to have responsibilities with their learning to fulfill their responsibilities (Shen et al., 2020) In the current study, the participants reported the role divisions when collaborating with their peers and claimed that learning on their own took place because they did not want to be considered as irresponsible people

Finally, face value has triggered learners’ desire to learn outside the classroom Face is a concept derived from the work “On Face-work” by Erving Goffman (1922 – 1982), an American sociologist In his work, the face is regarded as a positive social value approved by society and effectively claimed by individuals In other words, every individual comes into a social situation with an assumption that s/he wants to show a positive side of her/himself in front of other’s eyes (Nguyen, 2015) Face is a core concept in Vietnamese culture (Kim & Cohen, 2010) Vietnamese face is believed to include two aspects: personal face, which expressed as one’s desire to have his/her attributes respected (e.g., want to think and act independently, have a private zone, have the freedom to choose and decide), and social face, which is shown as one’s desire to have others in relationship with him/her respect his/her social values such as age, gender, position in family, social status and personal achievements (Vu, 2002) The Vietnamese concept of face relies heavily on social expectations and public opinions (Pham, 2011) Face value can be a crucial barrier in education for Confucian heritage culture students, challenging the introduction of interactive learning among Vietnamese students and contributing to students’ unwillingness to participate in university classroom activities (Nguyen, 2014) The fear of losing face could keep students from speaking up or reaching out for help when they have difficulties However, the findings suggested that face value was a factor in triggering students’ learning efforts outside the classroom Students wanted to put more effort into keeping their faces with their peers They reported that they did not want their peers to look down on them, so they tried hard to study in the classroom and outside Also, thanks to the desire to keep face, they tried hard to change from someone who only received help to someone who could support other friends

To conclude, four factors were reported to mediate the associations between learner autonomy in out-of-class learning and the four peers’ roles in the classroom: co-learners, encouragers, supporters, and assessors Peer learning, peer encouragement, peer support, and peer assessment brought a comfortable learning atmosphere, the interdependence they felt with one another, the assigned responsibilities for each student

Finalising the research model

Following the discourse on the data collected in this research concerning associations between learner autonomy in out-of-class learning (adapted from Benson

(2011), perceived teachers’ roles (adapted from Arafat (2005) & Koca et al (2021)), and peers’ roles in the classroom (adapted from Dornyei & Murphey (2003)) as well as the factors that mediate these correlations, the research model has been finalised as in Figure 5.1

Adapted from Benson (2011); Arafat (2005); Koca et al (2021); Dửrnyei and Murphey (2003)

In the final model, learner autonomy is defined as the capacity to control the situational, behavioural, and psychological dimension of out-of-class learning From the students’ perceptions, teachers held six roles in the language classroom, including the roles of a controller, an instructor, a facilitator, a co-learner, a resource, and an evaluator Peers held four roles in the classroom, the roles of a co-learner, a supporter, an assessor, and an encourager

The study has validated the positive correlations between learner autonomy in out- of-class learning and perceived teachers’ roles in the classroom The two teachers’ roles in the classroom: controllers and facilitator correlate the most significantly with factors of learn autonomy in out-of-class learning Four factors: motivation, trust, the teacher as a role model, and care mediate these correlations, in which care is the new mediating factor The study has also confirmed the positive correlations between learner autonomy in out-of-class learning and perceived peers’ roles in the classroom The two peers’ roles in the classroom: co-learners and encouragers correlate the most significantly with factors of learner autonomy in out-of-class learning Four factors: positive emotions, responsibilities, interdependence, and face value mediate these correlations, in which face value is the new factor.

Summary

This chapter has discussed the findings of the current research Results from the quantitative and qualitative phases have depicted EFL tertiary learner autonomy in the out-of-class context, how it correlated with perceived teachers’ and peers’ roles in the classroom, and the mediating factors for those correlations Based on the discussions about the study results, the conclusion, and implications to foster learner autonomy from two factors, teachers and peers, will be presented in the next chapter.

CONCLUSION

Summary of main findings

The study focuses on the dynamic nature of learner autonomy This concept is believed to manifest most clearly in out-of-class learning contexts where students have the greatest freedom to control their learning The study focused on EFL tertiary students’ learner autonomy and examined the influence of two intermediary factors, the roles of teachers and peers, based on sociocultural theory and community of practice as the theoretical framework Learner autonomy was investigated in out-of-class learning, whereas the roles of teachers and peers were considered within the classroom setting Therefore, neither teachers nor students engaged in formal training in learner autonomy With the explanatory sequential design, the study collected data from answers to a questionnaire on learner autonomy in out-of-class learning and perceived teachers’ and peers’ roles in the language classroom (Np9) and semi-structured in-depth group interviews (N5) Findings address two main points: the correlations between learner autonomy and perceived teachers’ and peers’ roles and their mediating factors

6.1.1 EFL tertiary students’ learner autonomy in out-of-class learning

EFL tertiary students’ learner autonomy in out-of-class learning is depicted through their capacity to control three dimensions of learning: situational, behavioural, and psychological Overall, the capacity to control factors of learner autonomy was moderate, EFL tertiary students face many challenges when learning outside the classroom

For the situational dimension, even though EFL tertiary students were still under the influence of teachers and the institution they go to, they gradually showed their freedom in making decisions for their learning outside the classroom

Regarding their learning behaviours in five learning stages – getting started, carrying out the plan, monitoring, self-evaluating, and transcending – they reported being able to control them moderately when learning outside the classroom However, they were not confident in identifying learning goals, planning the learning steps, initiating learning, and reflecting on their learning routine Those learning behaviours are important for their autonomous learning in out-of-class learning context

Towards the psychological dimension, it is evident that students exhibited a moderate level of awareness regarding their learning responsibilities and reacted confidently when a problem emerged However, their confidence in solely relying on themselves for their academic pursuits could have been more pronounced Concerning their feelings when learning outside the classroom, they tried to relax when they had negative feelings about learning, but they did not yet have many ways to sustain their enjoyment in learning

To conclude, EFL tertiary students in this study possessed a moderate level of control over their out-of-class learning Nonetheless, they needed assistance making learning- related decisions, receiving autonomous strategy training, and managing psychological aspects influencing their learning process

6.1.2 Correlations between learner autonomy and perceived teachers’ roles and their mediating factors

Factors of learner autonomy in three dimensions of control were found to correlate with the six roles of teachers in the classroom: the roles of a controller, and instructor, a resource, a facilitator, an evaluator, and a co-learner When considering learner autonomy and perceived teachers’ roles in the classroom as two latent variables and perceived teachers’ roles as predictors of learner autonomy, the two latent variables also statistically correlated, especially with the roles of a controller and a facilitator In other words, when teachers fulfilled their roles in the classroom, significantly the roles of a facilitator and a controller, students’ control of their out-of-class learning also increased

The role of a facilitator is well discussed in research about fostering learner autonomy Teachers need to go aside, leave the stage for students to develop, and only offer help when needed It seemed to contradict when the role of a controller associated more significantly with some factors of learner autonomy The qualitative data analysis has explained this contradiction As a controller, teachers do not give the dictation, but help students to have the best conditions for learning Four mediating factors, motivation, trust, role model, and care, expressed the dependence of students on their teachers in the classroom to guide and support them in their out-of-class learning Care from teachers was also considered a new factor that could make students want to learn more It can be because students have been familiar with having strong bonds with teachers when they were at lower levels of training, so they continued to highly value the care that teachers gave them

In short, the research findings showed that even though EFL tertiary students could make decisions for their learning outside the classroom, teachers still played critical roles Teachers, when fulfilling their roles with care in the classroom, would have a good influence on students’ learner autonomy in out-of-class learning

6.1.3 Correlations between learner autonomy and perceived peers’ roles and their mediating factors

Factors of learner autonomy in three dimensions were also found to correlate positively with various roles of peers in the classroom, especially with the roles of a co- learner and an encourager Considering learner autonomy and perceived peers’ roles in the classroom as latent variables and perceived peers’ roles as predictors of learner autonomy, the two latent variables were also statistically correlated When peers fulfilled their roles in the classroom, especially the roles of co-learners and encouragers, students’ capacity to control their learning outside the classroom also increased The four mediating factors, positive emotions, interdependence, responsibilities, and face value showed that students highly evaluated peers’ companionship in learning and their encouragement for each other They also tried hard to keep their face value in learning These findings showcased the importance of training students for peer learning, peer encouragement, peer support, and peer assessment

From the summary of the current research, this chapter deliberates upon the specific theoretical and pedagogical contributions that this study has made to the understanding of learner autonomy the local context.

Contributions of the study

This study, aiming to examinationine the correlations of learner autonomy in the out-of-class learning contexts with the perceived roles that teachers and peers play in the classroom and the factors mediating the correlations, has generated good references for the field

First, the definition of learner autonomy in the out-of-class learning context proposed in the dissertation helped fully depict the construct of learner autonomy in out-of-class learning Based on Benson (2011)’s three dimensions of control: learning situations, learning behaviour, and psychology of learning, the current research defined learner autonomy as the capacity to take control of three dimensions: situational, behavioural, and psychological These control dimensions reflect students’ capacity to control their out-of-class learning context

Second, the study used quantitative and qualitative data to establish an association between students’ learner autonomy in the out-of-class learning context and two important variables, namely teachers’ and peers’ roles in the classroom These associations are regularly proposed, but statistically solid evidence has not been confirmed To be specific, the study has collected empirical data to confirm that the situational, behavioural, and psychological dimensions of students’ learner autonomy in out-of-class learning positively correlated with six roles of teachers in the classroom: the roles of a controller, an instructor, a facilitator, aco-learner, a resource, and an evaluator The roles of a controller and a facilitator correlated slightly more significantly with factors of learner autonomy than other roles Four factors: motivation, trust, role model, and care mediate these associations, in which care was the emerging factor The study also provides statistical evidence for the correlations between learner autonomy and perceived peers’ roles in the classroom Learner autonomy in out-of-class learning correlated positively with four roles of peers in the classroom: the roles of a co-learner, an encourager, an assessor, and a supporter The roles of a co-learner and an encourager correlated slightly more significantly with factors of learner autonomy than other roles Four factors: positive emotions, interdependence, responsibilities, and face value mediate these associations, in which face value was the emerging factor

Finally, the statistically established associations between learner autonomy in out-of- class learning and teachers’ and peers’ roles in the classroom, as well as their mediating factors, have proven that in-class learning connects well with out-of-class learning, and these two contexts should be intertwined for learner autonomy development

The conclusions drawn from EFL tertiary students’ learner autonomy in the out- of-class learning context and how it could be promoted by the roles of teachers and peers in the classroom can have significant pedagogical implications for policymakers, institutions, teachers, and learners themselves to help students improve their learner autonomy in the out-of-class context

Due to the important role of learner autonomy, there should be more explicit regulations and detailed guidance from policy makers on fostering it officially in the classroom Even though learner autonomy has been stated as an attribute that students need at all levels of education in Vietnam, regulations regarding the proportion of learner autonomy in the training outcomes or the amount of time spent on learner autonomy training have yet to be clearly discussed Without specific regulations, learner autonomy support activities at the institutional and classroom level may not receive adequate attention and cannot become classroom practice Secondly, the process of formulating learner autonomy – promoting regulations should engage key stakeholders, including institutions, teachers, and especially students themselves Moreover, promoting learner autonomy should intertwine with giving more credit for out-of-class learning because out-of-class learning is the critical condition for learner autonomy development Then, the regulations must go hand in hand with curriculum development and teacher training so that institutions can support teachers in implementing autonomy- support teaching in the classroom

Learner autonomy can stem from the institutional environment that surrounds the place where real learning takes place (Aoki, 2001); therefore, institutions can give supportive conditions for learner autonomy development Although the institutions follow the training programmes approved by MoET, they have their ways of supporting students’ independent learning The institutions can provide learning spaces, form communities of practice, and organise extracurricular activities to promote learner autonomy

First, learners need a comfortable and practical space to study independently It can be an airy physical space such as a self-access centre with materials and facilities or a self-study area with tables and chairs to take out their materials and study It can be a social learning space, such as an English-speaking corner or an English Café, where students gather for social activities and study It can be a virtual learning space such as the school’s Learning Management System, which students can access anywhere, anytime and at their own pace The availability of these learning spaces outside the classrooms can motivate students to initiate their self-learning and learn effectively Second, communities of practice should be supported to provide students with a platform to pursue their interests further English-speaking clubs are usually organized, and students involved in these clubs’ activities belong to a community of practice Apart from English-speaking clubs, other communities of practice could be formed, such as photography, book reading, cooking, Korean dramas, video games, and sports clubs Students could do what they are interested in and practice their English at the same time Online communities of practice could also support students’ learning despite the space and time barriers

Third, learners need opportunities to interact with English and practice their autonomy in learning Extracurricular activities such as book fairs, film days, speech contests, talk shows, and seminars and more can benefit students These activities could help students find their interests English is a vast subject, and some students need help figuring out what they want to do with it Talk shows with specialists on learning strategies and seminars on how to become autonomous learners hosted by successful alumni can help students raise awareness of the importance of autonomous learning and know about different learning strategies they can try for their learning

In short, it is proven that institutions significantly influence learner autonomy development; therefore, institutions should create as many opportunities as possible for students to exercise their freedom in learning Learning spaces, communities, and extracurricular activities provided by the institutions must be tailored, planned, and maintained carefully with teachers’ or experienced organisers’ involvement to benefit learners

6.2.2.3.1 Teacher autonomy support in the classroom

Teachers can provide support for learner autonomy development right from the classroom practices Fostering autonomy does not imply any approach to practice; any practice that encourages and enables learners to take greater control of any aspect of their learning can be considered a means of promoting autonomy (Benson, 2008) Little’s (2004) two of three basic pedagogical principles for the development of learner autonomy in language learning: learner involvement (engaging learners to share responsibility for the learning process) and learner reflection (helping learners to think critically when they plan, monitor, and evaluate their learning) should be applied in classroom daily routines along with the attention to the affective factors Teachers can take four specific actions to strengthen the associations between their in-class roles and students’ learner autonomy in out-of-class learning:

First, to involve learners is to give them choices and voices Even though teachers are no longer dictators in the classroom, they can help students have the motivation to initiate and sustain their learning outside the classroom through their in-class requirements In making decisions on class requirements, teachers can involve learners and give them choices about as many aspects of learning as possible, such as the choices for supplementary materials, classroom activities, bonus-giving schemes, partner/teammates selections, and presentation formats The choices should involve the students’ contributions When students can have choices and be able to discuss them, they have voices or positions of genuine authority They feel that they become the controller of their learning, so learning becomes relevant to them, and they will be motivated to learn

Second, teachers need to support students in reflecting on their learning Reflection is a higher-order cognitive skill in higher education, which entails carefully considering the actions, experiences, intent, motivations, contexts, and implications of one’s practice and others (Guo, 2022) However, students are unfamiliar with reflection because the time for it in the classroom is usually condensed into the wrap-up and evaluation of teachers Thus, teachers should give time and activities for students to practice reflection on their learning A similar concern is given for making learning goals, planning the learning steps, and other autonomous learning strategies with which learners still have problems Once teachers give students more chances to practice these strategies in the classroom and scaffold them step by step, they can be more competent to apply them in their learning outside the classroom

Third, teachers can maximise opportunities for students to exercise their control in learning outside the classroom through applying modern teaching methods, such as flipped classroom model and project-based learning in their in-class teaching The effectiveness of these teaching methods requires teachers’ time and effort in careful planning, thorough implementation, and rigorous assessment

Fourth, teachers must pay more attention to affective factors in the teaching process The care teachers give students during class time can maximise the trust and admiration students have for them and help them try harder outside the classroom Students appreciate teachers’ use of technology to reach out for students’ learning, both inside and outside the classroom

Limitations

Although the current study was carefully designed, there are still unavoidable limitations

First, the survey items employed in the study were basically developed from studies in contexts other than Vietnam Some were developed in Japan, while others were conducted in Western education Then, the items were translated into Vietnamese Being aware that the instrument origins can be critical for investigations of such a socially mediated construct as learner autonomy and specific issues can arise when doing the translation, the study has gone through many steps to maximise the validity and reliability of the instrument

Second, the study restricted itself to students from EFL tertiary students in three institutions in Ho Chi Minh City and did not consider students from different areas of Vietnam Therefore, collecting data from different parts of Vietnam may help obtain a fuller picture of learner autonomy in out-of-class learning in Vietnam

Third, the study of learner autonomy is conducted from the students’ perspective only, not from the perspectives of other stakeholders in the learning process, even though all stakeholders have a role to play in fostering learner autonomy The study does not aim to investigate issues from the school management board and policy – making authorities, so they are not involved in the study Instead of looking at perspectives from students and teachers, the study lays more importance on how students perceive their learning outside the classroom and how they think about their teachers’ roles, not how well their teachers are doing them.