General context of the study
Vietnam, a developing nation with a rich history of fighting for independence, has seen the influence of various foreign languages in its education system This article explores the significance of English in Vietnamese society, focusing on its teaching and learning processes at the tertiary level, as well as the challenges faced by both educators and students Understanding these dynamics provides essential context for the study.
1.1.1 The history of English teaching and learning in Vietnam
Throughout its history, the foreign languages taught in Vietnam have mirrored the country's socio-political and economic contexts Since the initiation of the Doi Moi (Renovation) economic reforms in 1986, English has gained significant prominence The evolution of English language teaching in Vietnam can be categorized into four key periods: before 1954, from 1954 to 1975, from 1975 to 1986, and from 1986 to the present.
During the early periods of foreign language education in Vietnam, Mandarin Chinese emerged as the first foreign language due to Chinese occupation Subsequently, French became the dominant foreign language taught in schools during the six decades of French colonial rule from 1884 to 1945 Additionally, English was introduced as a minor foreign language during this time (Hoang, 2020a).
Following the end of French colonization, Vietnam was divided from 1954 to 1975 into North and South, each aligning with different superpowers: the Soviet Union supported North Vietnam, while the United States emerged as the main foreign influence in South Vietnam This geopolitical division influenced language education, leading to the inclusion of Russian and English in schools alongside Chinese and French The North prioritized Russian and Chinese language studies, whereas the South focused on English and French in secondary and post-secondary education (Hoang, 2010).
After the end of the Vietnam War and the independence of the country from 1975 to
In 1986, Russian was the predominant foreign language in Vietnam, overshadowing others like Chinese, French, and especially English (Hoang, 2020a) However, with the launch of the Doi Moi (Renovation) economic reforms, Vietnam embraced an open-door policy that significantly boosted the teaching and learning of English, establishing it as a vital tool for international communication This shift coincided with Vietnam's membership in various global organizations, including the United Nations in 1977, ASEAN in 1995, APEC in 1998, WTO in 2007, and the TPP in 2015 Notably, in 2009, ASEAN designated English as its sole working language, further solidifying its importance in the region.
The economic renovation has significantly enhanced English proficiency, making it a vital component of the global economy and transforming language skills into economic capital (Holec, 1981) This shift positions English not merely as a language skill but as a strategic asset essential for active participation in the global marketplace (Singh et al.).
Enhancing citizens' English proficiency is essential for economic advancement, elevated status, and transnational mobility in Vietnam Consequently, English has become a widespread aspiration and is integral to the nation's economic development, modernization, and global integration Since the Doi Moi reforms in 1986, English has emerged as the dominant foreign language in the Vietnamese education system, significantly shaping the country's educational landscape and international engagements.
1.1.2 The vital role of English in Vietnamese context
Proficiency in English has become essential for securing high-paying jobs in Vietnam and accessing prestigious global educational institutions A skilled workforce with strong English abilities is crucial for the country's economic growth amid industrialization and globalization Recognizing its significance, various legal documents from the Ministry of Education and Training (MoET) emphasize the need to enhance students' English proficiency According to the Vietnamese Government's Education Strategies document (2005), English competency is identified as a vital attribute for Vietnamese students.
The Vietnamese Education Law mandates that foreign languages taught within the national education system be "widely used in international communication" (Vietnamese National Assembly, 2005) The National Foreign Language Project, approved in 2008 with a budget of $450 million, emphasizes the importance of English in the government's educational strategies (Vietnamese Government, 2008) This initiative designates English as the primary foreign language across all educational levels in Vietnam, ensuring that students achieve proficiency necessary for effective communication and employment in a global context (Vietnamese Government, 2008).
In 2013, English held a unique position as a foreign language in Vietnam, ranking second only to Vietnamese in terms of importance and training outcomes Its crucial role is evident in the prominent place English occupies in the educational journey of students across the country.
In Vietnam, the trend of learning English begins at an increasingly young age, with children often introduced to the language during preschool, typically between three to five years old, based on parental preferences In affluent urban areas, English is offered as an optional subject in some kindergartens Following preschool, children transition to primary school from ages six to eleven, where a new curriculum introduced by the Ministry of Education and Training (MoET) on December 26, 2018, mandates two English lessons per week for Grades 1 and 2 The education system further divides secondary education into lower and higher levels, with lower secondary lasting four years and higher secondary three years The General School Education Curriculum (GSEC) has made English a compulsory subject for seven years, encompassing lower and upper secondary education, with a total of 700 periods, significantly increasing the focus on English compared to previous decades.
In Vietnam, English is mandated to be taught four times a week at the primary level and three times weekly at both the lower and upper secondary levels, comprising over 10% of the total curriculum time (Hoang, 2020a; MoET, 2018a, 2018b) Additionally, English is one of the three compulsory subjects, alongside Mathematics and Vietnamese, that upper-secondary students must pass to obtain their graduation certificate, which is essential for advancing to higher education in colleges and universities.
The allocation of resources to enhance English proficiency among students highlights the critical importance of the language in Vietnam Despite this, the English teaching sector has struggled to perform effectively over the past few decades, resulting in students often falling short of the language proficiency needed for graduation and to meet workplace standards.
2017) The challenges that the English training process faces are the factors that contribute to the limitation of the teaching quality
1.1.3 The challenges of English training in Vietnamese context
The challenges of the language training process come from the characteristics of the Vietnamese education system, its teaching conditions, and its learners
The educational system in Vietnam faces significant challenges due to its high level of centralism, as highlighted by Hoang (2020a) The Ministry of Education and Training (MoET) controls curriculum design, development, and assessment, enforcing a uniform approach to curricular changes that teachers must strictly adhere to in their classrooms While this method aims for consensus in teaching, it often results in an emphasis on coursebook content over addressing the unique needs of students and their ability to use English in real-life situations (Ton & Pham, 2010).
The second challenge stems from the test-oriented nature of the education system, which, despite the Ministry of Education and Training's emphasis on practical communication skills, does not align with the crucial exams Consequently, classroom training prioritizes reading comprehension, vocabulary, and structural patterns to prepare students for these assessments Although teacher training programs have been revised to encourage communicative teaching methods, the actual classroom environment fails to provide sufficient opportunities for enhancing students' communicative competence.
Rationale of the research
This research aims to investigate EFL tertiary students' learner autonomy in out-of-class learning, focusing on three key reasons: the historical context of English training, its significance in society, and the challenges faced in English education.
Investigating EFL tertiary students' learner autonomy is crucial, as it can significantly enhance their learning experience By fostering learner autonomy, we can effectively address the disparity between the practical demands of English in professional environments and the English instruction provided at Vietnamese universities (Tran & Marginson, 2018; Nguyen).
Despite substantial investments in English training at the tertiary level, graduates face increasing criticism from employers, impacting their career advancement opportunities English majors are particularly affected, often delaying graduation and career prospects due to inadequate language skills Research indicates that learner autonomy significantly enhances English proficiency and writing skills, and it is a fundamental aspect of lifelong learning, the ultimate goal of education However, studies reveal that while tertiary educators and learners may be psychologically prepared for autonomy, they often lack the necessary behavioral readiness Specifically, Vietnamese EFL students exhibit reactive learner autonomy, which requires external stimulation from teachers Therefore, further research on EFL tertiary students' learner autonomy is essential for better-targeted scaffolding strategies.
EFL tertiary students' autonomy in out-of-class learning contexts is often overlooked, despite its importance for independent learning Self-access centers provide essential resources for learners to engage in autonomous study (Morrison, 2008) Additionally, social learning spaces facilitate collaboration and socialization among students (Murray, 2014) With technological advancements, out-of-class learning opportunities are expanding, as most adult learning occurs outside traditional settings Vietnamese students have reported that their learning experiences extend beyond the classroom (Le, 2019) However, the significance of out-of-class learning contexts remains insufficiently addressed (Lai et al.).
Research on learner autonomy among Vietnamese EFL tertiary students in out-of-class contexts is limited and fragmented, highlighting a significant gap in understanding their independent learning behaviors This underscores the urgent need for focused studies to explore and enhance learner autonomy in this specific educational setting.
Understanding learner autonomy involves examining the roles of teachers and peers in both in-class and out-of-class settings As a social construct, learner autonomy is shaped through interactions with these external factors Research conducted in Vietnam highlights the significance of teachers' interventions, such as strategy training and mentoring, in fostering learner autonomy among students.
2013), portfolio writing (Duong, 2015), or online learning platforms designing (Nguyen,
Promoting learner autonomy in Vietnam's classrooms is challenging due to the prevalence of prescriptive exams and traditional teaching methods that limit opportunities for autonomous learning (Roe & Perkins, 2020) Peer assessment can enhance student independence (Phan, 2015), but effective strategies to foster autonomy within routine in-class activities are essential Research indicates that while opportunities for promoting autonomy exist, they are often subtle (Wang & Ryan, 2020) Further investigation is needed to explore the relationship between learner autonomy in out-of-class settings and the roles of teachers and peers in the classroom, as this understanding could illuminate the factors influencing learner autonomy and help bridge the gap between in-class and out-of-class learning.
Research aims, objectives and research questions
The research aims to contribute to understanding EFL tertiary students’ learner autonomy in the out-of-class learning context and its mediating factors
This research aims to explore the connections between English as a Foreign Language (EFL) tertiary students' learner autonomy in out-of-class learning and their perceptions of teachers' and peers' roles in the classroom Additionally, it seeks to elucidate these correlations by examining various mediating factors To achieve these objectives, the study is guided by four key research questions.
1 To what extent does EFL tertiary students’ learner autonomy in out-of-class learning correlate with their perceived teachers’ roles in the classroom?
2 To what extent does EFL tertiary students’ learner autonomy in out-of-class learning correlate with their perceived peers’ roles in the classroom?
3 What factors mediate the correlations between EFL tertiary students’ learner autonomy in out-of-class learning and their perceived teachers’ roles in the classroom?
Significance of the research
Current research provides valuable insights into learner autonomy in out-of-class learning from the perspectives of local students While learner autonomy is considered a key educational outcome at all levels in Vietnam, it remains an evolving concept for both learners and stakeholders This understanding is essential for fostering learner autonomy in the EFL (English as a Foreign Language) learning environment.
The research offers empirical evidence linking students' learner autonomy in out-of-class learning with the perceived roles of teachers and peers in the classroom It identifies mediating factors that clarify the relationship between learner autonomy and the influence of teachers and peers Additionally, the findings emphasize the importance of integrating in-class and out-of-class learning environments to foster the development of learner autonomy.
Understanding EFL students' learner autonomy in out-of-class learning is crucial for enhancing educational outcomes By recognizing the supportive roles of teachers and peers, stakeholders can implement strategies that promote learner independence These insights provide valuable implications for policymakers, educational institutions, teachers, and students, ultimately fostering the development of learner autonomy and contributing to the success of out-of-class learning initiatives.
Scope of the research
This research investigates the learner autonomy of EFL students in out-of-class learning environments, highlighting the relationships and perceived roles of teachers and peers within the classroom setting It specifically excludes the examination of learner autonomy in various learning contexts, such as traditional classroom settings.
This study focuses on three institutions in Ho Chi Minh City, Vietnam, analyzing the perceptions of 709 English majors and gathering insights from thirty-five participants through surveys and interviews The research is geographically confined to Ho Chi Minh City, which limits the overall scope of the findings.
Ho Chi Minh City, Vietnam, and more specifically to institutions offering English major programs
The research conducted in 2022 highlights the competencies of language major students during that specific timeframe However, it is important to note that perceptions can evolve, which may limit the applicability of these findings to other periods.
Definition of key terms
This part provides the definitions of key constructs in the study:
Learner autonomy is a learner’s capacity to take charge of learning outside the classroom in three dimensions: situational, behavioural, and psychological
Out-of-class learning is the informal, self-instructed, independent learning that takes place outside the four walls of the formal classroom of a learner
Perceived teachers’ roles are how students understand or interpret different patterns of the behaviours that their teachers have in the classroom
Perceived peers’ roles are how students understand or interpret different patterns of their peers’ behaviours in the classroom.
Thesis organisation
This thesis is organized into six chapters
Chapter 1 is the introduction of the thesis It first provides an overview of English’s vital role in society and the training system It then shifts the focus to English teaching and learning challenges, especially in Vietnamese higher education Following this, the chapter uses these contextual descriptions to link the context with learner autonomy, one of the objectives set in the higher education reform agenda After presenting the research rationale, it formulates the research objectives and questions Finally, the significance, scope of the study, definitions of key terms, and the dissertation organization are presented
Chapter 2 includes a literature review of learner autonomy, perceptions of teachers’ roles, and perceptions of peers’ roles in language teaching and learning Learner autonomy’s conceptions and models are discussed to finalize the operational definition of learner autonomy It then continues with the importance of learner autonomy, its degrees, factors influencing learner autonomy development, and approaches to fostering learner autonomy It ends with learner autonomy in the out-of-class context, the focus of the research Next, it documents and analyses the students’ perceptions of the roles of teachers and peers in the classroom Finally, the chapter presents the conceptual framework to express the relationship between learner autonomy and the perceived teachers’ and peers’ roles It then concludes with the conceptual framework of the research
Chapter 3 describes the methodology of the investigation It first develops a research perspective consistent with the conceptual framework proposed in Chapter 2 It then argues for employing mixed methods to align with the research perspective and generate necessary data for the investigation A set of procedures for implementing these phases is also reported together with the data integration method Accordingly, the researcher describes the participants, objectives, instrument design, data collection procedures, data analysis, and issues of reliability and validity of each method The chapter finishes with ethical considerations
Chapter 4 reports the findings of the quantitative and qualitative research conducted in the current investigation Quantitative data generated from the questionnaire answers the first two research questions Qualitative data from the semi-structured group interviews answers the last two research questions The chapter finishes with a general description of learner autonomy in the study context by integrating the results from both studies
Chapter 5 discusses the findings from integrating different data sets about EFL tertiary students’ learner autonomy and its correlation with perceived teachers’ and peers’ roles in the classroom
Chapter 6 includes the conclusion and implications of the investigation It starts with a research summary, highlighting significant results and critical analyses The chapter continues with pedagogical implications to promote learner autonomy in EFL education in the local and regional contexts It then addresses the study’s limitations, considers the possibility of generalizing the study findings, and puts forward directions for further research.
Chapter overview
This chapter outlines the study context and the rationale behind the research, detailing the objectives and research questions It highlights the significance and scope of the study, ultimately concluding with definitions of key terms and an overview of the dissertation's organization, which comprises six chapters.
This chapter examines the literature on learner autonomy in out-of-class learning, focusing on the perceived roles of teachers and peers within the classroom Theoretical frameworks are presented to explore the relationship between learner autonomy and the roles of educators and classmates A review of prior research highlights existing gaps, leading to the establishment of the study's conceptual framework.
Learner autonomy
2.1.1.1 General conceptions of learner autonomy in language teaching
Learner autonomy has been a central focus in educational practices and research for over forty years, originating from the Greek term "auto-nomos," meaning "self-rule." This concept emphasizes the individual's ability to establish their own rules, a notion further developed by Plato, who defined autonomy as personal independence and freedom In education, autonomy is categorized into school autonomy, teacher autonomy, and learner autonomy, with the latter highlighting the importance of students' learning attributes.
Learner autonomy in foreign and second language acquisition is acknowledged as a complex and multifaceted construct, as noted by researchers such as Little (2003), Paiva & Braga (2008), and Smith & Ushioda (2009) Holec, regarded as the pioneer of language learner autonomy, defines it as "the ability to take charge of one’s learning" (Holec, 1981, p.3).
An autonomous learner actively identifies their learning goals, outlines the necessary content and progression, chooses appropriate methods and techniques, monitors their learning process regarding pace, timing, and location, and evaluates their acquired knowledge (Holec).
1981, p.3) The control ability is also expressed through how learners would make decision regardings “setting goals, choosing materials and tasks, planning practice opportunities, monitoring, and evaluating progress” (Cotteral, 1995, p.5) The term
“ability” could be replaced by different terms such as “skill” (Littlewood, 1999) or
Learner autonomy, often referred to as "ability," encompasses the skills and techniques necessary for individuals to take control of their learning process According to Le (2019), this concept involves setting personal goals, planning independent activities beyond the classroom, effectively managing time, materials, and resources, as well as engaging in self-assessment.
Learner autonomy has evolved from being seen merely as the ability to make decisions about the learning process to a more comprehensive understanding that includes cognitive dimensions and individual willingness According to Benson (2001), this shift highlights the importance of a learner's capacity for detachment, critical reflection, decision-making, and independent action, as articulated by Little (1991) Furthermore, Wenden (1991) emphasized that learner autonomy encompasses students' attitudes and self-awareness, particularly in how they reflect on and evaluate the effectiveness of their learning strategies.
Benson (2001) refined Holec’s definition of learner autonomy by replacing "ability" and "take charge" with "capacity" and "control," defining it as “the capacity to take control of one’s learning” (p.47) This revised concept emphasizes not only learners' abilities but also their desire and the freedom necessary for autonomous learning He argues that learners will self-direct their learning when they possess the desire and are free from material, social, and psychological constraints Additionally, Benson (2006) and other proponents of learning autonomy assert that freedom is crucial for developing autonomy, suggesting that educational environments must foster this freedom for autonomy to thrive.
The concept of "capacity," encompassing "ability, desire, and freedom," serves as a key framework for understanding learner autonomy, where individuals take charge of their own learning Researchers have developed distinct definitions of learner autonomy tailored to specific research contexts For instance, Nguyen (2018) characterizes learner autonomy in English learning as a combination of learning strategies, motivation, and attitudes, aligning with the elements of ability, desire, and freedom Similarly, Nguyen and Habók (2019) define learner autonomy as a multifaceted construct that includes the roles of teachers, motivation, metacognitive knowledge, metacognitive skills, the desire to learn English, and the freedom to pursue that learning.
Over the past forty years, the concept of learner autonomy has significantly evolved, highlighting its complexity and the diverse learning contexts For this study, Benson's definition—learner autonomy as the capacity to take control of one's own learning—proves particularly relevant This definition aligns with out-of-class learning, where learners must be prepared to manage their educational journeys independently A deeper understanding of learner autonomy can be achieved by exploring specific models that outline the various domains in which learners can exercise control, offering a more detailed framework for analysis.
Learner autonomy can be understood through Littlewood’s three-aspect model, which encompasses language acquisition, learning approach, and personal development In terms of language acquisition, it refers to the ability to independently use the language for effective communication in unpredictable situations Classroom organization highlights the importance of learners taking responsibility for their education and employing relevant strategies Ultimately, learner autonomy aims for a broader goal of personal independence, reflecting a higher-level aspiration for individuals to become more autonomous in their overall lives (Littlewood, 1997).
Macaro's (1997) second model of autonomy in language learning encompasses three key dimensions: language competence autonomy, language learning competence autonomy, and autonomy in choice and action The first dimension highlights the importance of communicative ability acquired through mastering second language rules The second dimension focuses on the ability to apply and transfer language skills to various contexts Lastly, the third dimension emphasizes the learner's capacity to make informed decisions regarding learning options, including setting short- and long-term goals, selecting preferred learning strategies, and engaging in higher-order thinking skills, such as writing argumentative essays and providing justifications in the target language.
Benson (2001) identifies three key dimensions that define an autonomous learner's capacity: learning management, cognitive processes, and learning content Learning management refers to a student's ability to regulate their study behaviors through effective skills and strategies Cognitive processes involve the internal mental capacities, attitudes, and readiness that empower learners to take responsibility for their education Additionally, control over learning content signifies a learner's ability to influence their learning situations Enhancing control in one dimension can positively impact the others; for instance, effective management of learning content fosters positive attitudes and suitable learning strategies Furthermore, increased cognitive awareness enhances control over learning management Ding and Shen (2022) subsequently redefined these dimensions as situational, behavioral, and psychological dimensions.
The three models of learner autonomy focus on various dimensions of self-directed learning The initial two models highlight the learner's control over specific language skills and the language learning process, ultimately fostering autonomy in both educational and daily contexts In contrast, Benson's model offers a broader perspective on learner independence.
Ding & Shen's (2022) framework identifies three dimensions of control—situational, behavioral, and psychological—that provide a comprehensive perspective on learners' ability to manage their out-of-class learning experiences This model effectively captures the complex nature of learner autonomy by addressing the control over the learning environment, the actions taken during learning, and the mental processes involved Its applicability to various aspects of out-of-class learning makes it the ideal choice for this research, which will further elaborate on these three dimensions of control.
The situational dimension emphasizes the importance of learners' ability to manage their own learning environments According to Dickinson (1979), this control means that learners are accountable for all decisions related to their education and how those decisions are executed Benson (2001) further asserts that learners should have the freedom to choose their learning content, highlighting the role of autonomy in the learning process.
To achieve genuine self-directed learning, learners must have the freedom to set their own goals and purposes, even within the constraints of existing curricula (Ding & Shen, 2022) This situational dimension emphasizes the empowerment of learners by granting them control over their learning content, allowing them to choose materials that align with their interests and needs Control over the learning environment can be understood through the concepts of group autonomy and individual autonomy Group autonomy reflects learners' perceptions of authority figures, such as teachers, parents, and government policies, while individual autonomy pertains to learners' ability to dictate their own learning objectives and content in English (Murase, 2015).
Perceived teachers’ roles in the language classroom
Perception involves the interpretation of objects and events, which activate physical energy that influences our sense receptors These receptors generate nerve impulses that are sent to the brain, ultimately shaping our perceptions In essence, perception is an individual's unique view or understanding of their surroundings (Chambers, 1979).
Perception serves as the critical interface between our external environment and internal understanding, as defined by social cognition (2009, p.2) McShane and Von Glinow (2010, p.68) emphasize that perception involves receiving and interpreting information about the world around us Consequently, students’ perceptions reflect their interpretations and understanding of their surrounding environment.
Role theory, which dates back to before 1900, gained prominence in the 1930s, with Banton (1996) defining a role as the expected behavior linked to a social position The Encyclopedia Britannica describes a role as a status within a situation, organization, or relationship, characterized by a consistent pattern of behavior Each role encompasses familiar behavioral patterns for those occupying it, while "role performance" refers to the behaviors exhibited by individuals in designated social functions (Beezer, 1974) Dửrnyei and Murphey (2003) highlight that teachers' roles in language education reflect shared expectations of their responsibilities in learning environments, while Richard and Rodgers (2014) emphasize the importance of teachers in executing teaching tasks and fostering social relationships among students Ultimately, students' perceptions of teachers' roles in the classroom shape their understanding of the various behavioral patterns exhibited by their educators.
Teachers play a crucial role in the classroom, significantly influencing the teaching and learning process Their teaching methods can greatly impact student motivation; ineffective methods may lead to disengagement (Takase et al., 2019) Additionally, a teacher's personality affects the teacher-student relationship, with approachable and enthusiastic teachers fostering a more conducive learning environment (Harmer, 2015) In language classrooms, teachers fulfill various roles, including leadership, tutoring, and counseling (Eka, 2014) Research identifies seven key roles for teachers: controller, instructor, facilitator, resource, co-learner, evaluator, and explorer Harmer (2001) elaborates on these roles, highlighting the tutor's function in imparting new knowledge and skills, akin to that of an instructor The facilitator's roles of observer and organizer ensure that students are prepared for tasks and that those tasks proceed smoothly Furthermore, the participant and prompter roles reflect the co-learner aspect, where teachers engage with students' ideas and support their use of English.
In Arafat’s (2005) scale, various educational roles are redefined, where the tutor aligns with the instructor, the prompter merges with the co-learner, the organizer is integrated into the facilitator, and the investigator takes on the role of an explorer Similarly, Koca et al (2021) condense roles further, with the controller representing a manager and leader, the instructor denoting a scholar, the resource acting as an information provider and coach, the facilitator serving as both a facilitator and mentor, the co-learner embodying a role model and teacher practitioner, the evaluator functioning as an assessor and diagnostician, and the explorer symbolizing a researcher.
The seven teachers' roles identified in this research effectively illustrate how educators facilitate teaching and learning while fostering social and interpersonal relationships among students A detailed matrix of these roles, as explored in various studies, is provided in Table 2.1.
Table 2 1 Roles of teachers in the language classroom
Controller Instructor Resource Facilitator Co-learner Evaluator Explorer Harmer
Controller Tutor Resource Organizer Co-learner
Manager x x Facilitator Co-learner Evaluator x
Traditionally, teachers have been viewed as authoritative figures in the classroom, a perception rooted in Confucianism, where they are seen as sages imparting knowledge to their students This dynamic is exemplified by the Grammar-Translation Method (GTM), which positions teachers as the sole source of learning materials and knowledge, leading to a one-sided interaction where students primarily receive information Similarly, the Audio-Lingual Method (ALM) reinforces this teacher-centered approach, with educators directing and controlling students' language behavior.
In contemporary educational settings, despite the increased accessibility of learning materials, teachers continue to play a crucial role as controllers in the classroom This role positions teachers as the central focus, responsible for directing all classroom activities (Harmer, 2001) According to Arafat (2005), a teacher's controlling actions include managing student participation, motivating and inspiring learners, providing comprehensible input, and correcting mistakes Additionally, Harden and Lilley (2018) and Koca et al (2021) emphasize the importance of teachers as managers and leaders, highlighting their involvement in decision-making, curriculum management, and facilitating change while addressing challenges.
In the current study, it is emphasized that teachers serve as the primary controllers of the classroom, exerting significant influence over various elements such as curriculum delivery, choice of activities, selection of materials, and assessment methods Additionally, effective classroom management requires teachers to engage students and sustain a positive learning environment.
When teachers maintain complete control over the classroom, students often become passive participants, merely following instructions instead of engaging in active learning This dominance can hinder student initiative and creativity, prompting the need for teachers to adopt alternative roles that encourage a more interactive and empowering educational environment.
Teachers play a crucial role in the classroom by imparting knowledge through various teaching methods For instance, in the Grammar-Translation Method (GTM), the focus is on comprehension and translation, while the Direct Method (DM) emphasizes direct association of meaning with the target language, utilizing realia, pictures, and gestures without resorting to the students' native language Regardless of the method employed, effective knowledge transfer is essential, as it can either motivate or demotivate students in their learning journey To engage students, teachers must explore innovative approaches and exciting activities, ensuring their teaching methods are up-to-date for effective lesson organization.
Instructors also teach learning strategies and methods to develop students’ skills (Xu
Many students often rely on a limited set of study methods that may not align with their individual personalities or skills due to a lack of awareness of other options To address this, teachers play a crucial role in introducing diverse language learning strategies that students may not have previously explored By sharing both knowledge and effective study techniques, educators empower students to enhance their learning capabilities This process is expedited when teachers are attuned to their students' needs and are willing to adapt their teaching methods to meet students' expectations.
Recent studies indicate that effective instructors not only deliver knowledge effectively but also create engaging lessons and appropriate activities They actively listen to students' feedback during the teaching process, allowing for necessary adjustments to enhance understanding In addition to knowledge transfer, teachers play a crucial role in equipping students with essential learning skills to support their educational development.
Besides being an instructor, teachers also act as facilitators to help students think about what they need to learn and work through problems and ideas
The shift towards student-centered learning, influenced by Communicative Language Teaching (CLT), emphasizes the role of teachers as facilitators rather than controllers in the classroom In this capacity, teachers create communicative activities that encourage extensive interaction among students through pair and group work (Larsen-Freeman & Anderson, 2013) This approach fosters a supportive environment where students feel valued and empowered to explore their own learning (Archana & Rani, 2017) To cultivate an effective learning atmosphere, teachers must reflect students' societal, intellectual, and linguistic experiences, providing a strong foundation for personal growth When appropriate learning opportunities arise, teachers can offer minimal guidance to help students initiate and navigate tasks As facilitators, teachers focus on clarifying learning outcomes, identifying suitable learning opportunities, enhancing learning efficiency, and motivating students while also serving as mentors (Koca et al., 2021).
Current research highlights that a facilitator's primary role is to establish optimal conditions for effective classroom learning This involves teachers identifying suitable learning opportunities and clearly communicating the expected outcomes of activities beforehand Additionally, they assist students in understanding how to approach tasks and prepare for them After the learning process begins, teachers monitor the progress of tasks and actively encourage student participation.
Perceived peers’ roles in the language classroom
Peer relationships play a crucial role in the learning process, especially during adolescence when students tend to prioritize these connections over teacher-student interactions (Goodnow, 1993) Positive peer relationships are significantly linked to enhanced self-concept, interest, and overall well-being among students (Liu et al., 2022) Additionally, students' perceptions of their peers' roles in the classroom shape their understanding of peer behaviors and interactions, influencing their overall classroom experience.
Research on the roles of peers in the classroom is less extensive than that on teachers' roles Peers can take on roles assigned by the teacher or develop roles through class activities According to Dürnyei and Murphey (2003), peer roles fall into two categories: task-related and non-task-related When collaborating on tasks, peers assume specific roles such as initiators, information seekers, opinion givers, elaborators, coordinators, evaluators, energizers, and recorders Additionally, they fulfill group maintenance roles, including encouragers, harmonizers, compromisers, feeling expressers, and equalizers In situations without assigned tasks, peers can also act as facilitators, encouragers, harmonizers, checkers, and resource persons.
In the classroom, peers play crucial roles such as helpers, facilitators, advisors, instructors, aides, assistants, and leaders (Newton & Ender, 2010) During small group discussions, they also take on the responsibilities of facilitators and assessors (Ningrum).
Previous research identifies four key roles in collaborative learning: co-learner, supporter, encourager, and assessor The co-learner encompasses various actions such as initiating tasks, contributing ideas, providing information, and maintaining an appropriate pace, all of which facilitate effective teamwork The supporter role includes coordinating efforts, offering resources, and assisting peers, while the encourager focuses on energizing and motivating group members Lastly, the assessor role involves providing feedback and evaluating peers' performance Collectively, these four roles encapsulate the collaborative dynamics observed in classroom settings.
As education shifts towards a learner-centered approach, classroom teaching emphasizes providing students with opportunities to practice Since teachers cannot always work individually with each student, collaborative learning is encouraged, allowing students to brainstorm and practice new language skills with their peers.
Spending class time with peers significantly enhances learning engagement, as research indicates that students often benefit from collaborating with one another (Manning, 2014) Sharing similar ages and training backgrounds facilitates effective teamwork among peers This proximity allows them to better recognize and comprehend each other's learning challenges (Lockspeiser et al.).
2008), so learners feel more comfortable asking simple questions when learning together
Collaborating with peers enhances learning opportunities and fosters negotiation skills, while also promoting the use of metalanguage, which encourages deeper reflection on the learning process (Voller, 2005) By sharing ideas and interacting in the target language (Phan, 2015), learners can significantly improve their language proficiency A comfortable learning environment that encourages idea exchange leads to more effective task completion and better overall learning outcomes.
In this research, a co-learner is defined as a peer who collaborates on class assignments within a supportive learning environment By sharing ideas and proposing new concepts, co-learners enhance the learning experience Additionally, when each participant completes their tasks effectively, it inspires others to put forth greater effort This collaborative interaction fosters a sense of engagement among students, encouraging them to seek help from one another when necessary.
Not only working comfortably with each other as a co-learner, peers can also support each other
In a typical classroom setting, a single teacher is responsible for the learning of all students, which can make it challenging to address individual concerns effectively As a result, students often turn to their peers for assistance, fostering a collaborative environment that enhances self-efficacy This peer support not only facilitates problem-solving but also heightens awareness of learning among students.
2005), support each other in identifying learning goals, increase motivation (Aoki,
Effective peer interaction in educational settings enhances learning outcomes by fostering critical thinking, improving learning strategies, and increasing resource utilization (Smith, 2003; Irvine et al., 2018; Shi & Han, 2019) Collaborative use of technology promotes digital literacy and boosts student engagement in online environments (Peeters & Mynard, 2019) Additionally, peer support can lead to better academic performance and increased motivation for public examinations Engaging in discussions with peers allows students to negotiate their self-identity and gain recognition within their social groups (Chan et al., 2019) To maximize the benefits of peer support, students must develop skills for positive interdependence, accountability, and effective social interaction (Olsen).
In the current study, a supporter is defined as a friend who provides immediate assistance by sharing learning resources and skills Unlike teachers, who manage multiple students, peers offer timely help when needed They exchange materials from class or their own resources to tackle assignments effectively Additionally, peers can recommend effective learning strategies and inspire each other through observation of successful behaviors Beyond academic support, peers also play a crucial role in motivating and encouraging their friends to engage in learning.
The learning process can be difficult, requiring students to put in significant effort to avoid giving up Affective factors, such as learners' emotions and feelings, play a vital role in the learning experience (Larsen-Freeman & Anderson, 2013) In addition to sharing strategies and resources, learners seek encouragement from their peers, emphasizing the importance of mental well-being Consequently, the role of an encourager is distinct from that of a supporter in the learning environment (Dửrnyei & Murphey, 2003).
Acting as an encourager, peers can encourage each other to talk about their problems and never allow giving up From that, they can solicit contributions from other members
Peer interactions significantly enhance learning motivation, which is essential for sustained educational engagement (Kimura, 2014) They help alleviate anxiety in language classrooms (Bekleyen, 2004; Huang et al., 2010) and support emotional regulation necessary for effective learning (Valiente et al., 2020) Furthermore, the diligence of peers can inspire students to increase their own efforts, as they strive to keep pace with their friends (Johnson et al.).
2007) Through working together, peers can encourage each other to be open to new things, regarded as peer coaching (Little, 2007)
In this study, an encourager is characterized as a supportive friend who provides spiritual motivation during collaborative classroom learning Encouragers foster resilience by helping each other overcome challenges, countering negativity, and encouraging contributions while exploring new ideas Additionally, the dedication of peers serves as inspiration, motivating fellow learners to enhance their academic efforts.
During the process of learning, peers can also provide feedback Even though peers’ comments cannot be compared to teachers’, the role of an assessor should not be overlooked
Peer assessment, also known as peer evaluation, ranking, rating, and feedback, is a process in which students evaluate each other’s work (Van Zundert et al., 2010) This method enables students to identify their weaknesses, fostering a deeper understanding of their learning gaps (Phan).
Theoretical framework
This study is grounded in Sociocultural Theory (SCT) and Community of Practice (CoP), exploring the connection between students' autonomy in out-of-class learning and the perceived roles of teachers and peers within the classroom setting.
Three primary learning theories—behaviourism, cognitivism, and constructivism—offer insights into the learning process Behaviourism likens adult foreign language acquisition to a child's learning of their mother tongue, emphasizing imitation, practice, and feedback However, it falls short in explaining how learners generate language independently In contrast, cognitivism posits that learners possess an innate language blueprint, allowing them to grasp rules and create new expressions through reflection and understanding, though it overlooks the social and cultural factors that shape learning Constructivism, on the other hand, portrays learning as an active, dynamic process where learners build and reconstruct their knowledge based on personal experiences, fostering a deeper understanding of their environment.
Constructivism is the most suitable foundational theory for learner autonomy, as it emphasizes that autonomous learners actively engage in their own learning process by constructing knowledge through experiences, interactions, and reflection This theory is divided into two branches: individual cognitive constructivism, represented by Jean Piaget, which focuses on the learner's understanding based on developmental stages and learning styles, and social constructivism, represented by Lev Vygotsky, which highlights the role of social interactions in shaping meanings and understandings While Piaget believed that development must precede learning, Vygotsky argued that social learning is a precursor to development, underscoring the importance of collaborative experiences in the learning process.
Learner autonomy is fundamentally an individual capability, yet it is significantly influenced by the social connections within the learning environment The development of learner autonomy cannot solely rely on an individual's internal cognitive processes; rather, it is shaped by the interactions and relationships with peers and educators in that context These social dynamics can either foster or hinder a learner's growth and autonomy.
In essence, constructivism is the foundational theory for learner autonomy, and social constructivism can explain the associations between learner autonomy and other social factors, such as teachers and peers
Sociocultural Theory (SCT), pioneered by Vygotsky and his colleagues in Russia during the 1920s and 1930s, stands as the cornerstone of social constructivism This influential theory has significantly shaped research and theoretical frameworks in cognitive development for many decades.
Sociocultural Theory (SCT) posits that human cognitive processes emerge from interactions with others within a cultural context and through experiences with artifacts created by previous and contemporary generations (Lantolf, 2000) According to SCT, cognitive development begins at the social level, where interpersonal interactions occur, and is subsequently internalized at the intrapersonal level (Vygotsky, 1978) Learning is inherently social, taking place as learners engage with peers, objects, and events in a collaborative setting The outcomes of these social interactions foster cognitive growth, enabling higher mental functions such as problem-solving and logical memory Language serves as a crucial mediational tool in this process, functioning both as inner speech for mental reasoning and as external speech for communication Furthermore, social interactions shaped by cultural norms significantly impact the development of mental abilities, as the surrounding environment influences learners' thought processes and perspectives Cultural contexts ultimately dictate the nature of social interactions and their effects on cognitive development.
Language educators are increasingly drawn to Sociocultural Theory (SCT) due to its focus on mediation in learning processes (Le, 2003) This theory, rooted in Vygotskian principles, posits that knowledge is refined and made coherent through social interaction Mediation serves as a bridge between social and individual learning experiences, utilizing various mediators—such as objects, symbols, and individuals—to elevate natural impulses into advanced cognitive functions In language acquisition, mediators may include textbooks, visual aids, classroom discussions, instructional strategies, or teacher support (Le, 2003) Social mediation can manifest in two forms: expert-novice interactions or peer collaborations.
Mediation influenced by Confucianism highlights the connection between learner autonomy and the roles of teachers and peers, focusing on two key elements: the Zone of Proximal Development (ZPD) and scaffolding.
The Zone of Proximal Development (ZPD) refers to the gap between a learner's current abilities and their potential development, which can be achieved through guidance from adults or collaboration with more skilled peers (Vygotsky & Cole, 1978) This zone is crucial for learning, relying heavily on the quality of interactions between learners and teachers (Corden, 2000) Effective assistance should align with the learner's existing skills while gently challenging them beyond their current capabilities Importantly, the role of more capable peers is essential in this process, as interactions should not be limited to novice-expert dynamics Instead, learning is enhanced through meaningful exchanges among students, regardless of their relative skill levels (Lier, 2007).
Scaffolding is a teaching strategy that structures interactions between adults and children, building on the child's existing knowledge while providing necessary support to enhance their learning potential (Kao, 2010) In educational contexts, teachers offer scaffolding to help students accomplish tasks they would struggle with independently This support is temporary and diminishes as students gain competence, ultimately leading to their ability to master skills on their own Additionally, scaffolding involves a gradual transfer of responsibility to learners, fostering their independence through planned fading of assistance (Van de Pol et al., 2010) Peers can also play a crucial role in providing the scaffolding necessary for student improvement.
Mediation in education emphasizes the importance of collaboration between teachers, peers, and learners, moving beyond mere adherence to curriculum guidelines or language acquisition Through interactive engagement, this approach fosters a supportive learning environment that enhances student understanding and progression.
In Vietnam, tertiary students experience a classroom hierarchy where teachers maintain decisive roles, guiding and correcting students to ensure their progress (Bui, 2018; Nguyen & Habók, 2021) Teachers facilitate learning through social interactions, scaffolding students to enhance their performance However, individual cultural contexts, including educational backgrounds and beliefs, shape how students perceive this mediation, leading to varied learning outcomes Additionally, peers influence each other's learning through their interactions, highlighting that learner autonomy is socially situated and affected by these dynamics (Ushioda, 2011) Thus, the roles of teachers and peers are interconnected in the teaching and learning process, emphasizing the importance of mediation in fostering student autonomy within the framework of Social Cognitive Theory (SCT).
According to Wenger (2011), communities of practice are formed by individuals engaged in collective learning within a shared domain, such as a tribe learning to survive or artists exploring new expressions Essentially, a community of practice encompasses any group that intentionally or unintentionally comes together to achieve a common goal and enhance specific skills Wenger identifies three defining characteristics of a community of practice, which are essential for understanding its dynamics and purpose.
A community of practice consists of three key components: the domain, the community, and the practice Membership in such a community indicates a commitment to a specific activity or domain, such as a class where all students share an interest in acquiring knowledge and preparing for final exams Within this larger group, smaller communities can emerge, like those formed by students passionate about learning a foreign language The core characteristic of a community is the active participation of its members in discussions and mutual support within their shared interests Additionally, the practice involves a repertoire of resources and routines that help enhance the community's knowledge and skills, sometimes occurring unconsciously as members engage in activities that contribute to their goals, such as discussing ways to improve speaking skills during class.
Active participation in a community of practice enhances knowledge acquisition and promotes learning independence According to Little (2004), learner autonomy is fostered through three key principles: learners should take responsibility for their goals and methods (learner empowerment), reflect on their learning (learner reflection), and be immersed in the target language daily Classrooms serve as essential environments for these communities, particularly for those striving to improve their English skills, as highlighted by Brown (2007) A strong sense of belonging within this community encourages students, teachers, and peers to take greater responsibility for their own learning and the collective progress of the community.
Learner autonomy and perceived teachers’ roles
2.5.1 Perceived teachers’ roles in learner autonomy development activity
Teachers are essential in fostering students' autonomous learning, primarily acting as facilitators and counselors By allowing students to take control of their learning process, teachers assume the role of "the sage on the side," creating opportunities for student engagement According to Knowles (1975), educators support learner autonomy by facilitating and consulting, while Voller (1997) emphasizes their role in initiating decision-making and addressing individual needs, thereby providing necessary expertise and guidance to learners.
Recent studies highlight the importance of facilitators and counselors in fostering learner autonomy among students These roles extend beyond merely providing information; they involve developing students' skills in utilizing learning resources effectively while addressing their individual needs to enhance future resource availability (Shi & Han, 2019) Additionally, the role of classroom organizers in creating a supportive and stimulating environment conducive to the development of learner autonomy has also been emphasized (Fumin & Li, 2012).
In the Vietnamese educational context, teachers play crucial roles in portfolio-based writing courses aimed at fostering learner autonomy They act as instructors by introducing concepts of learner autonomy, presenting essential learning strategies, guiding students in creating effective study plans, and engaging them in learning activities Additionally, teachers serve as feedback providers, offering constructive suggestions to enhance student performance Furthermore, they take on the role of encouragers, helping learners navigate challenges through personal experiences and assisting them in finding solutions Phan (2015) emphasizes the importance of teachers as advisors and guides, motivating students to tackle language issues, structure their learning tasks, and provide valuable feedback.
2.5.2 Mediating factors of learner autonomy and perceived teachers’ roles
In the context of language teaching and learning, key mediating factors that explain the relationship between teachers' actions and students' learner autonomy include motivation, trust, and the role of teachers as role models.
Research indicates that autonomous learners are inherently motivated, with motivation playing a crucial role in their readiness to learn independently (Ushioda, 2011; Chan et al., 2002) The dynamic relationship between motivation and learner autonomy can vary based on the type of motivation, which exists on a continuum from amotivation to intrinsic motivation (Ryan & Deci, 2000) Intrinsically motivated learners engage in activities for personal satisfaction, while extrinsically motivated learners are driven by external rewards, such as passing exams It is essential to foster both types of motivation, as learners can transition from extrinsic to intrinsic motivation, enhancing their overall learning experience Furthermore, students' trust in their teachers significantly influences their acceptance of educational suggestions, as knowledgeable teachers can promote learner autonomy (Arıkan & Bakla, 2011) With the rise of technology, students can explore various learning environments, and those that align with their preferences lead to more active engagement, while less preferred options result in peripheral participation (Dang & Le, 2021) Thus, trust in teacher guidance is vital for initiating students' learning journeys.
Students' perception of teachers as role models significantly influences teachers' effectiveness in the classroom When teachers demonstrate an open mindset and effectively plan their professional activities within the constraints of the teaching environment, they earn students' admiration Their professionalism, competence, and ability to deliver quality instruction inspire students to learn and foster learner autonomy (Dürnyei & Ushioda, 2011).
Teachers play a crucial role in fostering learner autonomy by serving as motivators, building trust, and acting as role models These factors significantly influence the relationship between teachers' roles and the development of students' independence in learning.
Learner autonomy and perceived peers’ roles
2.6.1 Perceived peers’ roles in learner autonomy development activities
Peer influences and aspirations significantly motivate students to achieve academic success, while at times, they may also lead to resistance against schooling The role of peers is crucial in fostering learner autonomy, particularly through mechanisms such as peer-assisted learning and peer assessment.
Peer-assisted learning refers to learners collaborating in various forms, including peer tutoring, cooperative, and collaborative learning According to Voller (2005), this approach enhances learning awareness and fosters negotiation opportunities, leading to increased interaction and the use of meta language Such interactions promote reflection on learning, which is crucial for developing learner autonomy Additionally, peer-assisted learning allows students to negotiate their identities, seeking peer recognition and group membership, as highlighted by Carlson et al (2019) This process of identity formation exemplifies the growth of learner autonomy.
Peer assessment has gained popularity in classrooms, shifting from traditional teacher evaluations to interactive and cooperative learning methods (Edwards et al., 2014) Defined as a process where peers evaluate each other's learning outcomes, peer assessment allows students to negotiate meanings, seek clarification, and enhance their language skills (Topping et al., 2000; DiGiovanni & Nagaswami, 2001) This approach enables students to identify their weaknesses and improve their self-learning abilities through various forms of peer interaction, despite the lack of professional expertise compared to teachers (Phan, 2015) By reviewing and establishing criteria based on teacher guidelines, students engage in reflexive learning, fostering deeper understanding and higher-order thinking skills Additionally, peer assessment empowers students, motivating them to take ownership of their learning and assessment processes (Lindblom-Ylọnne et al., 2006; Edwards et al., 2014).
Peer interactions play a crucial role in fostering learner autonomy, alongside the influence of teachers Research indicates that when peers are trained by educators, the effectiveness of these interactions in promoting learner independence significantly improves (Phuong et al., 2018).
2.6.2 Mediating factors between learner autonomy and perceived peers’ roles
Peer interactions foster positive emotions, interdependence, and responsibilities that enhance student learning and promote learner autonomy Positive interdependence is crucial as it encourages collaboration towards a common goal According to Kreinovich et al (1998), effective collaborative learning occurs when students are motivated to enhance each other's performance This can be achieved through various forms of interdependence, such as goal interdependence, where learners share a common objective; resource interdependence, which requires combining partial resources; identity interdependence, where groups create a collective identity; and even competitive dynamics set by the teacher For this collaborative approach to succeed, it is vital that group members recognize and embrace these interdependent conditions.
To enhance collaborative learning, it is essential to cultivate 'promotive interaction,' characterized by mutual help and support among students (Palfreyman, 2018) Establishing a supportive environment and culture requires a gradual, collective effort from both teachers and the entire class.
Positive emotions play a crucial role in promoting peer learning among students According to Angelaki and Mavroidis (2013), effective communication between tutors and students, as well as among peers, fosters feelings of excitement, satisfaction, and relief, which motivate students to pursue their learning objectives This collaborative environment creates a relaxed and supportive atmosphere, where students care for one another and strive to achieve shared goals As they experience this support, students are not only motivated to succeed for themselves but also to avoid letting their friends down, encouraging them to work harder and become a source of support for their peers.
Finally, each student has responsibilities in their peer work also matters Shen et al
In their 2020 study, researchers highlighted that peer assessment significantly enhances learner autonomy, as students become more engaged in their education when tasked with evaluating their peers' assignments With effective teacher guidance, students gradually assume the roles and responsibilities traditionally held by educators, fostering their development into independent learners (Edwards et al., 2014).
Not only acting as an assessor but peers can also be a learning resource to share learning materials and strategies that they find helpful for their learning with their friends
In conclusion, peers significantly contribute to fostering student learner autonomy by cultivating positive emotions, interdependence, and shared responsibilities When students collaborate, they are more motivated to enhance their learning and achieve their individual goals.
Previous studies and research gap
Out-of-class learning significantly enhances the social ecologies of language acquisition, complementing traditional classroom experiences (van Lier, 2004; Palfreyman, 2014) This approach fosters connections between classroom and external learning, allowing learners to engage with language beyond the classroom environment, whether through autonomous study or utilizing classroom-based resources (Reinders & Benson, 2017) Despite the increasing importance of out-of-class learning, classrooms continue to offer essential opportunities and challenges for language development Therefore, integrating in-class and out-of-class learning is crucial for optimizing language learning outcomes.
However, there needs to be an adequate understanding of how the in-class and out-of- class learning blend to develop learner autonomy in different contexts
Lamb (2004) explored the learning dynamics of provincial Indonesian junior high school students, highlighting the significant role of both classroom instruction and external learning environments, such as after-school lessons and private institutions The research revealed that much of the students' English learning occurred outside formal classes, emphasizing the importance of teacher-student relationships over the lesson content itself However, the study also noted a potential disconnect between in-school and out-of-school learning, exacerbated by teachers' heavy national curriculum demands and their concerns regarding English communicative competence.
Lai's (2015) study explored how Hong Kong undergraduate language learners perceive their language learning experiences both in and out of the classroom, revealing that each context serves distinct functions The research indicated that learners can effectively combine the benefits of both environments to create complementary and synergistic learning experiences However, their ability to leverage these affordances is influenced by resource characteristics—such as time efficiency, convenience, and support—as well as individual learner factors, including needs, beliefs, and past learning experiences To maximize the benefits of out-of-class language learning, educators should develop strategies that enhance learners' awareness and utilization of these opportunities, fostering a seamless integration of classroom and external learning experiences.
Nguyen and Stracke (2021) explored learner autonomy among tertiary EFL students in Vietnam, highlighting the differences in student engagement during in-class and out-of-class learning Their multi-case study revealed that students often viewed themselves as passive participants in traditional classroom settings, favoring teacher-led instruction and test-oriented practices In contrast, outside the classroom, they took an active role in their learning by pursuing part-time jobs, social activities, and hobbies, which they believed were more effective for developing language skills To effectively bridge in-class and out-of-class learning, educators must recognize how students self-regulate their learning beyond the classroom Understanding students' external learning experiences can help teachers create supportive classroom mechanisms Proposed strategies include involving students in decision-making regarding assessments and learning materials, aligning classroom activities with real-life applications, personalizing learning to accommodate individual interests, and promoting project-based and flipped learning approaches to encourage out-of-class engagement.
Also focusing on promoting learner autonomy in the classroom, Wang and Ryan
A 2020 study examined how teachers' practices can either facilitate or hinder the shift of control from teachers to learners, which is essential for fostering learner autonomy Conducted within a Chinese secondary boarding private foreign school, the research involved nine teachers and utilized multi-case studies, revealing that opportunities to enhance learner autonomy exist within routine classroom tasks, albeit subtly The practices identified as supportive of language learner autonomy included class presentations, collaborative group learning, student-led peer teaching, and reported practices Specific actions by teachers, such as allowing students to choose presenters and materials, engaging in team teaching, implementing peer assessments, and nominating exemplary self-study learners, were found to effectively scaffold learner autonomy These approaches provide students with valuable opportunities to practice various autonomous learning skills and strategies, ultimately promoting their independence as learners.
Seppönen (2014) investigated the contributions of individual learners, peer groups, and teachers in promoting autonomous language learning among twenty-five undergraduate students in an advanced English course in Finland The study revealed that both teachers and peers play a significant role in enhancing the learning process Participants engaged in goal-setting and completed three cycles of work, each beginning with strategy development and concluding with a writing assignment Strategies included utilizing online resources, vocabulary expansion, creating personalized language tasks, and reflecting on their effectiveness Each cycle culminated in writing tasks such as a TED talk, an article based on a guest lecture, and a blog post, allowing students to apply their new skills The research outlined clear roles for teachers and peers in various learning stages: setting goals, selecting materials, executing tasks, and establishing evaluation criteria While the project was ongoing and definitive conclusions were not drawn, it highlighted the necessity for greater involvement of teachers and peers in fostering learners' autonomy, emphasizing that ultimately, learners must choose to engage with the opportunities for autonomous learning.
Research highlights the importance of addressing out-of-class learning, emphasizing its supportive relationship with in-class learning In the Vietnamese context, understanding and fostering learner autonomy in out-of-class settings remains fragmented Investigating the connections between students' out-of-class learner autonomy and the roles of teachers and peers in the classroom can enhance comprehension of this autonomy and its influencing factors This exploration aims to bridge the gap between in-class and out-of-class learning, examining how various aspects of learner autonomy in out-of-class contexts relate to the roles of educators and classmates in the classroom.
The conceptual framework of the study
This article presents a conceptual framework, illustrated in Figure 2, after a thorough examination of existing literature on learner autonomy in out-of-class settings It explores the perceived roles of teachers and peers within the classroom and analyzes previous research on the connections between in-class and out-of-class experiences in fostering learner autonomy.
The study identifies three key constructs: first, learner autonomy in out-of-class contexts, which refers to a learner’s ability to manage situational, behavioral, and psychological aspects of their learning; second, the seven roles perceived of teachers in the classroom—controller, instructor, facilitator, co-learner, resource, evaluator, and explorer; and third, the four roles attributed to peers—co-learner, supporter, assessor, and encourager.
This study investigates the relationship between learner autonomy in out-of-class learning and perceived roles of teachers in the classroom, focusing on how trust, motivation, and teachers as role models influence this relationship Additionally, it examines whether other factors may mediate these correlations Furthermore, the research analyzes the connections between learner autonomy and perceived roles of peers, exploring how positive emotions, responsibilities, and interdependence act as mediators, while also considering the potential impact of other mediating factors.
Figure 2 2 The conceptual framework of the study
Chapter overview
This chapter explored the literature on learner autonomy in out-of-class learning, emphasizing the roles of teachers and peers in the classroom and their conceptual connections It began with a theoretical overview of learner autonomy, covering its definition, importance, varying degrees, influencing factors, and strategies to enhance it, alongside prior research in this area The discussion then focused on the roles of teachers and peers, establishing their relationship with learner autonomy through Vygotsky’s Social Cultural Theory, particularly the concepts of mediation, the Zone of Proximal Development (ZPD), and scaffolding, as well as Wenger’s Community of Practice The chapter concluded by summarizing existing studies to highlight the research gap and outline the study's conceptual framework, with the research methodology to be detailed in the following chapter.
Research paradigm
Learner autonomy is a complex construct that cannot be fully understood through a single paradigm Research indicates that while learner autonomy and the roles of teachers and peers may represent one reality, they also highlight the existence of multiple realities influenced by individual experiences, aligning with constructivist assumptions To effectively explore these dynamics, a multiple-approach research design is proposed, enhancing the reliability of findings The researcher advocates for a pragmatic theoretical framework, which accommodates both singular and diverse perspectives on learner autonomy and its influencing factors This approach, often linked to mixed methods research, allows for a comprehensive examination of real-world practices, utilizing various scientific designs to analyze and interpret knowledge The subsequent section will detail the implementation of mixed methods in this study.
Research design
Mixed methods research design integrates both quantitative and qualitative approaches within a single study, offering a pragmatic choice for researchers (Johnson & Onwuegbuzie, 2004) This design capitalizes on the strengths of quantitative methods, such as conceptualizing variables and analyzing large, representative samples, while also leveraging the qualitative methods' sensitivity to context and in-depth exploration of smaller samples (Punch, 2013) By combining these methodologies, mixed methods research yields richer data, as it allows for the incorporation of “words, pictures, and narrative” to enhance the understanding of numerical data (Johnson & Onwuegbuzie, 2004).
Combining quantitative and qualitative approaches in research enhances understanding and provides more robust evidence for complex problems Mixed methods research effectively addresses questions that cannot be fully explored using either quantitative or qualitative methods alone.
This research aims to explore the learner autonomy of Vietnamese EFL tertiary students in out-of-class learning and the influence of social factors, specifically teachers and peers It seeks to provide an overview of students' autonomy and their perceptions of the roles of teachers and peers in the learning process, examining the correlations between these elements The study highlights the bidirectional relationship between learner autonomy and the roles of teachers and peers, considering various mediating factors To effectively address the research objectives and questions, a mixed-methods design was employed, combining both quantitative and qualitative approaches for a comprehensive understanding of the issues at hand.
This research employs a sequential explanatory mixed methods design, which aligns with its objectives and research questions, as outlined by Creswell (2014) and Johnson & Onwuegbuzie (2004) The study first gathered quantitative data to explore the correlations between learner autonomy and the perceived roles of teachers and peers Following this, qualitative data was collected to further elucidate the bidirectional associations identified, focusing on mediating factors This approach effectively integrates both quantitative and qualitative methods to provide a comprehensive understanding of the research topic.
This quantitative research explored the relationship between Vietnamese EFL tertiary students' learner autonomy in out-of-class learning and their perceptions of the roles played by teachers and peers in the classroom Data was gathered through an online questionnaire using Google Forms and analyzed with descriptive and inferential statistics to address the initial research questions, with a comprehensive methodology outlined in section 3.3.
The qualitative research provided insights into the relationships between learner autonomy in out-of-class learning and the perceived roles of teachers and peers in the classroom, based on quantitative data In-depth semi-structured group interviews were utilized to gather qualitative data, which the researcher analyzed thematically to address the final two research questions of this phase A comprehensive overview of the qualitative research methodology can be found in section 3.4.
The integration of quantitative and qualitative results offers a comprehensive understanding of learner autonomy, highlighting the significant roles that teachers and peers play within the examined contexts, thereby allowing for meaningful implications to be derived.
Table 3.1 visually presents the mixed methods sequential explanatory design procedures employed in the current study Detailed descriptions of quantitative and qualitative research are presented in the following sections
Designing the questionnaire Based on literature review, designing, and validating the questionnaire
Selection of institutions Seeking approvals from three institutions
Principal approvals from three institutions
Piloting the questionnaire Delivering the questionnaire survey via Google Forms
Quantitative data analysis Descriptive statistics
Connecting quantitative and qualitative research
Based on the result of quantitative research, designing, and piloting the interview questions
Recruiting participants Inviting students from three institutions to participate the qualitative research
Semi-structured group interviews 6 group interviews
Qualitative data analysis Thematic analysis Findings for RQs 3-4
Integration of results from quantitative and qualitative data
Integration of quantitative and qualitative results
Interpretation and discussion of quantitative and qualitative results
The quantitative research
This section presents quantitative research in detail The description includes objectives, participants and the recruitment process, instrument development, data collection procedure, data management, and data analysis
This quantitative research explores the connection between Vietnamese tertiary EFL students' learner autonomy in out-of-class learning and their perceptions of the roles played by teachers and peers in the classroom Initially, it analyzes descriptive data regarding the students' learner autonomy outside the classroom and their views on the contributions of teachers and peers in the learning environment.
Understanding the level of learner autonomy among students is crucial, as it highlights the significant roles that teachers and peers play in the language classroom An inferential analysis reveals correlations between learner autonomy and the perceived roles of teachers and peers The findings address two key research questions: the extent to which EFL tertiary students’ learner autonomy in out-of-class learning correlates with their perceived teachers’ roles, and the extent to which it correlates with their perceived peers’ roles in the classroom.
3.3.2.1 Rationale for choosing English majors
The study focused on Vietnamese undergraduate English majors in Ho Chi Minh City, chosen for their maturity and capacity to make informed decisions about their learning This demographic is significant as higher education allows greater freedom in teaching and learning, fostering learner autonomy essential for lifelong learning Additionally, full-time English students prioritize their language studies, providing valuable insights into the dynamic nature of learner autonomy through the data collected from this group.
To ensure the reliability and validity of the research, exploratory factor analysis was conducted on specific scales used in the study The objective was to survey between 400 and 600 participants, meeting the necessary case requirements for effective exploratory factor analysis (Cohen et al.).
In Ho Chi Minh City, nearly twenty institutions offer full-time training programs for English majors, specializing in areas such as English Language Teaching, Translation and Interpretation, Tourism and Hospitality English, and Business English While each institution has its unique modifications to the training curriculum, they all adhere to the framework set by the Ministry of Education and Training, resulting in limited variance among programs For this study, the researcher randomly selected three institutions, representing over 10% of the total, aiming to include approximately 200-250 students from each institution across all four academic years.
The researcher randomly selected three universities from a pool of twenty by drawing names from a box Initial contact was established through emails sent to the Deans of the English/Foreign Languages Faculty, which included an invitation to participate in the research and a brief overview of its two phases The researcher requested a brief office visit to obtain official permission; however, one selected university declined participation due to external audits Consequently, another university was chosen, and the Dean granted acceptance The participating institutions were referred to as Acadia, Big Valley, and Columbia for confidentiality.
Acadia, managed by the Ministry of Education and Training (MoET), operates within the public sector and offers diverse majors in Economics, Technology, Cultural-Social studies, Law, Politics, Art, and Pedagogy A key unit within Acadia is the Department of Foreign Languages (DFL), which provides two undergraduate programs in English language teaching and English Linguistics (Commerce-Tourism) for over 1,700 students, along with General English and English for Specific Purposes programs for non-major students.
Big Valley is one of Vietnam's pioneering private universities, governed by the Ministry of Education and Training (MoET), with over 40,000 students enrolled in more than 61 academic majors The Faculty of Foreign Languages (FFL) is a prominent department within the institution's Sector VII, which encompasses diverse fields such as Humanities, Social Sciences, Journalism, and Tourism For the 2022-2023 academic year, FFL is the largest sector, accommodating over 14,000 students It offers two undergraduate majors: Chinese Language and English Language, along with a Master of English Language program The English Language bachelor's degree equips students with essential knowledge and skills for social demands and global integration, allowing them to specialize in one of five areas: Business English, Teaching English, English Translation and Interpretation, English for Business, and Tourism English.
Columbia, a public higher education institution managed by the Ministry of Education and Training (MoET), was established in 1990 and became a public university in 2006 It is now recognized as one of the top public universities in Vietnam, offering a diverse range of programs, including Business Administration, through both on-site and distance learning formats.
The Faculty of Foreign Languages (FFL) at the university is renowned for its strong academic programs, offering undergraduate degrees in English, Chinese, and Japanese English Majors can specialize in areas such as English Language Teaching and Methodology, Business English, and Translation - Interpretation The curriculum is designed to equip students with proficiency in their chosen language, alongside essential cross-cultural awareness to facilitate cultural integration in professional and business environments Each year, FFL welcomes over 400 students to pursue a major in English, highlighting its commitment to fostering language skills and cultural competence.
The study involved one private and two public institutions, all governed by the Ministry of Education and Training (MoET) These institutions adhere to standardized training programs established by MoET, ensuring that the research participants share significant commonalities, which reinforces the integrity of the research sample.
The researcher randomly selected two classes from each school year on the class list, using an interval of one out of five to distribute the questionnaire This sampling method ensured the target number of participants was reached quickly, despite the non-random nature of the selection process.
3.3.3.1 Rationale for choosing the questionnaire format
A questionnaire was selected as the research instrument due to its effectiveness in gathering information about learners' characteristics, perceptions, beliefs, and attitudes (Creswell, 2014; Fink, 2017) This method is particularly suitable for studying learner autonomy, which is a universal aspect of education Additionally, questionnaires facilitate the collection of data from a large population, allowing for a comprehensive overview of participants' beliefs and enabling generalizations about the broader population (Dürnyei & Taguchi, 2010).
An online questionnaire was selected over traditional paper forms due to its environmental benefits, rapid distribution, automatic data compilation, and reduced risk of data entry errors (Varela et al., 2016) Google Forms was utilized as the data collection tool, as Vietnamese students are accustomed to using various Google products While online surveys often face lower response rates, this challenge was addressed by the researcher’s on-site presence, which encouraged participants to complete the survey.
The researcher translated the questionnaire into Vietnamese to enhance comprehension and efficiency for students, allowing them to complete the survey without significant disruption to their lessons or cognitive resources Despite being English majors with varying proficiency levels, using Vietnamese ensures uniform understanding among participants Additionally, this Vietnamese version of the questionnaire is applicable for similar research contexts.
The qualitative research
This section outlines the qualitative research approach, highlighting the objectives and the rationale for utilizing semi-structured in-depth group interviews It details the participant recruitment process, the development of research instruments, and the procedures for qualitative data collection Additionally, it covers the management and analysis of qualitative data to ensure comprehensive insights.
This qualitative research explores the relationship between learner autonomy in out-of-class learning and the perceived roles of teachers and peers in the classroom, focusing on the mediating factors involved The collected data addresses the research questions regarding the mediators of the correlations between EFL tertiary students' learner autonomy and their perceptions of teachers' and peers' roles.
3.4.2 Rationale for adopting semi-structured in-depth group interview
The qualitative phase utilized semi-structured in-depth group interviews to investigate participants' out-of-class learning and the roles of teachers and peers in facilitating that learning This method allows for deeper insights beyond superficial responses, revealing the true meanings individuals attach to their experiences and attitudes By gathering a small group of six participants, the format encourages open expression of attitudes, feelings, and beliefs in a comfortable setting A combination of fixed and emerging questions facilitates a more comprehensive exploration of the topic, making group interviews an effective approach for understanding complex dynamics in educational contexts (George, 2022).
3.4.3 Participants and the recruitment process
Saturation is a critical consideration in determining sample size for qualitative research, as it signifies the point where data collection yields no new insights (Mason, 2010; Dworkin, 2012) While some studies suggest that saturation may be achieved with as few as twelve participants in homogeneous groups (Guest et al., 2006), others indicate that a minimum of 25 to 30 participants may be necessary (Dworkin, 2012) In this study, the researcher opted for an initial sample of thirty-six students, organized into six groups, with the possibility of inviting more participants if saturation was not reached.
To recruit participants for the qualitative research, the researcher compiled lists of students willing to participate, resulting in 320 volunteers from three institutions: Acadia (92), Big Valley (104), and Columbia (124) The researcher randomly selected twelve students from each institution to invite to group interviews, ensuring that participation was voluntary and did not affect their academic results After obtaining consent from thirty-six students, who were organized into participant chat groups for logistical discussions, one student withdrew due to family issues, leaving thirty-five participants coded from S1 to S35 Detailed participant information, including gender, year of study, and institution, is provided in Table 3.5.
Table 3 5 Description of participants in the qualitative research
Code Gender Year of study Institution Code Gender Year of study
Group interview 1 (GI1) Group interview 2 (GI2)
S1 F 4 th year Acadia S7 F 2 nd year
Group interview 3 (GI3) Group interview 4 (GI4)
S13 M 2 nd year Big Valley S19 F 1 st year
Group interview 5 (GI5) Group interview 6 (GI6)
S25 F 3 rd year Columbia S31 F 1 st year
The interview protocol consisted of four main sections:
In the initial section of the interview, general information is gathered, including participants' codes, location, date, time, and interview session code Following this, rapport is established by inviting interviewees to introduce themselves, outlining the interview process, agreeing on the language for communication, and informing them that the session will be audio recorded Participants are reminded of their right to withdraw from the interview at any time, and the interviewer clarifies the approach to questioning.
Section C focuses on identifying the factors that influence the relationship between learner autonomy and the perceived roles of both teachers and peers The analysis is guided by questions that explore how the characteristics of teachers and peers affect students' learning experiences outside the classroom.
Section D – Interview closing to thank the interviewees, explain what the interviewer will do with the data, and ask if they wish to share any further information before leaving
The guided questions for the qualitative phase were developed based on the objectives and findings from the quantitative research To enhance the questions, the researcher sought feedback from two experts involved in the quantitative phase, who recommended concentrating on the prominent roles identified in the quantitative results instead of examining each role individually Following this input, the questions were revised and sent back for further comments Subsequently, the questions were translated into Vietnamese to facilitate better communication during the interviews, allowing participants to express their thoughts in their native language The interviews were recorded, and the researcher transcribed them immediately after each session The interview instrument is detailed in Appendix 3E.
The focus group interview questions were developed based on the objectives of the qualitative phase and the findings from the quantitative phase A pilot test was conducted with three students not involved in the main research phases to evaluate the interview process This pilot aimed to ensure the questions effectively gathered information aligned with the research objectives, assess any potential difficulties for interviewees, and estimate the duration of each interview Additionally, it provided the researcher with valuable experience in conducting interviews.
The pilot study revealed that interviewees were enthusiastic about discussing their out-of-class learning experiences, often diverging from the main topic This practice allowed the researcher to recognize the importance of managing turn-taking during group interviews Following the initial analysis of the rich data collected, the qualitative data collection phase commenced.
After obtaining consent from the participants, the researcher gathered their Zalo contacts to organize six discussion groups for scheduling interviews Three group interviews took place at the institutions' canteen, while the other three were held at a nearby coffee shop post-class The researcher requested permission to record the sessions, clarifying that the data collected was solely for research purposes To show appreciation, participants received food and drink vouchers along with cinema tickets Prior to the interviews, the participants were briefly informed about the findings from the quantitative phase they had previously participated in, setting the stage for a deeper exploration of those correlations.
After conducting five interviews, the researcher observed that saturation was nearly achieved, as participants began to repeat ideas and no new concepts emerged The sixth interview confirmed this saturation, leading the researcher to conclude the qualitative data collection process.
Thematic analysis, as outlined by Braun & Clarke (2006), was utilized to identify and report patterns within the data, making it an effective method for exploring the structures and processes in educational routines and the subjective experiences of learners Its inherent flexibility allowed for a detailed examination of individual cases and the relationships among them This project employed both deductive and inductive approaches to thematic analysis; the deductive approach focused on coding known factors influencing the relationship between teachers, peers, and the development of learner autonomy, while the inductive approach captured new factors that emerged during interviews.
The recorded data was transcribed and returned to participants for verification of the researcher's understanding of their spoken words Following their feedback, the transcription was translated into English Since the participants are English majors, the researcher sought their input on the accuracy of the translation.
The researcher initiated the analysis process by following Braun and Clarke's six steps: familiarisation, coding, generating themes, reviewing themes, defining and naming themes, and reporting Initially, the researcher thoroughly read the transcribed data to develop preliminary codes and detailed notes This was followed by generating initial codes and categorizing relevant data accordingly The third step involved identifying themes based on literature, with predetermined themes such as motivation, trust, and teacher as a role model mediating the relationship between students’ learner autonomy and perceived teachers’ roles, while positive emotions, responsibilities, and positive independence mediated the relationship with peers’ roles Additionally, new themes were anticipated to emerge due to the unique Vietnamese context The researcher collaborated with two experts on learner autonomy to ensure no emerging themes were overlooked In the fourth stage, the themes were reviewed for coherence and completeness, resulting in a codebook that was validated by the experts and participants Finally, in the fifth step, ongoing analysis refined each theme, leading to clear definitions and a comprehensive understanding of the data.
Ethical considerations
Research ethics emphasizes the importance of ethical considerations throughout the research process, including planning, execution, communication, and follow-up Researchers are guided by codes of ethical practice that prioritize avoiding harm, obtaining informed consent, and safeguarding participants' privacy, confidentiality, and anonymity Additionally, it is crucial for researchers to ensure voluntary participation and refrain from deceiving participants (Punch & Oancea, 2014) By adhering to these ethical principles, researchers maintain integrity and respect for the individuals who contribute data to their studies.
In the quantitative phase of the research, consent was secured from both the participating institutions and individual participants The researcher initiated the process by sending invitations and project information to institutional leaders, followed by in-person meetings to obtain approval A brief introduction about the research was provided in each classroom, emphasizing the voluntary nature of participation and the use of collected information Potential participants were given the option to participate or withdraw upon accessing the survey link The survey was designed to be anonymous, with only those choosing to join the second phase required to provide their email addresses for future contact, ensuring that this information would be used solely for research purposes.
In the qualitative phase of the research, participants were randomly selected and invited through a student participant invitation letter and qualitative information sheet Consent forms were signed by those who agreed to participate, with the researcher providing detailed explanations and addressing any questions Participants were informed of their rights, including the absence of risks, the ability to withdraw, and confidentiality guarantees To ensure anonymity, pseudonyms were assigned, making responses untraceable Interviews were conducted in a comfortable and respectful environment, avoiding sensitive topics and minimizing disruptions Data was securely stored, with soft copies protected by passwords, and retained for five years before destruction.
Chapter summary
This section outlines the study's methodology, emphasizing pragmatism as the chosen research paradigm It details the sequential explanatory mixed methods design and the rationale behind this choice The chapter further elaborates on both quantitative and qualitative phases, including participant selection, instruments used, data collection procedures, and analysis methods It addresses reliability and validity concerns in the quantitative phase and trustworthiness in the qualitative phase Together, these phases provide insights into EFL tertiary students' learner autonomy in out-of-class settings, the perceived roles of teachers and peers, and the mediating factors influencing these relationships.
Results of the quantitative phase
A survey of 709 valid responses revealed a predominance of females in the English as a Foreign Language (EFL) context in Vietnam, with 71.8% female participants compared to 26.8% male The distribution of students across Acadia, Big Valley, and Columbia was relatively even, with 38.6%, 35.5%, and 25.8% respectively Notably, third-year students constituted a slightly smaller group than their first and second-year counterparts, indicating larger class sizes among juniors Most participants achieved good academic results, with 50.1% reporting positive outcomes Despite the gender imbalance in the sample, it reflects the current landscape of EFL training Detailed demographic information of the participants can be found in Table 4.1.
Table 4 1 Demographic information of the participants
Total participants Variables Divisions Percentage
Does not want to say 1.4%
Years of university study 1 st year 28.5%
4.1.2 EFL students’ learner autonomy in out-of-class learning
4.1.2.1 Internal consistency reliability measure of learner autonomy scale
Cronbach's alpha values for the construct ranged from 709 to 824, as detailed in Table 4.2 An analysis using the if item deleted method revealed that these scales achieved the highest possible alphas for their respective factors.
Table 4 2 Cronbach’s alpha values of nine constructs of learner autonomy scale
Dimensions Factors N 0 of items Cronbach’s Alpha
4.1.2.2 Descriptive statistics of learner autonomy
The situational dimension of learner autonomy in out-of-class learning reflects students' ability to manage their learning environment This dimension is characterized by their awareness of how authority figures impact their educational journey and their freedom to make independent learning decisions Descriptive statistics illustrating participants' control over this situational aspect of learner autonomy are presented in Table 4.3.
Table 4 3 Descriptive statistics of the situational dimension of learner autonomy
Items/ Factor N Min Max Mean SD
I follow the expectations of the society 709 1.00 5.00 3.23 1.060
Items/ Factor N Min Max Mean SD
I have the freedom to choose what I want to learn 709 1.00 5.00 4.15 924
I have the freedom to make decisions about my learning 709 1.00 5.00 4.23 887
I have the freedom to choose the materials for learning 709 1.00 5.00 4.11 1.025
I have the freedom to choose the learning ways for learning 709 1.00 5.00 4.06 1.068
I have the freedom to decide my own goals in learning 709 1.00 5.00 4.01 1.066
Participants showed a strong awareness of the significant impact of teachers and institutional regulations on their learning, with mean scores of 4.09 and 4.00, respectively In contrast, parental expectations had a lesser influence, averaging 2.80 The influence of friends and societal expectations was comparable, with mean scores of 3.29 and 3.23 Overall, participants rated the influence of others on their independent learning outside the classroom at an average of 3.48, with standard deviations ranging from 0.671 to 1.090.
Participants expressed a strong sense of autonomy in their learning outside the classroom, with an overall mean score of 4.12 They particularly valued their freedom to make decisions regarding their learning, scoring 4.23 for the ability to choose what to learn The freedom to select learning methods and materials also received high scores of 4.15 and 4.06, respectively, while the ability to set personal learning goals scored 4.01 The standard deviations ranged from 772 to 1.068, highlighting a consistent agreement among participants regarding their decision-making freedom in the learning process.
Teachers, institutions, and peers significantly influenced students' learning experiences outside the classroom Students reported having considerable freedom to manage their learning, including choices related to content, methods, and materials.
The behavioral dimension highlighted participants' ability to regulate their actions across five stages of learning outside the classroom, ranging from preparation to achieving new insights They effectively navigated the learning process, demonstrating a progression from moderate to significant levels of engagement.
An extract of the descriptive statistic of the behavioural dimension of learner autonomy is provided in Table 4.4, and the whole table is presented in Appendix 3F
Table 4 4 Extract of the descriptive statistics of the behavioural dimension
Items/ Factor N Min Max Mean SD
I know which learning ways suits me best 709 1.00 5.00 3.64 989
I initiate my learning as plan 709 1.00 5.00 3.47 -.412
I arrange time to study as much as possible 709 1.00 5.00 3.76 -.531
I create the conditions under which I can study best
During the getting ready stage, students demonstrated strong confidence in recognizing their strengths (M=3.78) and effectively identified their weaknesses and learning goals, with means of 3.73, 3.63, and 3.64, respectively However, their ability to plan learning steps was comparatively lower, achieving a moderate mean of 3.23 Overall, participants exhibited a high level of control during this stage, reflected in an overall mean of 3.61, with standard deviations ranging from 704 to 1.055.
Participants achieved the highest mean score of 4.20 for creating optimal study conditions They experimented with various learning materials and strategies, dedicating significant time to their studies, with mean scores of 3.95, 3.76, and 3.70 However, they identified initiating the learning process as the most challenging aspect, reflected in a mean score of 3.46.
On average, with the overall mean score of 3.40, the study’s participants demonstrated a moderate level of control of this learning stage The standard deviations were from 725 to 986
In the monitoring stage of learning, participants demonstrated a moderate ability to seek help when needed (M=3.93) and to adjust their learning based on the assistance received (M=3.79) They also moderately adapted their learning processes to achieve their goals (M=3.74) However, they faced challenges in monitoring adherence to their study plans and reflecting on the effectiveness of their selected learning routines, with scores of 3.46 and 3.27, respectively Overall, participants exhibited a high level of control in the monitoring stage, achieving an average score of 3.53, with standard deviations ranging from 729 to 1.028.
In the self-evaluating stage, participants moderately assessed their achievement of goals (M=3.74) and the realism of their planning (M=3.49), while also evaluating the effectiveness of their learning (M=3.71) However, they exhibited a lack of confidence in drawing conclusions about their learning success and selecting criteria for evaluating outcomes, with scores of M=3.46 and M=3.36, respectively Overall, the average control of the self-evaluating stage was M=3.38, which was the lowest compared to other learning stages, with standard deviations ranging from 702 to 1.183.
Students demonstrated confidence in applying their acquired skills to new learning activities, with a mean score of 3.85 Their ability to identify opportunities for further learning and retain newly acquired skills was also notable, both scoring 3.81 However, they showed less confidence in integrating and retaining this new knowledge, with mean scores of 3.72 and 3.64, respectively Overall, the transcending stage received a high mean score of 3.82, marking it as the highest in the behavioral dimension, with standard deviations ranging from 0.702 to 0.975.
Participants exhibited moderate confidence in managing their out-of-class learning behaviors They demonstrated competency in establishing optimal learning conditions, seeking assistance when necessary, and identifying new learning opportunities However, they faced challenges with critical learning actions, including planning their learning steps, initiating the learning process, selecting evaluation criteria, and retaining newly acquired knowledge.
The psychological dimension of student control is highlighted by their mental preparedness to take responsibility for their learning and their ability to manage emotions during the learning process Participants demonstrated a strong readiness for learning beyond the classroom and effectively regulated their emotions while engaging in educational activities Detailed descriptive statistics for this psychological dimension are available in Table 4.5, with the complete table located in Appendix 3F.
Table 4 5 Extract of the descriptive statistics of the psychological dimension
I only rely on me as far as my studies are concerned
I seek alternative solution when a difficult problem emerges
I adapt to the difficult situations 709 1.00 5.00 3.96 858
I am positive towards learning difficulties 709 1.00 5.00 3.62 954
I manage any problem that may arise in my studies
Participants demonstrated a strong ability to seek alternative solutions and adapt to challenges, with mean scores of 3.96 and 3.81, respectively They expressed confidence in managing academic problems (M=3.81) and maintained a positive outlook towards learning difficulties (M=3.62), although they showed less confidence in relying solely on themselves (M=3.35) Overall, they felt mentally prepared for independent learning (M=3.83), with standard deviations ranging from 568 to 1.024 In terms of emotional regulation, participants agreed on the importance of relaxation during negative feelings (M=4.10) and actively recognized their emotions while rewarding themselves for achievements (M=4.02 and 3.95) They were moderately confident in their self-encouragement and organizational skills for enjoyable learning (M=3.41), resulting in a high overall control of affective factors (M=3.70) and the highest standard deviations in this group, from 935 to 1.191.
Results of the qualitative research
The qualitative phase of the research seeks to elucidate the connections between EFL tertiary students' learner autonomy in out-of-class learning and their perceptions of teachers' and peers' roles in the classroom This investigation specifically addresses the mediating factors that influence these relationships, ultimately providing insights into how these elements interact The data collected serves to answer critical research questions regarding the mediation of correlations between learner autonomy and the perceived roles of teachers and peers in the educational environment.
The interviews revealed key factors linking the six roles of teachers and four roles of peers in the classroom to participants' ability to manage their out-of-class learning The findings are organized into two main themes: the influence of perceived teachers' roles on learner autonomy in out-of-class learning, and the impact of perceived peers' roles on the same autonomy Each theme is further divided into four sub-themes, as outlined in Table 4.28, with detailed summaries available in Appendix 4E and Appendix 4F.
Table 4 28 Summary of themes and sub-themes generated from data analysis
Theme 1: Mediating factors of perceived teachers’ roles and learner autonomy
1 Motivation 2 Trust 3 Role model 4 Care
Theme 2: Mediating factors of perceived peers’ roles and learner autonomy
1 Positive emotions 2 Interdependence 3 Responsibilities 4 Face value
4.2.1 Mediating factors of learner autonomy and perceived teachers’ roles
The quantitative phase revealed a positive correlation between participants' learner autonomy in out-of-class learning and six key teacher roles: resource, evaluator, controller, instructor, co-learner, and facilitator The qualitative phase further elucidated these connections by identifying mediating factors that link perceived teacher roles to learners' ability to manage their learning independently Essentially, these factors demonstrate how teachers' classroom actions can significantly impact students' control over their out-of-class learning experiences.
The analysis revealed four key sub-themes: motivation, trust, role model, and care While motivation, trust, and role model are established mediating factors in existing literature, care is identified as a novel factor that influences the relationship between learner autonomy in out-of-class learning and the roles teachers play in the classroom Detailed insights into these sub-themes will be discussed in the subsequent sections.
The analysis indicates that teachers fulfill roles as controllers, instructors, and evaluators, which effectively motivate students in various ways Initially, these roles promote extrinsic motivation; however, over time, there is a noticeable shift towards fostering intrinsic motivation, encouraging students to engage in learning beyond the classroom environment.
Students were significantly influenced by teachers acting as controllers and evaluators, which motivated them to engage in out-of-class learning The data indicates that participants sought to earn bonus points, adhere to deadlines, and attain satisfactory learning outcomes, all driven by the requirements set by their teachers.
I prepare before going to class to get the bonus or bonus points (S6)
If I finish all the exercises on e-learning, answer the questions in class correctly or my team wins, I get a bonus point So, I spend time preparing for the lesson using the detailed outline (S19)
They also tended to study harder when teachers were more demanding
When teachers are demanding, I study more eagerly to get good scores (S12)
Teachers can significantly enhance students' intrinsic motivation to learn by presenting subjects in an inspiring manner By organizing and facilitating engaging and meaningful lessons, educators spark students' interest in the learning process.
My studies outside the classroom stem from what teachers introduced to us in class I usually touch on the part I find interesting (S1)
They [Teachers] make the lesson very interesting , and I want to explore more to understand more about it (S2)
Effective teacher requirements in subject instruction can shift students' focus from merely passing to genuinely engaging with the material, fostering a deeper interest that encourages additional study outside the classroom This heightened motivation is reflected in various behaviors.
At first, I studied because I wanted to prepare for the test When doing that, I found some points interesting, so I worked more on them (S24)
My teachers required each group to do a lot I spent a lot of time on it and realized I did like it [the subject] more than I thought (S28)
Teachers play a crucial role in the classroom as controllers, instructors, facilitators, and evaluators, effectively motivating students to take initiative in their learning and to engage more deeply with their studies outside of the classroom For a detailed overview of motivation as a mediating factor, refer to Table 4.29, with the complete table available in Appendix 4E.
Table 4 29 Extract of Summary table of Motivation as a mediating factor sub-theme
S6 - I prepare before going to class because I want to get the bonus or plus points
S1- My studies stem from what teachers introduced to us in class I usually touch on the part I find interesting, but teachers did not have time to discuss much in class
S13- I cannot find the motivation to learn, but when teachers require us to do something as class assignment, I do it and I feel it interesting to me
S16- After each lesson, they give us more questions and when I try to find the answers for those open questions, I like it [the subject] more
Teachers’ roles as a controller, an instructor, a resource, a facilitator, a co-learner, and an evaluator enabled trust-building in students, helping them control their learning better outside the classroom
Students have a strong belief in their teachers' ability to understand their needs and guide them effectively As the primary instructors of the course, teachers play a crucial role in helping students clarify their expectations and responsibilities, which empowers them to study independently outside the classroom.
Teachers have much experience, and they used to be English majors like us, so they know what we should do (S1)
Teachers emphasize key concepts and challenging topics that students need to tackle to excel in their courses, providing valuable guidance for effective learning strategies.
Acting as a resource, teachers introduced the required textbooks and supplemental books for students Students had complete trust in the sources that teachers have introduced:
I usually rely on that list [the list of online resources and extra materials] and start searching and start searching Those resources suit me the most (S3)
As a co-learner and a facilitator in the classroom, teachers could understand students’ needs and support them effectively
Because I am familiar with the guidance of teachers during our 12 years at lower levels, detailed guidance is what I need the most When I have difficulty, I will ask for their suggestions I try them out, and the problems can be solved most of the time (S27)
As an evaluator, the detailed feedback teachers gave for personal assignments or group projects helped students navigate their learning, knowing their strengths and weaknesses
My teachers give detailed feedback, and based on that, I can improve my work much faster (S18)
Students' trust in their teachers plays a crucial role in guiding, monitoring, and enhancing their learning beyond the classroom This concept is further illustrated in Table 4.30, which summarizes the sub-theme of Trust as a mediating factor, with the complete table available in Appendix 4E.
Table 4 30 Extract of Summary of Trust as a mediating factor sub-theme
S1- Teachers have a lot of experience, and they were English majors like us, so they know what we should do
Teachers emphasize key concepts and challenging topics that students must navigate to excel in the course, providing essential guidance for effective learning.
4.2.2.3 Role model as a mediating factor
Chapter overview
This chapter analyzes both quantitative and qualitative research data to address four key research questions, focusing on the relationship between EFL tertiary students' learner autonomy in out-of-class learning and the perceived roles of teachers and peers in the classroom Additionally, it explores the mediating factors influencing these associations The findings will be further discussed in relation to previous research on learner autonomy in foreign language education.
EFL tertiary students’ learner autonomy in out-of-class learning
The belief that learner autonomy is a Western concept unsuitable for Asian students has been debunked; however, it still poses challenges in Vietnam The current study reveals that EFL tertiary students in Vietnam encounter significant difficulties in managing the situational, behavioral, and psychological aspects of their learning beyond the classroom.
Factors such as teachers, educational institutions, and peers significantly impact students' ability to manage their learning outside the classroom, often outweighing the influence of society and parents.
The Vietnamese education system significantly influences students' control over their learning, primarily due to the enduring hierarchical structure in classrooms where teachers hold substantial authority This dynamic limits students' independence, particularly as they transition to tertiary education While institutions play a crucial role in shaping students' educational experiences, the close relationships formed with teachers do not diminish the institutions' overall importance Additionally, peers impact learning considerably, as tertiary students spend substantial time together both academically and socially Although social norms emphasize the role of teachers and institutions in education, the influence of parents on students in higher education appears to be less significant compared to these other factors.
Research highlights five key factors that influence the development of learner autonomy Teachers play a crucial role in fostering this autonomy both in and out of the classroom, as emphasized by Lazaro & Reinders (2009) and others Nguyen (2018) integrated teachers' roles into his autonomy model, which includes motivation, attitudes, and language learning strategies Aoki (2001) noted that the institutional environment significantly affects learner autonomy, suggesting that supportive policies can promote independence among students Peers also enhance learner autonomy by reducing reliance on teachers, as indicated by Shen et al (2020), while Swatevacharkul and Boonma (2021) found that students often prefer collaborative learning over traditional authoritative teaching Additionally, societal and familial influences shape learner autonomy, with social characteristics affecting readiness for independence (Ahmad & Majid, 2010) and community constraints either promoting or hindering autonomy (Dang, 2010) While parents had minimal influence on tertiary students' learning control, their impact was more pronounced for Vietnamese high school students (Ho et al., 2023).
Recent research indicates that participants recognized the impact of various external factors on their learning, corroborating existing studies on influences beyond the classroom This research aims to prioritize these factors to enhance understanding of English as a Foreign Language (EFL) learner autonomy in out-of-class settings.
Participants reported enjoying the freedom to make decisions about their learning outside the classroom, allowing them to choose their subjects and methods However, they felt less confident in selecting learning materials and setting personal goals This aligns with previous research indicating that Vietnamese students are more engaged in learning outside the classroom (Nguyen, 2009; Nguyen & Stracke, 2021) In contrast, students in the Mekong Delta lacked autonomy in their learning, often following their teachers' instructions without making independent choices (Le, 2019) Similarly, research from Japan highlighted that students primarily focused on completing teacher-assigned tasks and preparing for class outside school hours (Kimura, 2014).
In examining the control of students in the situational dimension, it was found that external factors significantly influenced their out-of-class learning, with teachers, institutions, and peers being pivotal This influence can be attributed to the Confucian emphasis on hierarchy in Vietnamese classrooms and the increasing role of peers in higher education Nonetheless, EFL tertiary students reported a sense of autonomy in making learning decisions beyond the classroom These insights indicate a positive shift towards enhanced control over learning situations outside the classroom among students in this research context.
Moving to behavioural dimension, students expressed their average level of control in all the learning stages; however, they needed to be more confident in many autonomous learning behaviours
Participants generally felt confident during the getting-ready stage of learning; however, they struggled with planning their learning steps, which is crucial for achieving their goals Research indicates that Vietnamese students face significant challenges in this area, with nearly 75% lacking confidence in identifying their strengths and weaknesses (Humphreys & Wyatt, 2013) Additionally, over 80% of participants were either unsure how to plan their learning or felt incapable of doing so This difficulty is particularly pronounced among non-English majors, who often do not have the habit of self-regulated learning (Le & Nguyen, 2022).
In the initiating stage, participants exhibited confidence in creating optimal study conditions but struggled with time management for studying They explored various learning resources, demonstrating flexibility in this area, although they were less adaptable with learning strategies Despite recognizing the importance of self-regulated learning, students found it challenging to initiate actual learning, as noted in previous research (Dang, 2012; Le, 2019) Successful learning outside the classroom necessitates a proactive approach, requiring students to allocate sufficient time and develop skills to choose appropriate learning resources and strategies.
In the next stage, participants demonstrated an ability to monitor their learning outside the classroom, actively seeking help when necessary, which contributed to sustaining their educational progress This aligns with previous research indicating that EFL tertiary students desire more discussions with teachers regarding self-regulated learning and value feedback during class (Le, 2019) However, while students were proactive in seeking assistance, they struggled with reflecting on the effectiveness of their chosen learning routines Reflection is crucial for developing proficient learners, as it enables students to assess their learning outcomes and recognize effective strategies applicable to various learning contexts (Ertmer & Newby, 1996).
In the self-evaluation stage of learning, participants experienced the lowest scores, primarily due to challenges in selecting appropriate evaluation criteria This difficulty resulted in a lack of confidence regarding their learning success and the effectiveness of their learning plans However, they felt more assured in assessing whether they had met their learning goals and the overall effectiveness of their learning process Previous research by Humphreys and Wyatt highlights similar struggles faced by students during self-evaluation.
A significant portion of students express uncertainty about their ability to self-assess their progress, as highlighted by a 2013 study where three-quarters of participants voiced doubts Nguyen (2018) emphasized the necessity for students to develop greater capacity for effective self-evaluation, which is often neglected due to the belief that teachers should handle performance assessments, a view influenced by Confucianism (Bui, 2018) Additionally, students are more accustomed to receiving summative assessments and high scores from teachers, rather than formative feedback on their learning processes (Dang, 2012) However, this does not imply that students lack the ability to self-evaluate; for instance, Huynh (2023) observed that when self-evaluation practices were integrated into a writing classroom, EFL students actively engaged with reading strategies and assistive technology to assess their essays Consequently, it is essential to provide students with more opportunities for self-evaluation in the classroom.
The transcending stage of the learning process involves learners actively seeking new activities to apply their acquired knowledge and skills Participants reported increased confidence in using these skills in similar contexts, while also recognizing the importance of finding opportunities for further learning They felt capable of retaining their new skills and integrating knowledge into their language use, although they acknowledged that retaining this knowledge was the most challenging aspect Effective retention requires students to engage in consistent practice and drilling of the new information, as highlighted by Ausubel (2000).
The study revealed that students exhibited a moderate ability to manage the behavioral aspects of learner autonomy in out-of-class learning Participants lacked confidence in undertaking essential autonomous learning tasks, such as initiating their learning, creating learning plans, reflecting on their progress, and establishing self-evaluation criteria This behavioral control is intricately linked to language learning strategies, particularly metacognitive skills like planning, monitoring, and regulation Challenges in these learning behaviors and strategies hinder students' ability to control their learning and develop autonomy Although metacognitive strategies were identified as the most commonly used by Vietnamese EFL high school students, they faced significant challenges in effectively setting and implementing learning goals upon entering university Therefore, the findings underscore the necessity for enhanced scaffolding to assist students in gaining better control over their behavioral dimensions of learning.
Participants displayed a moderate level of mental readiness for self-directed learning outside the classroom, demonstrating the ability to seek alternative solutions and adapt to challenges However, they struggled with the notion that their learning depended solely on their efforts and viewed difficulties as purely positive challenges This indicates that while students are mentally prepared for independent learning, they require greater confidence in taking full responsibility for their educational journey These findings align with prior research emphasizing the importance of learner autonomy in university life, suggesting that students still need time to fully embrace this responsibility.
Perceived teachers’ roles in the classroom
Teachers in the language classroom were perceived to play six roles: a resource, an evaluator, a controller, an instructor, a co-learner, and a facilitator
Teachers play a crucial role as resources in language classrooms, highlighting the demand for expert guidance on learning materials Participants emphasized the necessity for teachers to possess strong subject matter knowledge, which is supported by research indicating that such expertise enhances teachers' ability to engage diverse student groups (Howard & Aleman, 2008) To effectively prepare students, educators must master both theoretical and practical knowledge Despite the vast array of learning resources available online, students still rely on teachers to navigate these materials, particularly specialized content, reflecting their trust in teachers' ability to introduce relevant learning tools (Dang & Le, 2021).
The evaluator's role emphasizes the importance of constructive, fair, and gentle feedback from teachers, aligning with research that highlights students' expectations for mindful educators and the significance of affective factors in learning (Skinner & Beer, 2016) Teachers can employ various assessment methods to help students identify their own learning mistakes (Arafat, 2005) Effective monitoring of student progress involves a blend of summative and formative assessments, supported by research that underscores the vital role of formative assessment (Lau, 2016) Nonetheless, large class sizes pose a significant challenge for teachers in assessing students, particularly in developing productive language skills.
Participants recognized that teachers play a crucial role in shaping classroom dynamics, relying heavily on their guidance and decision-making regarding curriculum delivery While teachers are required to adhere to a structured teaching plan aligned with the Ministry of Education and Training (MoET) standards, their unique approaches significantly influence teaching effectiveness Essential to this process is the teacher's expertise, experience, and understanding of students' needs, particularly in assessment strategies, as students aim to succeed in their courses Additionally, participants emphasized the importance of teachers selecting appropriate learning materials and activities to enhance engagement, especially given the overwhelming array of online resources Effective classroom management and the ability to maintain student concentration are also vital Research by Nguyen and Habók (2021) highlights the necessity for teachers to guide English learners through controlled learning environments, while Trinh and Mai (2018) noted that students expect comprehensive knowledge and management from their teachers To foster a more inclusive learning experience, it is crucial to provide students with opportunities to express their opinions on various aspects of their education.
Teachers play a crucial role in imparting knowledge and equipping students with essential learning skills To enhance their teaching methods, educators must engage in various professional development activities The findings indicate that teachers are receptive to feedback, which allows them to adapt their lessons effectively This aligns with constructivist teaching principles, emphasizing the importance of eliciting prior knowledge, creating cognitive dissonance, applying new knowledge with feedback, and fostering reflection on learning (Baviskar et al., 2009) Additionally, students should be provided with opportunities to reflect on their learning experiences, cultivating a habit of reflection that enhances their educational journey.
In the role of co-learners, teachers actively engage with students by understanding their concerns, respecting their ideas, and fostering connections within the classroom At the tertiary level, where credit-based training often leads to students joining different groups each term, establishing strong rapport is essential for promoting collaboration and easing interactions among classmates This bond between teachers and students highlights the significance of affective factors in education, emphasizing the mutual respect that enhances the teaching and learning experience (Beatty, 2000).
Teachers, as facilitators, played a crucial role in guiding students through tasks, ensuring they understood how to proceed effectively By clarifying learning outcomes and providing step-by-step support, teachers motivated students and fostered a transition from extrinsic to intrinsic motivation, as supported by previous research (Brown et al., 2015) Additionally, these facilitating actions significantly enhanced classroom engagement (Kolopack et al., 2015).
In summary, teachers play crucial roles in the language classroom as resources, evaluators, controllers, instructors, co-learners, and facilitators, highlighting their indispensable position As they engage in typical classroom actions, teachers increasingly prioritize respecting students' voices and fostering independent learning, thereby adapting to a more learner-centered approach in the teaching and learning process.
Perceived peers’ roles in the classroom
Students perceived their role as co-learners primarily through collaborative exploration, finding that engaging together enhanced their learning more than merely sharing answers Key collaborative actions included working on class assignments, learning in a comfortable environment, supporting each other’s contributions, and seeking assistance These collaborative behaviors align with previous research, which highlights how peers work together to reinforce existing knowledge, practice target languages, experiment with linguistic concepts, and co-construct new understanding (Vo, 2020).
Participants recognized their peers as vital encouragers, helping them persist through challenges and explore new learning methods They appreciated the collaborative spirit fostered by peer contributions, which was particularly important given that large class sizes often limit individual teacher support (Hoang, 2020) This camaraderie among friends served as a significant motivational force in their educational journeys Unlike earlier studies that emphasized language output and reflection (Swain & Lapkin, 2001), the current research highlights the importance of affective factors in the role of encouragement.
In the role of assessors, peers actively evaluate suggestions and provide respectful feedback, even without expert knowledge or pedagogical training Despite this lack of formal expertise, students value constructive comments from their friends, emphasizing mutual respect in the feedback process According to Shen et al (2020), peer assessment encourages students to take greater responsibility for their learning The current study's findings align with previous research, indicating that the role of an assessor should not primarily focus on correcting language use, as effective correction often requires more support from teachers (McDonough, 2004) To enhance their assessment skills, students should be trained to offer constructive feedback through clarifying questions and confirmation checks, which can improve communication and benefit all participants in the feedback process, ultimately helping learners to better understand both form and meaning (Mackey, 2012).
In the classroom, peers play a crucial role as immediate supporters, often providing timely assistance when teacher guidance is delayed Students frequently rely on their classmates for help in overcoming challenges, particularly in accessing learning resources by sharing external materials Research highlights the importance of enhancing students' utilization of learning resources (Shi & Han, 2019) while also emphasizing the development of effective learning strategies and critical thinking skills (Irvine et al., 2018).
Peers play a crucial role in the learning process by offering companionship and motivation to students They encourage one another to strive for excellence, provide constructive feedback, and assist each other whenever possible Research indicates that EFL tertiary students prioritize the support and encouragement from their peers over purely academic factors, highlighting the importance of social connections in their educational experience.
Learner autonomy and perceived teachers’ roles
5.4.1 Correlations between learner autonomy in out-of-class learning and perceived teachers’ roles in the classroom
Data analysis reveals a significant correlation between learner autonomy in out-of-class learning and the various roles teachers play in the classroom The facilitator and controller roles are particularly linked to learners' mental readiness and behavioral control, which are crucial for executing learning plans and advancing through different stages of the learning process Additionally, other roles such as resource, co-learner, instructor, and evaluator show a positive correlation with all dimensions of learner autonomy.
The research findings align with previous studies while delving deeper into the connections between learner autonomy in out-of-class learning and the roles of teachers in the classroom.
The role of a facilitator is crucial in fostering learner autonomy, as teachers guide students in their decision-making processes and enhance their motivation to learn independently (Voller, 1997; Shi & Han, 2019) By creating diverse learning opportunities and scaffolding the steps necessary for tackling tasks—such as understanding outcomes, planning approaches, and preparing effectively—facilitators empower students to practice essential skills This practice enables students to transfer their learning to independent study beyond the classroom, ultimately promoting lifelong learning habits.
Research highlights the significant connections between learner autonomy and the multifaceted roles of teachers as resources, instructors, and evaluators (Duong, 2015; Shi & Han, 2015) By offering valuable learning materials, teachers empower students to take initiative in their education, thereby enhancing overall learning effectiveness Engaging lessons from instructors motivate students to delve deeper into the subject matter, while constructive feedback from teachers allows students to identify and address their weaknesses Furthermore, the current study underscores the importance of the co-learner role, reflecting students' eagerness to actively participate in classroom activities alongside their teachers.
The relationship between learner autonomy and the teacher's controlling role may seem contradictory, as learner autonomy flourishes in an environment of freedom where students can make decisions about their studies However, for Vietnamese students who struggle with self-initiating and self-regulating their learning, it is crucial for teachers to take a proactive approach to guide and support their learning beyond the classroom By adopting a controlling role, teachers can effectively nurture learner autonomy by making informed choices about curriculum delivery, material selection, assessment methods, and fostering a supportive learning environment Research indicates that teachers acting as classroom regulators and organizers play a significant role in promoting the development of learner autonomy.
The research highlights a significant correlation between learner autonomy in out-of-class learning and the role of teachers in the classroom Key mediating factors demonstrate how educators foster students' understanding of the importance of learning beyond the classroom, equip them with vital self-directed learning skills and strategies, and inspire them to take initiative in their educational journey.
5.4.2 Mediating factors of correlations between learner autonomy in out-of-class learning and perceived teachers’ roles in the classroom
The research identified key mediating factors influencing the relationship between learner autonomy and perceived teachers’ roles, which include motivation, trust, the teacher as a role model, and care.
Motivation plays a crucial role in determining learners' readiness for autonomous learning (Spratt et al., 2002) In the Vietnamese context, Nguyen (2018) identified seven primary sources of motivation: personal interests, success in language learning, career aspirations, exams, travel, studying abroad, and pressure from parents and teachers The current research highlights how teachers' roles can foster both extrinsic and intrinsic motivation, facilitating a shift from external to internal motivation for learning beyond the classroom Students reported engaging in out-of-class learning to better prepare for lessons and earn bonus points, driven by teachers' demands This pressure often led to a deeper interest in the subject matter, as students recognized their skills improving through dedicated effort on assignments Consequently, intrinsically motivated students were inspired to delve deeper into engaging lessons, reinforcing their autonomy as learners (Ushioda, 2011).
Students placed significant trust in their teachers, believing that their knowledge and beliefs could guide them effectively Having navigated their own learning challenges and achieved success, teachers were seen as reliable sources of advice on study strategies and resources This trust aligns with previous research, particularly in the Vietnamese context, where students have been accustomed to following teachers' directives from primary through high school As noted by Le (2019), students in the Mekong Delta often felt they lacked the ability to make independent decisions about their education, further reinforcing their reliance on teachers' guidance.
In 2021, it was highlighted that when teachers design effective learning environments, students are more likely to engage and learn within them However, if these spaces become unsuitable, students may opt to disengage Research by Arıkan and Bakla (2011) indicates that learners feel capable of studying a language independently when supported by a knowledgeable teacher Ultimately, the trust students place in their teachers' guidance fosters their ability to navigate learning beyond the classroom Yet, this reliance can hinder proactive autonomy, as students may wait for direct instruction rather than taking initiative in their learning.
Students greatly admire their teachers for their professionalism, extensive knowledge, and effective instructional skills, viewing them as role models (Yu, 2006) Participants expressed that their teachers inspired them to strive for success and competence, appreciating not only their academic expertise but also their classroom management and critical thinking abilities This admiration drives students to enhance their own skills and knowledge outside the classroom to emulate their teachers Therefore, educational institutions should foster collaboration between teachers and students, providing opportunities for teachers to showcase their dedication to continuous learning and self-improvement.
The qualitative data revealed that students found the care from their teachers to be a significant mediating factor in their learning experience They valued teachers who remembered their names, allowed them to express concerns, reminded them of deadlines, and inquired about their learning progress This supportive environment empowered students to engage in their learning, especially during challenges However, this appreciation for care presents a dilemma for Vietnamese teachers, as it contrasts with the traditional authoritative roles emphasized in Confucian classrooms Students perceive the teacher's controlling role differently, recognizing that effective guidance stems from genuine care, which includes understanding their backgrounds and respecting their ideas Additionally, students expect formative feedback rather than just summative assessments, highlighting the need for teachers to provide opportunities for dialogue and defense of their viewpoints This finding underscores the critical role of affective factors in fostering learner autonomy and enhancing the teaching and learning process in Vietnam.
Research indicates a strong correlation between students' learner autonomy in out-of-class settings and teachers' roles in the classroom, particularly as facilitators and controllers Key factors such as motivation, trust, and teachers serving as role models significantly mediate this relationship These findings highlight the essential role teachers play in promoting learner autonomy, even outside direct training activities Supporting previous studies, it is emphasized that traditional classrooms can effectively nurture learner autonomy Additionally, teachers are encouraged to adopt multiple roles—controller, instructor, resource, evaluator, co-learner, and facilitator—to cultivate an environment that fosters learner autonomy, rather than focusing solely on knowledge transmission.
Vietnamese students are becoming more confident in managing their learning outside the classroom, yet they still require teacher support and guidance Research highlights the significance of affective factors like care, motivation, trust, and teachers as role models in enhancing learner autonomy While students are embracing a shift from teacher-centered to student-centered learning, they seek more proactive assistance from teachers in setting goals and suggesting self-study resources Effective autonomy support can occur within the classroom, where teachers play a crucial role as facilitators and controllers Students value teachers who clarify learning outcomes, assist with task execution, and make informed decisions regarding activities and assessments By understanding students' concerns and balancing the curriculum with their desires, teachers can create an environment that promotes self-regulated learning Ultimately, despite challenges such as large class sizes and limited resources, teachers can cultivate learner autonomy through their supportive actions in the classroom.
Learner autonomy and perceived peers’ roles
5.5.1 Correlations between learner autonomy in out-of-class learning and perceived peers’ roles in the classroom
EFL tertiary students' learner autonomy is significantly correlated with the perceived roles of peers in the classroom, particularly highlighting the strong connections between learner autonomy and the roles of co-learners and encouragers.
The influence of group dynamics significantly impacts learner autonomy, highlighting the vital role of peers as mental encouragers In large classrooms, such as those in Vietnam, teachers often struggle to provide individual support, prompting students to seek encouragement from one another This peer collaboration not only enhances the learning experience but also reduces dependency on teachers, ultimately promoting greater self-reliance among students (Swatevacharkul & Boona, 2021).
Learner autonomy is significantly influenced by the role of co-learners throughout various learning stages, including preparation, execution, monitoring, and self-evaluation, with the encourager role playing a key part specifically during self-evaluation The ability to manage learning behaviors improves when peers effectively engage as co-learners, supporting findings that peer learning enhances awareness, negotiation opportunities, and reflective practices (Voller, 2005) Additionally, Carlson et al (2019) highlighted that peer learning fosters identity negotiation, which is crucial for developing learner autonomy The roles of supporter and assessor also impact student behaviors in out-of-class learning contexts These findings underscore the necessity of training students in diverse collaborative methods, such as peer tutoring and cooperation, to optimize their collective learning outcomes (Damon & Phelps, 1989).
The psychological dimension of learning highlights the significant role of peers, particularly as encouragers and co-learners, in influencing students' affective control and mental readiness for independent learning outside the classroom Research indicates that mental readiness and the ability to manage affective factors are crucial predictors of human behavior, with students exhibiting positive attitudes towards learning achieving greater academic success over time Therefore, it is essential to prioritize students' psychological factors, such as mental readiness and affective control, to enhance their learning experiences beyond the classroom.
In conclusion, the findings support prior research on the influence of peers in fostering learner autonomy Peers serve as co-learners, encouragers, supporters, and assessors, showing a significant correlation with learner autonomy in out-of-class settings Participants favored collaborative efforts and peer encouragement over the quality of support and assessment received from friends The exploration of these relationships will be further enhanced by the mediating factors discussed in the following section.
5.5.2 Mediating factors of correlations between learner autonomy in out-of-class learning and perceived peers’ roles in the classroom
The roles of peers in the classroom significantly influence students' motivation to engage in learning beyond school, fostering their autonomy as learners Four key factors—positive emotions, interdependence, responsibilities, and face value—explain how these peer interactions enhance students' desire to learn and their ability to manage their own educational journeys outside the classroom.
Students' positive emotions from collaborative learning with peers motivate them to explore beyond the classroom Participants noted that learning together fostered a comfortable environment for sharing ideas, leading to continued efforts outside of class The encouragement and instant support from friends, along with constructive feedback, made peer learning both enjoyable and effective This aligns with previous research indicating that quality student interactions can evoke positive emotions such as excitement and satisfaction, ultimately supporting their learning goals (Voller, 2005) Additionally, learning with peers can alleviate anxiety and promote a non-judgmental approach to mistakes (Philp & Mackey, 2010) These findings highlight the importance of cultivating positive student relationships to enhance the learning environment in classrooms.
When students collaborate in the classroom as co-learners, their sense of interdependence motivates them to enhance their learning beyond school Research indicates that this goal interdependence encourages students to strive for the best outcomes collectively Additionally, participants noted resource interdependence, where each student contributes unique resources necessary for completing tasks, highlighting the importance of collaboration (Johnson et al., 1998) Fostering a culture of 'promotive interaction,' characterized by mutual help and support, enhances the effectiveness of group work (Palfreyman).
Collaborating with peers fosters a sense of responsibility among students, encouraging independent learning beyond the classroom In this collaborative environment, students assume various responsibilities, either assigned explicitly by teachers or determined organically based on individual strengths and commitments As they divide roles among themselves, students become motivated to fulfill their obligations, which can also include peer assessment tasks This sense of accountability drives students to engage actively in their learning, as reported in the current study, where participants indicated that their desire to avoid being perceived as irresponsible prompted them to take ownership of their educational responsibilities (Shen et al., 2020).
Face value has sparked learners' interest in pursuing knowledge beyond the classroom Originating from Erving Goffman's concept of "face-work," face represents a socially approved positive value that individuals strive to present in social interactions Each person enters social situations aiming to showcase their best self (Nguyen, 2015) In Vietnamese culture, face encompasses two key aspects: personal face, which reflects the desire for respect regarding one's individuality and independence, and social face, which pertains to the respect for social values related to age, gender, status, and achievements (Kim & Cohen, 2010; Vu, 2002) The Vietnamese understanding of face is deeply influenced by social expectations and public perceptions (Pham, 2011).
In Confucian heritage cultures, face value significantly impacts education, particularly among Vietnamese students, by hindering their participation in interactive learning and classroom activities (Nguyen, 2014) The fear of losing face often prevents students from voicing their difficulties or seeking assistance However, the desire to maintain face can also motivate students to enhance their learning efforts both in and out of the classroom To avoid being looked down upon by peers, they strive to perform well academically and aspire to transition from being recipients of help to becoming supporters of their classmates.
In summary, four key factors were identified as mediators between learner autonomy in out-of-class learning and the roles of peers in the classroom: co-learners, encouragers, supporters, and assessors Engaging in peer learning, encouragement, support, and assessment fostered a comfortable learning environment, enhanced interdependence among students, clarified individual responsibilities for learning tasks, and maintained their self-image, all of which encouraged learners to initiate and sustain their learning beyond the classroom.
Finalising the research model
This research has finalized a model illustrating the connections between learner autonomy in out-of-class learning and the perceived roles of teachers and peers in the classroom, along with the mediating factors influencing these relationships, as depicted in Figure 5.1.
Learner autonomy is characterized as the ability to manage the situational, behavioral, and psychological aspects of out-of-class learning Students perceive teachers as fulfilling six distinct roles in the language classroom: controller, instructor, facilitator, co-learner, resource, and evaluator Additionally, peers contribute in four key roles: co-learner, supporter, assessor, and encourager.
The study confirms significant statistical correlations between learner autonomy in out-of-class learning and the perceived roles of teachers in the classroom, highlighting four mediating factors: motivation, trust, the teacher as a role model, and care, with care emerging as a new mediating factor Additionally, it establishes correlations between learner autonomy and perceived peer roles, mediated by positive emotions, responsibilities, interdependence, and face value, with face value identified as a new factor.
Chapter overview
This chapter presents the findings of the research on EFL tertiary learner autonomy in out-of-class contexts, highlighting the correlation between this autonomy and the perceived roles of teachers and peers in the classroom It also identifies the mediating factors influencing these correlations The subsequent chapter will conclude with implications for enhancing learner autonomy, focusing on the contributions of both teachers and peers.
Summary
The study explores the dynamic nature of learner autonomy, particularly in out-of-class learning contexts where students have significant control over their education Focusing on EFL tertiary students, it examines how the roles of teachers and peers, framed by sociocultural theory and community of practice, influence learner autonomy The research highlights that neither teachers nor students received formal training in this area Utilizing an explanatory sequential mixed methods design, data was gathered through a questionnaire on learner autonomy and perceived roles of teachers and peers, along with semi-structured group interviews The findings reveal key correlations between learner autonomy and the perceived roles of teachers and peers, as well as their mediating effects.
6.1.1 EFL tertiary students’ learner autonomy in out-of-class learning
EFL tertiary students demonstrate learner autonomy in out-of-class learning by managing three key dimensions: situational, behavioral, and psychological However, their ability to exert control over these aspects of learner autonomy is moderate, indicating that they encounter significant challenges in their independent learning efforts outside the classroom.
EFL tertiary students, while still influenced by their teachers and institutions, are increasingly demonstrating autonomy in their learning decisions beyond the classroom.
In five key learning stages—getting started, executing the plan, monitoring progress, self-evaluating, and transcending—students reported moderate control over their learning behaviors outside the classroom However, they expressed a lack of confidence in setting learning goals, planning steps, initiating learning, and reflecting on their routines These behaviors are crucial for fostering autonomous learning in out-of-class contexts.
Students demonstrated a moderate awareness of their learning responsibilities and displayed confidence in addressing problems as they arose However, their reliance on self-directed learning could be strengthened When faced with negative emotions related to learning outside the classroom, they attempted to relax, yet they lacked effective strategies to maintain their enjoyment in the learning process.
In conclusion, EFL tertiary students demonstrated a moderate level of control over their out-of-class learning, yet they required support in making learning-related decisions, receiving training in autonomous strategies, and managing the psychological factors that affect their learning process.
6.1.2 Correlations between learner autonomy and perceived teachers’ roles and their mediating factors
Research indicates that learner autonomy is significantly influenced by teachers' roles in the classroom, particularly those of a controller and facilitator When teachers effectively embrace these roles, they enhance students' ability to manage their out-of-class learning This correlation highlights the importance of teacher engagement in fostering student independence, as the perceived roles of instructors, resources, evaluators, and co-learners also contribute to the development of learner autonomy.
The facilitator's role in promoting learner autonomy is widely discussed in educational research, emphasizing the need for teachers to step back and allow students to develop independently while providing support only when necessary This perspective appears to conflict with the significant influence of the teacher's controlling role on learner autonomy However, qualitative data analysis reveals that teachers, as controllers, do not dictate but instead create optimal learning conditions Four key mediating factors—motivation, trust, role modeling, and care—highlight students' reliance on teachers for guidance in both classroom and out-of-class learning Notably, the element of care from teachers emerges as a crucial factor that fosters students' desire to learn, rooted in the strong bonds formed during earlier educational experiences.
Research indicates that while EFL tertiary students can make independent learning decisions outside the classroom, the role of teachers remains crucial When teachers actively engage and fulfill their responsibilities in the classroom, they significantly enhance students' autonomy in their out-of-class learning experiences.
6.1.3 Correlations between learner autonomy and perceived peers’ roles and their mediating factors
Learner autonomy is positively correlated with peers' roles in the classroom, particularly as co-learners and encouragers When peers actively engage in these roles, students demonstrate an increased ability to manage their learning independently outside the classroom Four key mediating factors—positive emotions, interdependence, responsibilities, and face value—highlight the significance of peer companionship and mutual encouragement in the learning process These findings emphasize the need for training students in peer learning, support, encouragement, and assessment to enhance their overall educational experience.
From the summary of the current research, this chapter deliberates upon the specific academic and pedagogical contributions that this study has made to learner autonomy research.
Contributions of the study
Learner autonomy has been a focal point of research for over forty years, primarily in classroom settings, while studies on out-of-class contexts remain limited This study investigates the relationship between learner autonomy in out-of-class environments and the perceived influence of teachers and peers in the classroom, as well as the mediating factors involved The findings provide valuable insights for the field of education.
Learner autonomy in out-of-class learning is defined as the ability to take control over three key dimensions: situational, behavioral, and psychological, as proposed by Benson (2001) and Ding and Shen (2022) This construct illustrates how students can manage their learning environments, behaviors, and mindset, thereby enhancing their out-of-class learning experiences.
The study explored the relationship between students' learner autonomy in out-of-class learning and the roles of teachers and peers in the classroom, utilizing both quantitative and qualitative data While these associations are frequently suggested, there has been a lack of statistically robust evidence to support them.
The study provides empirical evidence that students' learner autonomy in out-of-class learning is positively correlated with six teacher roles: controller, instructor, facilitator, co-learner, resource, and evaluator Notably, the roles of controller and facilitator showed a stronger correlation with learner autonomy Additionally, four key factors—motivation, trust, role model, and care—mediate these associations, with care emerging as a significant factor.
The study reveals a positive correlation between learner autonomy in out-of-class learning and the perceived roles of peers in the classroom, specifically as co-learners, encouragers, assessors, and supporters Notably, the roles of co-learner and encourager exhibit a stronger correlation with learner autonomy compared to other roles Additionally, four mediating factors—positive emotions, interdependence, responsibilities, and face value—play a significant role in these associations, with face value emerging as a key factor.
Research highlights a strong link between learner autonomy in out-of-class learning and the roles of teachers and peers in the classroom This connection, along with various mediating factors, demonstrates that in-class and out-of-class learning are interconnected To effectively foster learner autonomy, it is essential to integrate these two educational contexts.
Pedagogical implications
The findings on EFL tertiary students' learner autonomy in out-of-class learning highlight the crucial roles of teachers and peers in promoting this autonomy These insights carry important implications for policymakers, educational institutions, and educators, as well as for the students themselves, to enhance learner autonomy beyond the classroom setting.
To effectively foster learner autonomy in Vietnamese classrooms, policymakers must establish explicit regulations and detailed guidance Although learner autonomy is recognized as essential across all educational levels, there remains a lack of clear discussion regarding its integration into training outcomes and the time allocated for its development Without specific guidelines, support activities for learner autonomy may be overlooked, hindering their implementation in practice Additionally, the creation of regulations should involve key stakeholders, including educational institutions, teachers, and students It is crucial to connect learner autonomy promotion with increased recognition of out-of-class learning, as this is vital for its growth Furthermore, regulations should align with curriculum development and teacher training to ensure that institutions effectively support teachers in adopting autonomy-enhancing teaching methods.
Learner autonomy is influenced by the institutional environment where learning occurs, as noted by Aoki (2001) Institutions play a crucial role in fostering conditions that support the development of learner autonomy While adhering to training programs sanctioned by the Ministry of Education and Training, institutions implement various strategies to encourage independent learning They can create conducive learning spaces, establish communities of practice, and organize extracurricular activities to enhance learner autonomy.
To foster effective independent learning, students require comfortable and practical study environments, including self-access centers, designated self-study areas, and social learning spaces like English-speaking corners or cafés These varied settings, along with virtual platforms such as Learning Management Systems, motivate students to engage in self-directed learning at their own pace Additionally, supporting communities of practice, such as English-speaking clubs and interest-based groups like photography, book reading, cooking, and sports, allows students to pursue their passions while enhancing their English skills Online communities further break down barriers of space and time, providing valuable support for students’ learning journeys.
Learners benefit from opportunities to engage with English and develop autonomy in their education through extracurricular activities like book fairs, film days, speech contests, and seminars These events can help students discover their interests within the vast field of English Talk shows featuring experts on learning strategies and seminars led by successful alumni can enhance awareness of autonomous learning and introduce various effective learning strategies.
Institutions play a crucial role in fostering learner autonomy, making it essential to create ample opportunities for students to engage in self-directed learning To maximize the benefits for learners, educational spaces, communities, and extracurricular activities should be thoughtfully designed and maintained with the active involvement of teachers or experienced organizers.
6.3.3.1 Autonomy support in the classroom
Teachers play a crucial role in fostering learner autonomy through effective classroom practices, as promoting autonomy involves empowering students to take control of their learning (Benson, 2008) According to Little (2004), two key pedagogical principles for developing learner autonomy in language education are learner involvement, which encourages students to share responsibility for their learning, and learner reflection, which supports critical thinking during the planning, monitoring, and evaluation of their learning To enhance the connection between classroom activities and students' autonomy in out-of-class learning, teachers can implement four specific strategies that address these principles while also considering the affective factors that influence learning.
To effectively engage learners, it is essential to provide them with choices and a voice in their education Teachers should move away from traditional authoritative roles and instead foster student motivation by allowing them to influence various aspects of their learning experience This can include selecting supplementary materials, participating in classroom activities, choosing partners or teammates, and deciding on presentation formats By involving students in these decisions, they feel a sense of ownership and authority over their learning, making the process more relevant and motivating.
Teachers play a crucial role in fostering students' reflection on their learning, a vital higher-order cognitive skill in higher education that involves analyzing actions, experiences, and motivations (Guo, 2022) Unfortunately, students often lack familiarity with reflective practices, as classroom time is typically limited to teacher-led wrap-ups and evaluations To address this, educators should allocate dedicated time and activities for students to engage in reflection Additionally, teachers must assist students in setting learning goals and planning their learning steps, as many learners struggle with these autonomous strategies By providing ample opportunities and structured support for these practices, teachers can enhance students' ability to apply reflective skills in their learning beyond the classroom.
Teachers can enhance student autonomy in learning beyond the classroom by implementing modern teaching strategies like the flipped classroom model and project-based learning To ensure the success of these methods, educators must invest time and effort into meticulous planning, effective execution, and comprehensive assessment.
Teachers should prioritize affective factors in their teaching approach, as the attention and care they provide during class can significantly enhance students' trust and admiration This supportive environment encourages students to put in greater effort beyond the classroom Additionally, students value the integration of technology by teachers to facilitate learning, both within and outside the classroom setting.
Students often collaborate with peers, but effective teamwork isn't always a given To enhance collaborative skills, teachers should provide clear guidelines that include active listening, constructive feedback, and appreciation for diverse perspectives Various collaborative methods can be implemented, such as peer tutoring, peer review, study groups, discussion groups, and group projects Encouraging students to take on different roles fosters a sense of responsibility and helps them discover their strengths Additionally, establishing a community of practice within the classroom can connect students with shared interests, promoting engagement and facilitating learning beyond traditional settings.
In conclusion, teachers are essential in promoting student autonomy in learning By thoughtfully fulfilling their classroom responsibilities, educators can act as catalysts for students’ learning both inside and outside the classroom, providing crucial support throughout the educational journey.
While teachers and peers play crucial roles in fostering learner autonomy, the ultimate responsibility for its development lies with the students themselves To enhance learner autonomy outside the classroom, students should follow these essential guidelines.
Students should acknowledge the significance of out-of-class learning and cultivate self-motivation to enhance their educational experience Initially driven by external factors like meeting teachers' expectations, this motivation can develop into a genuine passion for the subject and the learning process Embracing diverse learning opportunities outside the classroom, such as exploring different environments, joining interest-based communities, and participating in extracurricular activities, can significantly enrich their learning journey Additionally, leveraging virtual learning spaces and technology can further enhance their education beyond traditional classroom settings.
Limitations
Although the current study was carefully designed, there are still unavoidable limitations
The survey items used in this study were primarily derived from research conducted outside of Vietnam, including studies from Japan and Western educational contexts After translating these items into Vietnamese, the researchers recognized the importance of the original context for investigating learner autonomy, a socially mediated construct To address potential issues arising from translation, the study implemented several steps to enhance the validity and reliability of the instrument.
The study focused exclusively on EFL tertiary students from three institutions in Ho Chi Minh City, overlooking students from other regions of Vietnam Expanding data collection to include various areas of the country could provide a more comprehensive understanding of learner autonomy in out-of-class learning across Vietnam.
The study of learner autonomy focuses solely on students' perspectives, neglecting the viewpoints of other stakeholders, such as school management and policy-makers, who also contribute to fostering autonomy It emphasizes how students perceive their learning experiences outside the classroom and their thoughts on the roles of their teachers, rather than evaluating teachers' effectiveness.
Directions for further research
To pave the way for future advancements, this study highlights several key areas that warrant further investigation and research
The study investigated the learner autonomy of EFL students in out-of-class learning, emphasizing the correlation with the perceived roles of teachers and peers in the classroom It specifically focused on these two external factors while suggesting that future research could examine additional influences, including learning regulations, textbooks, teaching methods, as well as internal factors like students' educational backgrounds and family characteristics, on learner autonomy.
This research utilized qualitative methods to identify the factors that mediate the relationship between learner autonomy and the perceived roles of teachers and peers The findings suggest that this mediating relationship may also be elucidated through statistical analysis.
The study gathered both quantitative and qualitative data to explore learner autonomy outside the classroom, relying solely on learners' reflections Future research could enhance understanding by utilizing varied methodologies, such as experimental studies or case studies, along with diverse research tools like observations or diary writing, to better illustrate the development patterns of learner autonomy in out-of-class learning.
Concluding sentence
This research enhances our understanding of learner autonomy by examining the relationships between students' out-of-class learning and the roles of teachers and peers in the classroom The findings provide statistically significant evidence for these associations, which have been previously suggested but not confirmed Recognizing the contributions of teachers and peers is crucial for fostering learner autonomy, as are the mediating factors involved These insights offer valuable implications for policymakers, educational institutions, teachers, and students alike Ultimately, this dissertation lays the groundwork for future research and innovation in learner autonomy.
Adams, K A., & Lawrence, E K (2019) Research methods, statistics, and applications
Ahearn, L M (2001) Language and agency Annual Review of Anthropology, 30(1), 109-
Ahmad, B E., & Majid, F A (2010) Self-directed learning and culture: A study on Malay adult learners Procedia-Social and Behavioral Sciences, 7, 254-263
Ahmadi, R (2013) Iranian ESP learners’ perceptions of autonomy in language learning
International Journal of Applied Linguistics and English Literature, 2(1), 28-34
Allwright, R L (1984) The importance of interaction in classroom language learning
Applied Linguistics, 5(2), 156-171 https://doi.org/10.1093/applin/5.2.156
Alonazi, S M (2017) The role of teachers in promoting learner autonomy in secondary schools in Saudi Arabia English Language Teaching, 10(7), 183-202 https://doi.org/10.5539/elt.v10n7p183
Alrabai, F (2021) The influence of autonomy-supportive teaching on EFL students’ classroom autonomy: An experimental intervention Frontiers in Psychology, 12 https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2021.728657
Angelaki, C., & Mavroidis, I (2013) Communication and social presence: The impact on adult learners’ emotions in distance learning European Journal of Open, Distance and e-Learning, 16(1), 78-93
Aoki, N (2001) The institutional and psychological context of learner autonomy Aila
Arafat, S (2005) The roles of English language teachers as perceived by learners of English as a foreign language at An-Najah National University An-Najah Univ J Res
Archana, S., & Rani, K U (2017) Role of a teacher in English language teaching (ELT)
International Journal of Educational Science and Research (IJESR), 7(1), 1-4
Arıkan, A., & Bakla, A (2011) Learner autonomy online: Stories from a blogging experience In D Gardner (Ed.), Fostering autonomy in language learning (pp 240-
Ausubel, D P (2000) Practice and motivational factors in meaningful learning and retention
In D.P Ausubel (Ed.), The acquisition and retention of knowledge: A cognitive view (pp181-212) Springer - Science + Business Media
Balỗikanli, C (2010) Learner autonomy in language learning: Student teachers’ beliefs
Australian Journal of Teacher Education (Online), 35(1), 90-103
Bang, M., & Vossoughi, S (2016) Participatory design research and educational justice:
Studying learning and relations within social change making Cognition & Instruction,
Banton, M (1996) Role In Kuper, Adam and Jessica Kuper (eds), The social science encyclopedia (2nd Edition) London and New York: Routledge Taylor & Francis
Basri, F (2020) Factors influencing learner autonomy and autonomy support in a faculty of education Teaching in Higher Education, 28(2), 270-285
Baviskar 1, S N., Hartle, R T., & Whitney, T (2009) Essential criteria to characterize constructivist teaching: Derived from a review of the literature and applied to five constructivist‐teaching method articles International Journal of Science Education,
Beatty, B R (2000) The emotions of educational leadership: Breaking the silence
International Journal of Leadership in Education, 3(4), 331-357
Beezer, B G (1974) Role theory and teacher education Journal of education, 156(1), 5-21
Begum, A N., & Chowdhury, R F (2016) The factors that affect learner autonomy in learning English as a foreign language (EFL) at tertiary level in Bangladesh Elk Asia
Pacific Journal of Social Sciences, 2(4)
Bei, E., Mavroidis, I., & Giossos, Y (2019) Development of a scale for measuring the learner autonomy of distance education students European Journal of Open, Distance and E-Learning, 22(2), 133–144 https://doi.org/10.2478/eurodl-2019-0015
Bekleyen, N (2004) The influence of teachers and peers on foreign language classroom anxiety Dil Dergisi, 123, 49-66
Benson, P (1997) The philosophy and politics of learner autonomy In P Benson & P
Voller (Eds.), Autonomy and independence in language learning (pp 18-34) London: Longman
Benson, P (2001) Teaching and researching autonomy in language learning Harlow:
Benson, P (2006) Autonomy and its role in learning In J Cummins, & C Davison, (Eds),
International handbook of English language teaching vol 15 (pp 733-745) Springer,
Benson, P (2008) Teachers’ and learners’ perspectives on autonomy In T Lamb & H
Reinders (Ed.) Learner and teacher autonomy (pp 15-32) John Benjamin Publishing Company
Benson, P (2011) Teaching and researching: Autonomy in language learning (2 nd ed.)
London: Routledge https://doi.org/10.4324/9781315833767
Benson, P., & Huang, J (2008) Autonomy in the transition from foreign language learning to foreign language teaching DELTA: Documentaỗóo de Estudos em Lingỹớstica Teúrica e Aplicada, 24, 421-439
Benson, P., & Voller, P (1997) Autonomy and independence in language learning London and New York: Longman
Biddle, B J (1986) Recent developments in role theory Annual review of sociology, 12(1),
Bodenhausen, G V., & Hugenberg, K (2009) Attention, perception, and social cognition In
F Strack & J Forster (Eds), Social cognition: The basis of human interaction (pp 1-
Braun, V., & Clarke, V (2006) Using thematic analysis in psychology Qualitative Research in Psychology, 3(2), 77-101
Brislin, R W (1970) Back-translation for cross-cultural research Journal of cross-cultural psychology, 1(3), 185-216
Britannica (n.d.) role In Britannica Retrieved January 12, 2022, from https://www.britannica.com/topic/role
JALT, the Japan Association for Language Teaching, is a nonprofit organization focused on enhancing language teaching and learning Within JALT, the TEVAL SIG serves as a Special Interest Group dedicated to the research and evaluation of language learning outcomes In his 2001 article, Brown discusses the Spearman-Brown prophecy formula in relation to language testing statistics, questioning its application in justifying low reliability in assessments.
Brown, P R., McCord, R E., Matusovich, H M., & Kajfez, R L (2015) The use of motivation theory in engineering education research: A systematic review of literature
European Journal of Engineering Education, 40(2), 186-205
Brown, R (2007) Exploring the social positions that students construct within a classroom community of practice International Journal of Educational Research, 46(3-4), 116-
Bui, N (2018) Learner autonomy in tertiary English classes in Vietnam In J Albright (Ed.),
English tertiary education in Vietnam (pp 158-171) https://doi.org/10.4324/9781315212098-12
Butler, Y G., & Liu, Y (2019) The role of peers in young learners’ English learning In M
Sato & S Loewen (Eds.), Evidence-based second language pedagogy - A collection of instructed second language acquisition studies (pp 145-167) https://doi.org/10.4324/9781351190558-7
Cameron, L.J (1990) Staying with the script: Personality and self-directed learning System,
Carhill-Poza, A (2015) Opportunities and outcomes: The role of peers in developing the oral academic English proficiency of adolescent English learners Modern Language
Journal, 99(4), 678–695 https://doi.org/10.1111/modl.12271
Carlson, E., Stenberg, M., Lai, T., Reisenhofer, S., Chan, B., Cruz, E., & Chan, E A
(2019) Nursing students’ perceptions of peer learning through cross‐cultural student‐ led webinars: A qualitative study Journal of Advanced Nursing, 75(7), 1518-1526
Chambers, R (1979) Meaning and meaningfulness: Studies in the analysis and interpretation of texts French Forum, 4(2)
Chan, T W., Looi, C K., Chang, B., Chen, W., Wong, L H., Wong, S L., & Chou, C Y
(2019) IDC theory: Creation and the creation loop Research and Practice in
Chan, V (2001) Learning autonomously: The learners’ perspectives Journal of Further and
Chan, V., Spratt, M., & Humphreys, G (2002) Autonomous language learning: Hong Kong tertiary students’ attitudes and behaviours Evaluation and Research in Education,
Chang, L Y H (2007) The influences of group processes on learners’ autonomous beliefs and behaviors System, 35(3), 322-337
Chen, H I., & Pan, H H (2015) Learner autonomy and the use of language learning strategies in a Taiwanese junior high school Journal of Studies in Education, 5(1), 52-
Chiu, C Y (2005) Teacher roles and autonomous language learners: Case study of a cyber-
English writing course [Doctoral dissertation, The Pennsylvania State University]
Coakes, S J., Steed, L G., & Ong, C (2009) SPSS: Analysis without anguish: Version 16 for Windows Milton, Qld.: John Wiley & Sons Australia
Cohen, J (1988) Statistical power analysis for the behavioral sciences (2nd ed.) Hillsdale,
NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, Publishers
Cohen, L., Manion, L., & Morrison, K (2007) Research methods in education (6th ed.) New
Cohen, L., Manion, L., & Morrison, K (2011) Research methods in education (7th ed.) New
Corden, R (2000) Literacy & learning through talk: Strategies for the primary classroom
Cortina, J M (1993) What is coefficient alpha? An examination of theory and applications
Cotterall, S (1995) Readiness for autonomy: Investigating learner beliefs System, 23(2),
Crabbe, D (1993) Fostering autonomy from within the classroom: The teacher’s responsibility System, 21(4), 443-452
Creswell, J W (2014) A concise introduction to mixed methods research SAGE publications
Creswell, J W., & Clark, V L P (2011) Designing and conducting mixed methods research
(2nd ed.) Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage
Dafei, D (2007) An exploration of the relationship between learner autonomy and English proficiency Asian EFL Journal, 24(4), 24-34
Dam, L (1995) Learner autonomy: From theory to classroom practice Dublin, Ireland:
Damon, W & Phelps, E (1989) Critical distinctions among three approaches to peer education International Journal of Educational Research, 13(1), 9-19
Dang, T T, & Robertson, M (2010) Pedagogical lessons from students’ participation in Web
Dang, T T (2010) Learner autonomy in EFL studies in Vietnam: A discussion from sociocultural perspective English Language Teaching, 3(2), 3-9
Dang, T., & Le, Q (2021) Learning place control: Vietnamese EFL students’ appreciation and trust International Journal of Language Education and Applied Linguistics,
Dang, T.T (2012) Learner autonomy perception and performance: A study on Vietnamese students in online and offline learning environments [Doctoral dissertation, La Trobe
Danilenko, A., Kosmidis, I., Shershneva, V., & Vainshtein, Y (2018) Learner autonomy in modern higher education SHS Web of conferences, 48, 01002 https://doi.org/10.1051/shsconf/20184801022
Dauksevicuite, I (2016) Unlocking the full potential of digital native learners Henley
Business School, Mc-Graw-Hill Education Handouts
Dawson, C (2009) Introduction to research methods: A practical guide for anyone undertaking a research project (4th ed.) UK: Little, Brown Books Group
Dickinson, L (1979) Self-instruction in commonly taught languages System, 7(3), 181-186 https://doi.org/10.1016/0346-251X(79)90001-0
DiGiovanni, E., & Nagaswami, G (2001) Online peer review: An alternative to face-to-face?
Ding, Y., & Shen, H (2022) Delving into learner autonomy in an EFL MOOC in China: A case study Computer Assisted Language Learning, 35(3), 247–269 https://doi.org/10.1080/09588221.2019.1681464
Dửrnyei, Z., & Murphey, T (2003) Group dynamics in the language classroom (Vol 10)
Dửrnyei, Z., & Taguchi, T (2010) Questionnaires in second language research:
Construction, administration, and processing New York, NY: Routledge
Dửrnyei, Z & Ushioda, E (2011) Teaching and Researching Motivation (2nd Edition)
Dtinews (2017) University students struggle with English certificate for graduation
Available at: https://dtinews.dantri.com.vn/en/news/020/50351/university-students- struggle-with-english-certificate-for-graduation.html (accessed May 2023)
Duong, M T, & Seepho, S (2014) Promoting learner autonomy: A qualitative study on EFL teachers’ perceptions and their teaching practices In Proceedings of the International
Duong, M T (2015) A portfolio-based learner autonomy development model in an EFL writing course [Doctoral dissertation, School of Foreign Languages Institute of Social
Technology Suranaree University of Technology]
Dworkin, S L (2012) Sample size policy for qualitative studies using in-depth interviews Archives of Sexual Behavior, 41, 1319-1320
Edwards, A J., Weinstein, C E., Goetz, E T., & Alexander, P A (2014) Learning and study strategies: Issues in assessment, instruction, and evaluation Elsevier
Eka, D A (2014) Teachers’ and students’ perception of their roles in the teaching and learning of science International Letters of Social and Humanistic Sciences, 08, 170-
Ertmer, P A., & Newby, T J (1996) The expert learner: Strategic, self-regulated, and reflective Instructional Science, 24(1), 1-24
Everhard, C J (2018) Re-exploring the relationship between autonomy and assessment in language learning: A literature overview Relay Journal, 1(1), 6-20
Evers, H D., & Bauer, T (2011) Emerging epistemic landscapes: Knowledge clusters in Ho
Chi Minh City and the Mekong Delta ZEF Working Paper Series, No.48, University of Bonn, Center for Development Research (ZEF), Bonn
Fahim, M., & Haghani, M (2012) Sociocultural perspectives on foreign language learning
Journal of Language Teaching and Research, 3(4), 693-699
Fink, A (2017) How to conduct surveys: A step-by-step guide (6th ed.) Los Angeles, CA:
Flick, U (2007) Designing qualitative research Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage
Fumin, F., & Li, Z (2012) Teachers’ roles in promoting students’ learner autonomy in
China English Language Teaching, 5(4), 51–56 https://doi.org/10.5539/elt.v5n4p51
Fusch, P I., & Ness, L R (2015) Are we there yet? Data saturation in qualitative research The qualitative report, 20(9), 1408
Gavrilyuk, O A (2015) Autonomy as a core value of lifelong learning Journal of Siberian
Federal University Humanities & Social Sciences, 11 (8), 2283-2289
George, D., & Mallery, P (2010) SPSS for Windows step by step A simple study guide and reference (10 Baskı) GEN, 10, 152-165
George, T (2022) Semi-Structured Interview| Definition, Guide & Examples Scribbr website Available at: https://www scribbr com/methodology/semi-structured interview
Giddens, A (2008) Modernity and self-identity: Self and society in the late modern age In
S Seidman & J.C Alexander (Eds), The new social theory reader (pp 354-361) Routledge
Godwin-jones, R (2019) Riding the digital wilds: Learner autonomy and informal language learning Language Learning & Technology, 23(1), 8–25 https://doi.org/10125/44667
Goodnow, J J (1993) Direction of post-Vygotskian research In E.A Forman, N Minick &
C.A Stone (Eds) Contexts for learning: Sociocultural dynamics in children’s development (pp 369-382) Oxford University Press
Guest, G., Bunce, A., & Johnson, L (2006) How many interviews are enough? An experiment with data saturation and variability Field methods, 18(1), 59-82
Gultom, U A., & Widyastuti Purbani, A T (2022) The relationship between learner autonomy and students’ writing skills Journal of Hunan University Natural Sciences,
Guo, L (2022) How should reflection be supported in higher education? - A meta-analysis of reflection interventions Reflective Practice, 23(1), 118-146
Hair, J F., Black, W C., Babin, B J., & Anderson, R E (2019) Multivariate data analysis
Habók, A., & Magyar, A (2018) Validation of a self-regulated foreign language learning strategy questionnaire through multidimensional modelling Frontiers in Psychology,
9(AUG), 1–11 https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2018.01388
Han, L (2014) Teacher’s role in developing learner autonomy: A literature review
International Journal of English Language Teaching, 1(2), 21–27
Han, Y., & Reinhardt, J (2022) Autonomy in the digital wilds: Agency, competence, and self-efficacy in the development of L2 digital identities TESOL Quarterly, 56(3), 985–
Harden, R M., & Lilley, P (2018) The eight roles of the medical teacher: The purpose and function of a teacher in the healthcare professions Elsevier Health Sciences
Harkness, J., & Schoua-Glusberg, A (1998) Questionnaires in translation In J Harkness
(Ed.), Cross-cultural survey equivalence (pp 87-126) Mannheim: Zentrum für
Umfragen, Methoden und Analysen – ZUMA https://nbnresolving.org/urn:nbn:de:0168-ssoar-49733-1
Harmer, J (2001) The practice of English language teaching (3 rd ed.) Harlow: Longman
Harmer, J (2007) How to teach English – New edition Harlow: Pearson Education Limited Harmer, J (2015) The Practice of English Language Teaching (4 th ed.) London: Pearson
Higgs, J (1988) Planning learning experiences to promote autonomous learning In D Boud
(Ed.), Developing student autonomy in learning (2nd ed.) (pp 40-58) London: Kogan
Ho, N B., Dang, T T., & Nguyen, C T (2023) Parents’ contributions to Vietnamese
English as a foreign language students’ perceptions of learner autonomy International
Journal of Learning, Teaching and Educational Research, 22(2), 54-75
Hoang, V.V (2010) The Current Situation and Issues of the Teaching of English in Vietnam
Ritsumeikan Studies in Language and Culture, 22(1), 7-18
Hoang, V V (2018) MOET’s three pilot English language communicational curricula for schools in Vietnam: Rationale, design and implementation VNU Journal of Foreign
Hoang, V.V (2020a) The roles and status of English in present-day Vietnam: A socio- cultural analysis VNU Journal of Foreign Studies, 36(1), 1-21 https://doi.org/10.25073/2525-2445/vnufs.4495
Holec, H (1981) Autonomy and foreign language learning Strasbourg: Council of Europe Holmes, J., & Meyerhoff, M (1999) The community of practice: Theories and methodologies in language and gender research Language in society, 28(2), 173-183
Hotelling, H (1936) Simplified calculation of principal components Psychometrika, 1(1),
Howard, M C (2016) A review of exploratory factor analysis decisions and overview of current practices: What we are doing and how can we improve? International Journal of Human-computer Interaction, 32(1), 51-62
Howard, T C., & Aleman, G R (2008) Teacher capacity for diverse learners Handbook of research on teacher education (pp 157- 174)
Hsieh, H C., & Hsieh, H L (2019) Undergraduates’ out-of-class learning: Exploring EFL students’ autonomous learning behaviors and their usage of resources Education
Sciences, 9(3), 12–17 https://doi.org/10.3390/educsci9030159
Huang, S., Eslami, Z., & Hu, R J S (2010) The relationship between teacher and peer support and English-language learners’ anxiety English Language Teaching, 3(1), 32-
Humphreys, G., & Wyatt, M (2013) Helping Vietnamese university learners to become more autonomous ELT Journal, 68(1), 52-63 https://doi.org/10.1093/elt/cct056
Irianti, L., Syafryadin, S., Wibowo, E R M., & Febriani, R B (2021) Gender based students’ learning autonomy in English flipped classroom Linguists: Journal of
Irvine, S., Williams, B., & McKenna, L (2018) Near-peer teaching in undergraduate nurse education: An integrative review Nurse Education Today, 70 (July), 60–68 https://doi.org/10.1016/j.nedt.2018.08.009
Jiao, L (2005) Promoting EFL learner autonomy Sino-US English Teaching, 17(4), 27-30 Johnson, D., Johnson, R & Holubec, E (1998) Cooperation in the classroom Boston: Allyn and Bacon
Johnson, L R., Johnson-Pynn, J S., & Pynn, T M (2007) Youth civic engagement in China:
Results from a program promoting environmental activism Journal of Adolescent
Johnson, R B., & Onwuegbuzie, A J (2004) Mixed methods research: A research paradigm whose time has come Educational Researcher, 33(7), 14-26
Kabir, A., Merrill, R D., Shamim, A A., Klemn, R D., Labrique, A B., Christian, P., &
Nasser, M (2014) Canonical correlation analysis of infant’s size at birth and maternal factors: A study in rural Northwest Bangladesh PloS one, 9(4), e94243
Kane, J S., & Lawler, E E (1978) Methods of peer assessment Psychological bulletin,
Kao, P L (2010) Examining second language learning: Taking a sociocultural stance
Annual Review of Education, Communication & Language Sciences, 7, 113-131
Kemala, Z (2016) An analysis of factors influencing the autonomous learners in learning
English Eltin Journal: Journal of English Language Teaching in Indonesia, 4(1) Ketsing, W (1995) Means and the interpretations Research in Education, 18(3), 8-11
Kim, Y H., & Cohen, D (2010) Information, perspective, and judgments about the self in face and dignity cultures Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 36(4), 537-550
Kimura, H (2014) Establishing Group Autonomy through Self-Access Center Learning
Experiences Studies in Self-Access Learning Journal, 5, 82–97 https://doi.org/10.37237/050202
Knowles, M S (1975) Self-directed learning: A guide for learners and teachers New York:
In a 2021 study by Koca et al., a questionnaire was developed to evaluate teachers' perceptions regarding their current personal commitment and their desired future commitment to eight distinct roles This research, published in the Journal of Basic, provides a Turkish version of the assessment tool, aiming to enhance understanding of educators' professional engagement and aspirations.
Clinical Health Sciences, 5(2), 162–171 https://doi.org/10.30621/jbachs.920553
Kolopack, P A., Parsons, J A., & Lavery, J V (2015) What makes community engagement effective? Lessons from the eliminate dengue program in Queensland Australia PLoS neglected tropical diseases, 9(4), e0003713
Kreinovich, V., Johnson-Holubec, E., Reznik, L K., & Kosheleva, M (1998) Cooperative learning is better: Explanation using dynamical systems, fuzzy logic, and geometric symmetries Departmental Technical Reports (CS).445
Lai, C (2015) Perceiving and traversing in-class and out-of-class learning: accounts from foreign language learners in Hong Kong Innovation in Language Learning and
Lai, C (2019) Learning beliefs and autonomous language learning with technology beyond the classroom Language Awareness, 28(4), 291–309 https://doi.org/10.1080/09658416.2019.1675679
Lai, C., Hu, X., & Lyu, B (2018) Understanding the nature of learners’ out-of-class language learning experience with technology Computer Assisted Language Learning,
Lai, C L., Hwang, G J., Liang, J C., & Tsai, C C (2016) Differences between mobile learning environmental preferences of high school teachers and students in Taiwan: A structural equation model analysis Educational Technology Research and
Lai, C., Li, X., & Wang, Q (2017) Students’ perceptions of teacher impact on their self- directed language learning with technology beyond the classroom: Cases of Hong Kong and U.S Educational Technology Research and Development, 65(4), 1105–
Lai, C., Yeung, Y., & Hu, J (2016b) University students and teacher perceptions of teacher roles in promoting autonomous language learning with technology outside the classroom Computer Assisted Language Learning, 29(4), 703–723 https://doi.org/10.1080/09588221.2015.1016441
Lai, C., Zhu, W., & Gong, G (2015) Understanding the quality of out‐of‐class English learning TESOL Quarterly, 49(2), 278-308
Lamb, M (2004) ‘It depends on the students themselves’: Independent Language learning at an Indonesian State School Language, Culture and Curriculum, 17(3), 229–245 doi:10.1080/07908310408666695
Lantolf, J P (2000) Second language learning as a mediated process Sociocultural theory and second language learning, 78(4), 155
Lantolf, J P., & Pavlenko, A (2001) (S) econd (L) anguage (A) ctivity theory:
Understanding second language learners as people In M Breen (Ed.), Learner contributions to language learning (pp 141-158) Routledge
Lantolf, J P., & Thorne, S L (2006) Sociocultural theory and genesis of second language development Oxford: Oxford University Press
Larsen-Freeman, D., & Anderson, M (2013) Techniques and principles in language teaching 3rd edition-Oxford handbooks for language teachers Oxford University
Lau, A M S (2016) ‘Formative good, summative bad?’–A review of the dichotomy in assessment literature Journal of Further and Higher Education, 40(4), 509-525
Lave, J & Wenger, E (1991) Situated Learning: Legitimate Peripheral Participation
Lázaro, N., & Reinders, H (2009) Language learning and teaching in the self-access centre:
A practical guide for teachers Sydney, Australia: NCELTR
Le, A N T (2019) EFL teachers’ and students’ perceptions and practices regarding learner autonomy: An exploratory study at a Vietnamese university in the Mekong delta [Doctoral dissertation, Hue University, Vietnam]
Le, C V (2020) Remapping the teacher knowledgebase of language teacher education: A
Vietnamese perspective Language Teaching Research, 24(1), 71-81
Le, H P H (2003) The mediational role of language teachers in sociocultural theory
Le, H T T (2023) The impacts of foreign language anxiety on students in English-medium instruction classes in the central region universities, Vietnam Vietnam Journal of
Le, Q H T (2019) Analyzing English majored students’ out-of-class online learning reflections to foster learner autonomy In Proceedings of Language Teaching and
Learning Today - Autonomy and Motivation for Language Learning in the
Le, Q H T & Dang, T T (2020) Exploring the spatial dimension of learner autonomy for students at tertiary level In Proceedings of the 8th OpenTESOL International Hybrid
Conference 2020: Language Education for Global Competence: Finding Authentic Voices and Embracing Meaningful Practices (pp 21-53) Economics Ho Chi Minh
Le, Q H T., & Dang, T T (2021) The effectiveness of an LMS as a content delivery and learner autonomy fostering hub in Vietnamese undergraduate courses In Proceedings of the 9th OpenTESOL International Conference 2021 (pp 169-194)
Le, Q H T., & Nguyen, H T (2022) A study on non-English major students’ learner autonomy: Difficulties and solutions International Journal of TESOL & Education,
Le, Q X (2013) Fostering learner autonomy in language learning in tertiary education: An intervention study of university students in Ho Chi Minh City, Vietnam [Doctoral dissertation, University of Nottingham]
Leaver, B L., Ehrman, M., & Skekhtman, B (2005) Achieving success in second language acquisition Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press
Lee, J S., & Dressman, M (2018) When IDLE hands make an English workshop: Informal digital learning of English and language proficiency Tesol Quarterly, 52(2), 435-445
Lier, L van (2007) Action-based teaching, autonomy, and identity International Journal of
Innovation in Language Learning and Teaching, 1(1), 46-65 https://doi.org/10.2167/illt42.0
Lin, L., & Reinders, H (2019) Students’ and teachers’ readiness for autonomy: Beliefs and practices in developing autonomy in the Chinese context Asia Pacific Education
Lindblom-Ylọnne, S., Pihlajamọki, H., & Kotkas, T (2006) Self-, peer-and teacher- assessment of student essays Active learning in higher education, 7(1), 51-62
Little, D (1991) Learner autonomy 1: Definitions, issues and problems Dublin: Authentik
Little, D (2003) Learner autonomy and second/foreign language learning In CIEL
Language Support network (Eds.), Guide to Good Practice for Learning and Teaching in Languages, Linguistics and Area Studies [electronic]
Little, D (2004) Constructing a theory of learner autonomy: Some steps along the way
Future Perspectives in Foreign Language Education, 101, 15-25
Little, D (2007) Language learner autonomy: Some fundamental considerations revisited
International Journal of Innovation in Language Learning and Teaching, 1(1), 14-29
Little, D., Dam, L., & Legenhausen, L (2017) Language learner autonomy: What, why and how Second Language Acquisition, 4(1), 1-21
Littlewood, W (1997) Self-access work and curriculum ideologies In P Benson and P
Voller (Eds.), Autonomy and independence in language learning (pp 181-191) London: Longman
Littlewood, W (1999) Defining and developing autonomy in East Asian contexts Applied
Linguistics, 20(1), 71-94 https://doi.org/10.1093/applin/20.1.71
Littlewood, W (2000) Do Asian students really want to listen and obey? ELT Journal, 54,
Liu, D., Jiang, Y., Wu, F., Yang, X., & Huang, R (2022) Distinct roles of perceived teacher and peer relationships in adolescent students’ academic motivation and outcomes: Father absence as a moderator Journal of Pacific Rim Psychology, 16,
Liu, H J (2015) Learner autonomy: The role of motivation in foreign language learning
Journal of Language Teaching and Research, 6(6), 1165
Lockspeiser, T M., O’Sullivan, P., Teherani, A., & Muller, J (2008) Understanding the experience of being taught by peers: The value of social and cognitive congruence
Advances in Health Sciences Education, 13(3), 361–372 https://doi.org/10.1007/s10459-006-9049-8
Macaro, E (1997) Target language, collaborative learning and autonomy (Modern languages in practice 5) Multilingual Matters Ltd
Macaro, E (2008) The shifting dimensions of language learner autonomy In T Lamb & H
Reinders (Eds.), Learner and teacher autonomy: Concepts, realities, and responses (pp 47-62)
Mackey, A., Abbuhl, R., & Gass, S M (2012) Interactionist approach In Gass, S., &
Mackey, A (Eds.), The Routledge handbook of second language acquisition (pp 7–
Manning, C (2014) Considering peer support for self-access learning Studies in Self-Access
Learning Journal, 5, 50–57 https://doi.org/10.37237/050105
Mardjuki, M S (2018) Learner autonomy: Gender-based perception among EFL Indonesian students Indonesian Journal of EFL and Linguistics, 3(1), 1
Marshall, S (2006) Development and evolution of an e-learning maturity model In
Proceedings of the 12th International Conference on Technology Supported Learning and Training (pp 291-294)
Mason, M (2010) Sample size and saturation in PhD studies using qualitative interviews
McAdams, D P & Olson, B (2010) Personality development: continuity and change across the life course Annual review of psychology 61, 517–542
McDonough, K (2004) Learner-learner interaction during pair and small group activities in a
McShane, S., & Von Glinow, M A (2010) Organizational behaviour: emerging knowledge and practice for the real world (5th ed.) McGraw-Hill/Irwin
Mercer, S (2011) Understanding learner agency as a complex dynamic system System,
Ministry of Education and Training (MoET) (2014) Six level foreign language proficiency framework for Vietnam (Issued together with Circular 01/2014/TT-BGDĐT of the
Ministry of Education and Training (MoET) (2017a) Plan No 118/KHBGDDT on accreditation implementation for higher education institutions in the period from 2017 to 2020 Hanoi: MoET
Ministry of Education and Training (MoET) (2017b) Circular No 10/2017/TTBGDDT on regulations for distance higher education Hanoi: MoET
Ministry of Education and Training (MoET) (2018a) General School Education Curriculum
(Issued together with Circular 32/2018/TT-BGDĐT of the Minister of MoET)
Ministry of Education and Training (MoET) (2018b) General School Education English
Curriculum (Issued together with Circular 32/2018/TT-BGDĐT of the Minister of
Ministry of Education and Training (MoET) (2018c) General School Education
Introductory English Curriculum for Grade 1 and Grade 2 (Issued together with
Circular 32/2018/TT-BGDĐT of the Minister of MoET)
Ministry of Education and Training (MoET) (2021) Circular No 17/2021/TT-BGDDT
The Ministry of Education and Training (MoET) in Hanoi has established regulations concerning the standards, formulation, appraisal, and promulgation of training programs in higher education These guidelines aim to enhance the quality and effectiveness of educational offerings For detailed information, refer to Circular 17/2021/TT-BGDDT, available at the official legal document repository.
Morrison, B (2008) The role of the self-access centre in the tertiary language learning process System, 36(2), 123-140
Murase, F (2015) Measuring language learner autonomy: Problems and possibilities
In Assessment and autonomy in language learning (pp 35-63) London: Palgrave Macmillan UK
Murray, G (2014) The social dimensions of learner autonomy and self-regulated learning
Studies in Self-Access Learning Journal, 5(4), 320-341
Myartawan, I P N W., Latief, M A & Suharmanto (2013) The correlation between learner autonomy and English proficiency of Indonesian EFL college learners Teflin Journal,
Mynard, J., & Stevenson, R (2017) Promoting learner autonomy and self-directed learning:
The evolution of a SALC curriculum Studies in Self-Access Learning Journal, 8(2), 169-182
Naibaho, L (2019) Teachers’ roles on English language teaching: A student-centered learning approach International Journal of Research -Granthaalayah, 7(4), 206–212 https://doi.org/10.29121/granthaalayah.v7.i4.2019.892
Newton, F B., & Ender, S C (2010) Students helping students: A guide for peer educators on college campuses John Wiley & Sons
Ng, S F., & Confessore, G J (2010) The relationship of multiple learning styles to levels of learner autonomy International Journal of Self-Directed Learning, 7(1), 1-13
Ngo, L C (2019) Language learning strategies among Vietnamese EFL high school students Indonesian Journal of English Language Teaching, 14(1), 55-70
Ngo, X M (2021) Vietnam’s trillion-trillion-doing attempt to reform English education
English Today, 37(2), 115–119 https://doi.org/10.1017/S0266078419000440
Nguyen, C T N., & Nguyen, T T (2020) Non-language-major students’ autonomy in learning English in Vietnam Arab World English Journal, 11(3), 184-192 https://doi.org/10.24093/awej/vol11no3.11
Nguyen, H T M (2013) Primary English language education policy in Vietnam: insights from implementation In R Baldauf, R Kaplan, K Kamwangamalu, & P Bryant (Eds), Language planning in primary schools in Asia (pp 121-145) Routledge
Nguyen's 2018 doctoral dissertation examines learner autonomy in the context of computer-assisted language learning (CALL) among Vietnamese college students The study explores the relationship between language learning strategies, learning attitudes, and motivation, highlighting the impact of technology on language acquisition Through experimental research, it reveals significant insights into how CALL can enhance student engagement and foster independent learning This research contributes to the understanding of effective language teaching methodologies in a digital age.
Nguyen, L T C (2009) Learner Autonomy and EFL learning at the tertiary level in
Vietnam [Doctoral dissertation, Victoria University of Wellington]
Nguyen, L T H (2021) Teachers’ perception of ICT integration in English Language
Teaching at Vietnamese tertiary level European Journal of Contemporary
Nguyen, N T (2014) Learner autonomy in language learning: Teachers’ beliefs [Doctoral dissertation, Queensland University of Technology, Australia]
Nguyen, S V., & Habók, A (2020) Non-English-major students’ perceptions of learner autonomy and factors influencing learner autonomy in Vietnam Relay Journal, 3(1), 122-139
Nguyen, S V., & Habók, A (2021) Students’ beliefs about teachers’ roles in Vietnamese classrooms Electronic Journal of Foreign Language Teaching, 18(1), 38-59
Nguyen, T (2017) Vietnam’s National Foreign Language 2020 Project after 9 years: A difficult stage In The Asian Conference on Education and International Development www.iafor.org
Nguyen, T B (2014) Cultural globalization: A view from Vietnam Retrieved from The
Bibliotheque: Worldwide Society website: http://www.bwwsociety.org/feature/vietnam.htm
Nguyen, T Q T (2015) The influence of traditional beliefs on Vietnamese college lecturers’ perceptions of face Journal of Education for Teaching, 41(2), 203-214
Nguyen, T T T., Bui, T N T., & Nguyen, D A (2020) Tertiary language planning and career development: Challenges to Vietnamese students VNU Journal of Foreign
Nguyen, V Q (2019) Exploring the learner autonomy of undergraduate EFL students in the
Vietnamese university setting [Doctoral dissertation, University of Canberra,
Nguyen, V., & Stracke, E (2021) Learning experiences in and outside class by successful
Vietnamese tertiary students studying English as a foreign language Innovation in
Ningrum, R K (2018) Students’ perception of peer tutor roles in the small group discussion
In IOP Conference Series: Materials Science and Engineering, 3rd Annual Applied
Science and Engineering Conference (AASEC) https://doi.org/10.1088/1757-
Noble, H., & Smith, J (2015) Issues of validity and reliability in qualitative research Evidence-based nursing, 18(2), 34-35
Nunan, D (1993) From learning-centeredness to learner-centeredness Applied Language
Nunan, D (1997) Designing and adapting materials to encourage learner autonomy In P
Benson, & P Voller, Autonomy and independence in language learning (pp.192 –
Ogbu, J U (1991) Minority coping responses and school experience The Journal of
Olsen, R E W B., & Kagan, S (1992) About cooperative learning In C Kessler (Ed.),
Cooperative language learning: A teacher’s resource book (pp 1-30) Englewood
Oxford, R L (1990) Language learning strategies: What every teacher should know
Oxford, R L (2003) Toward a more systematic model of L2 learner autonomy In D
Palfreyman & R.C Smith (eds.), Learner autonomy across cultures: Language education perspectives (pp 75–91) https://doi.org/10.1057/9780230504684_5
Paiva, V L M O & Braga, J D C F (2008) The complex nature of autonomy DELTA:
Documentaỗóo de estudos em lingỹớstica teúrica e aplicada, 24, 441-468
Palfreyman, D M (2014) The ecology of learner autonomy In G Murray (Ed.), Social dimensions of autonomy in language learning (pp 175-191) London: Palgrave
Palfreyman, D M (2018) Learner autonomy and groups In A Chik et al (eds.), Autonomy in language learning and teaching-new research agendas (pp 51-72) Palgrave
Pearson, L C., & Moomaw, W (2005) The relationship between teacher autonomy and stress, work satisfaction, empowerment, and professionalism Educational Research
Peeters, W., & Mynard, J (2019) Peer collaboration and learner autonomy in online interaction spaces Relay Journal, 2(2), 450-458 https://doi.org/10.37237/relay/020218
Pham, H N (2011) Communicating with Vietnamese in intercultural contexts: Insights into
Vietnamese values Can Tho: Vietnamese Education
Phan, T T T (2015) Towards a potential model to enhance language learner autonomy in the Vietnamese higher education context [Doctoral dissertation, Queensland
Philp, J., & Mackey, A (2010) Interaction research: What can socially informed approaches offer to cognitivists (and vice versa)? In Sociocognitive perspectives on language use and language learning (pp 210-228) Oxford University Press
Phuong, T T., Cole, S C., & Zarestky, J (2018) A systematic literature review of faculty development for teacher educators Higher Education Research & Development,
Pugh, R C., & Hu, Y (1991) Use and interpretation of canonical correlation analyses in
Journal of Educational Research articles: 1978-1989 The Journal of Educational
Punch, K F (2013) Introduction to social research: Quantitative and qualitative approaches
(3rd ed.) Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage
Punch, K F., & Oancea, A (2014) Introduction to research methods in education (2nd ed.)
Qian, W (2022) The influence of affective factors on autonomous learning in English among non-English majors in independent university International Journal of Education and
Razeq, A A A (2014) University EFL learners’ perceptions of their autonomous learning responsibilities and abilities RELC Journal, 45(3), 321-336
Reinders, H (2010) Towards a classroom pedagogy for learner autonomy: A framework of independent language learning skills Australian Journal of Teacher Education
Reinders, H (2018) Technology and autonomy The TESOL Encyclopedia of English
Language Teaching, 15(3), 1–5 https://doi.org/10.1002/9781118784235.eelt0433
Reinders, H., & Balỗikanli, C (2011) Learning to foster autonomy: The role of teacher education materials Studies in Self-Access Learning Journal, 2(1), 15-25
Reinders, H., & Benson, P (2017) Research agenda: Language learning beyond the classroom Language Teaching, 50(4), 561-578
Reinders, H., & Wattana, S (2015) Affect and willingness to communicate in digital game- based learning ReCALL, 27(1), 38-57
Richards, J C., & Rodgers, T S (2014) Cooperative language learning In J.C Richards &
T.S Rodgers (Eds.), Approaches and methods in language teaching (3 rd Edition) (pp
Rindu, I., & Ariyanti, A (2017) Teacher’s role in managing the class during teaching and learning process Script Journal: Journal of Linguistic and English Teaching, 2(1), 83-
Roe, J., & Perkins, M (2020) Learner autonomy in the Vietnamese EAP context Asian
Ruelens, E (2019) Measuring language learner autonomy in higher education: The self- efficacy questionnaire of language learning strategies Language Learning in Higher
Ryan, R M., & Deci, E L (2000) Self-determination theory and the facilitation of intrinsic motivation, social development, and well-being American psychologist, 55(1), 68
In the chapter by Schmenk (2006), the author explores the relationship between Computer-Assisted Language Learning (CALL), self-access resources, and the development of learner autonomy The discussion emphasizes a linear progression from heteronomy, where learners depend on external guidance, to autonomy, where they take control of their own learning processes This transformation is framed within the broader context of foreign language teaching and learning, highlighting the importance of fostering independence in language learners through effective use of technology and self-directed study strategies.
Seppọnen, A M (2014) Individual learner, peer group and teacher roles in fostering autonomous language-learning behaviour Journal of International Scientific
Publications: Language, Individual & Society, 8, 1-15 https://www.scientific- publications.net/en/article/1000317/
Shen, B., Bai, B., & Xue, W (2020) The effects of peer assessment on learner autonomy: An empirical study in a Chinese college English writing class Studies in Educational
Sherry, A., & Henson, R K (2005) Conducting and interpreting canonical correlation analysis in personality research: A user-friendly primer Journal of personality assessment, 84(1), 37-48
Shi, W., & Han, L (2019) Promoting learner autonomy through cooperative learning
English Language Teaching, 12(8), 30 https://doi.org/10.5539/elt.v12n8p30
Sinclair, B (2000) Learner autonomy: the next phase? In B Sinclair, I McGrath & T Lamb
(Eds.), Learner autonomy, teacher autonomy: Future directions (pp 4–14)
Singh, M., Kell, P., & Pandian, A (2002) Appropriating English: Innovation in the global business of English teaching New York: Peter Lang
Skinner, E., & Beers, J (2016) Mindfulness and teachers’ coping in the classroom: A developmental model of teacher stress, coping, and everyday resilience Handbook of mindfulness in education: Integrating theory and research into practice, 99-118
Smith, R C (2003) Pedagogy for autonomy as (becoming-) appropriate methodology In A
Chik et al (Eds.), Autonomy in language learning and teaching-new research agendas (pp 129-146) Palgrave Macmillan https://doi.org/10.1057/9780230504684_8
Smith, R., & Ushioda, E (2009) Autonomy: Under whose control In R Pemberton, S
Toogood & A Barfield (Eds.), Maintaining control: Autonomy and language learning (pp 241-254)
Sửnmez, G (2016) How ready are your students for autonomous language learning? Turkish
Online Journal of English Language Teaching, 1(3), 126-134
Spratt, M., Humphreys, G., & Chan, V (2002) Autonomy and motivation: Which comes first? Language teaching research, 6(3), 245-266
Srisaad, B., & Nilkaew, B (1992) Population referencing when using rating scale with samples Journal of Educational Evaluation, Srinakharinwirot University,
Stipek, D., Newton, S., and Chudgar, A (2010) Learning-related behaviors and literacy achievement in elementary school-aged children Early Childhood Research
Swain, M., & Lapkin, S (2001) Focus on form through collaborative dialogue: Exploring task effects Longman, Pearson Education
Swatevacharkul, R & Boonma, N (2021) Learner autonomy assessment of English language teaching students in an international program in Thailand Indonesian
Journal of Applied Linguistics, 10(3), 749-759 https://doi.org/10.17509/ijal.v10i3.31764
Takase, M., Niitani, M., Imai, T., & Okada, M (2019) Students’ perceptions of teaching factors that demotivate their learning in lectures and laboratory-based skills practice
International journal of nursing sciences, 6(4), 414-420
Teng, F., (2019) Learner identity in foreign language education: research nexus and implications In M F Teng (ed.), Autonomy, Agency, and Identity in Teaching and
Learning English as a Foreign Language (pp 37-46) Springer: Singapore https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-13-0728-7_3
Toffoli, D., & Sockett, G (2015) University teachers’ perceptions of online informal learning of English (OILE) Computer Assisted Language Learning, 28(1), 7-21
Ton, H N N., & Pham, H H (2010) Vietnamese teachers’ and students’ perceptions of global English Language Education in Asia, 1(1), 48-61
Topping, K J., Smith, E F., Swanson, I., & Elliot, A (2000) Formative peer assessment of academic writing between postgraduate students Assessment & evaluation in higher education, 25(2), 149-169
Tran, L T., & Marginson, S (2018) Internationalisation of Vietnamese higher education: An overview In L.T Tran & S Marginson (Eds.), Internationalisation in Vietnamese
Higher Education (pp 1-16) Springer International Publishing
Tran, T B T., & Vuong, T K (2023) Factors affecting learner autonomy in tertiary level
English learning: a study at Van Lang University International Journal of TESOL &
Tran, T T (2013) Is the learning approach of students from the Confucian heritage culture problematic? Educational Research for Policy and Practice, 12(1), 57-65
Trinh, H T T., & Mai, L T (2018) Current challenges in the teaching of tertiary English in
Vietnam In J Albright (Ed.), English tertiary education in Vietnam (pp 40-53) Routledge
Ushioda, E (2011) Language learning motivation, self, and identity: Current theoretical perspectives Computer Assisted Language Learning, 24(3), 199-210 https://doi.org/10.1080/09588221.2010.538701
Valiente, C., Swanson, J., DeLay, D., Fraser, A M., & Parker, J H (2020) Emotion-related socialization in the classroom: Considering the roles of teachers, peers, and the classroom context Developmental Psychology, 56(3), 578-594
Research on scaffolding in teacher-student interactions has significantly evolved over the past decade, highlighting its crucial role in enhancing educational outcomes (Van de Pol, Volman, & Beishuizen, 2010) This body of work emphasizes the importance of understanding the ecological and semiotic aspects of language learning from a sociocultural perspective, which offers valuable insights into effective teaching practices (van Lier, 2004).
Van Zundert, M., Sluijsmans, D., & Van Merriởnboer, J (2010) Effective peer assessment processes: Research findings and future directions Learning and Instruction, 20(4), 270-279
Vanijdee, A (2003) Thai distance English learners and learner autonomy Open Learning:
The Journal of Open, Distance and e-Learning, 18(1), 75-84
In their 2016 study, Varela et al explored the advantages and disadvantages of using SurveyMonkey for research on the psychopathological profiles of individuals with normal weight, overweight, and obesity within a community sample The findings highlight the platform's user-friendly interface and accessibility, which facilitate data collection However, the study also notes potential limitations, such as concerns regarding data validity and representativeness Overall, the research underscores the importance of weighing the benefits and drawbacks of online survey tools in psychological studies.
E-methodology, 77-89 Retrieved from https://jecs.pl/index.php/e- methodology/article/view/10 15503.emet2016.77.89
Victori, M., & Lockhart, W (1995) Enhancing metacognition in self-directed language learning System, 23(2), 223-234
Vietnamese Communist Party (2013) Resolution No 29 -NQ/TW of the 8 th Central conference on Basic and comprehensive innovation of education and training
Vietnamese Government (2005) Vietnamese education development strategies for the period
The Vietnamese Government's 2008 policy outlines the framework for teaching and learning foreign languages within the national education system from 2008 to 2020 This initiative aims to enhance language proficiency among students, promoting global integration and improving communication skills The comprehensive strategy emphasizes the importance of foreign language education in fostering a competitive workforce and supports the development of teaching resources and teacher training programs For further details, the full document can be accessed at the official government portal.
Vietnamese Government (2017) Decision 2080 on the adjustment and extension of the
National Foreign Language Project from 2017 to 2025 Online at (Accessed August 5,
The Education Law of the Socialist Republic of Vietnam, established by the National Assembly in 2005, is documented under No 38/2005/QH11, dated June 14, 2005 This legislation outlines the framework for the country's educational system and policies For more details, the full text is accessible at the official government website.
VnExpress news (2023) Học ngành Ngôn Ngữ Anh ra trường làm gì, lương bao nhiêu?
Available at: https:// vnexpress.net/hoc-nganh-ngon-ngu-anh-ra-truong-lam-gi-luong- bao-nhieu-4628124.html (accessed August 2023)
Vo, L K L (2020) Peer interaction in speaking tasks by EFL college students in Vietnam
Voller, P (1997) Does the teacher have a role in autonomous language learning? In P
Benson, & P Voller (Eds.), Autonomy and independence in language learning (pp 98-113) London: Longman
Voller, P (2005) Teachers, facilitation, and autonomy Paper presented at the 2nd
Independent Learning Association Oceania Conference, Manukau Institute of
Technology, Auckland, New Zealand http://independentlearning.org/ILA/ila05/ila05_papers.htm
Voltz, D (2008) Autonomy New World Encyclopedia Retrieved 15 June 2009, from http://www.newworldencyclopedia.org/entry/Autonomy?oldidy5378
Vu, T T H (2002) The concept of “thể diện” and its implications to research on linguistic behaviour Linguistics, 1, 6-12
Vygotsky, L S (1986) Thought and language (A Kozulin, rev ed.) Cambridge, MA.: MIT
Vygotsky, L S., & Cole, M (1978) Mind in society: Development of higher psychological processes Harvard University Press
Wang, Y., & Ryan, J (2020) The complexity of control shift for learner autonomy: A mixed- method case study of Chinese EFL teachers’ practice and cognition Language
Wenden, A (1991) Learner strategies for learner autonomy New York
Wenden, A (1998) Metacognitive knowledge and language learning Applied linguistics,
Wenger, E (1998) Communities of Practice: Learning as a social system Systems Thinker Wenger, E (2011) Communities of practice: A brief introduction
Wenger, E., McDermott, R., & Snyder, W M (2002) Seven principles for cultivating communities of practice Cultivating Communities of Practice: A guide to managing knowledge, 4, 1-19
World Bank (2020) [Improving The Performance of Higher Education in Vietnam]
Xu, J F., & Xu L (2004) Exploring college English teachers’ roles in the autonomous learning mode Higher Education Research, 3, 77-79
Yu, P (2006) On the factors influencing learner autonomy in Chinese EFL contexts Sino-US
Zhao, J., & Qin, Y (2021) Perceived teacher autonomy support and students’ deep learning:
The mediating role of self-efficacy and the moderating role of perceived peer support
Frontiers in Psychology, 12(June), 1–11 https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2021.652796
Wang, Z (2009) A contrastive study of Chinese and Western learner autonomy US-China
Zimmerman, B J (2002) Becoming a self-regulated learner: An overview Theory into practice, 41(2), 64-70
Dissertation Title: LEARNER AUTONOMY: THE ROLES OF TEACHERS AND
Researcher: Le Ha To Quyen
Supervisors: Dr Bui Thi Thuc Quyen & Dr Dang Tan Tin
Le Ha To Quyen is a PhD student at Ho Chi Minh City Open University, focusing on research titled "Learner Autonomy: The Roles of Teachers and Peers." Under the guidance of Dr Bui Thi Thuc Quyen and Dr Dang Tan Tin, this study aims to explore the factors affecting undergraduate EFL students' learner autonomy in their out-of-class learning experiences.
This research aims to investigate the relationship between students' learner autonomy in out-of-class learning environments and the influence of teachers and peers in the classroom, as well as to identify the mediating factors involved Although fostering learner autonomy is a primary educational goal, it poses significant challenges within the Vietnamese context Consequently, the study seeks to determine effective strategies for enhancing students' learner autonomy through the regular interactions and responsibilities of teachers and peers in classroom settings.
The research aims to assess students' learner autonomy in out-of-class learning and the influence of teachers and peers in the classroom through a questionnaire Administered via Google Forms, the survey takes approximately 20 minutes to complete A select few participants will be randomly invited for a 30-minute online or on-site group interview to discuss their expectations regarding the roles of teachers and peers.
Student information will remain confidential, stored securely in a password-protected file Research findings will be included in my dissertation and may also be published in a journal or presented at a conference, ensuring that participants' identities are never disclosed Participation is voluntary, and students can withdraw from the study at any time during the data collection process.
I am seeking your permission to engage with your students for my research project If you consent, kindly provide a letter confirming my authorization to collect data from them Your support in this matter is greatly appreciated Thank you for your understanding and cooperation.
Email address: lhtquyen@sgu.edu.vn
LIST OF QUESTIONNAIRE ITEMS AND ADAPTED SOURCES
Source adapted N o STATEMENTS DEGREE OF
3 I follow the expectations of the society 1 2 3 4 5
6 I have the freedom to choose what I want to learn 1 2 3 4 5
7 I have the freedom to make decisions about my learning 1 2 3 4 5
8 I have the freedom to choose the materials for learning 1 2 3 4 5
9 I have the freedom to choose the learning ways 1 2 3 4 5
10 I have the freedom to decide my own goals in learning 1 2 3 4 5
13 I know which learning ways suits me best 1 2 3 4 5
2.2 Carrying out the plan Self- developed 16 I initiate my learning 1 2 3 4 5
19 I arrange time to study as much as possible 1 2 3 4 5
20 I create the conditions under which I can study best 1 2 3 4 5
(2015) 21 I monitor whether my learning is progressing according to my plan 1 2 3 4 5
22 I adjust my learning process to reach my learning goals 1 2 3 4 5
23 I reflect whether the selected learning routine is effective 1 2 3 4 5
24 I solicit helps for my studies 1 2 3 4 5
25 I adjust my learning in response to the help I receive 1 2 3 4 5
(2019) 26 I evaluate whether my learning process is effective 1 2 3 4 5
27 I evaluate whether my planning was realistic 1 2 3 4 5
28 I select criteria to evaluate my learning outcomes 1 2 3 4 5
29 I draw a conclusion on the level of my learning success 1 2 3 4 5
30 I evaluate whether I reached my learning goals 1 2 3 4 5 2.5 Transcending
Self- developed 31 I find opportunities for new learning activities 1 2 3 4 5 Reulens
(2019) 32 I ensure the retention of the newly acquired knowledge 1 2 3 4 5
33 I ensure the retention of the newly acquired skills 1 2 3 4 5
34 I integrate the newly acquired knowledge into my own knowledge 1 2 3 4 5
35 I use the acquired skills in similar contexts 1 2 3 4 5
3.1 Mental readiness Bei et al
(2019) 36 I only rely on me as far as my studies are concerned 1 2 3 4 5
37 I seek alternative solutions when a problem emerges 1 2 3 4 5
39 I am positive towards learning difficulties 1 2 3 4 5
40 I manage any problem that may arise in my studies 1 2 3 4 5
41 I notice my feelings when I study English outside the classroom 1 2 3 4 5
42 I give myself a reward or treat when I do well 1 2 3 4 5
43 I try to relax when I have negative feelings about my learning 1 2 3 4 5
44 I organize my learning so that I always enjoy doing it 1 2 3 4 5
45 I encourage myself as I learn English 1 2 3 4 5
Part 3: Perceived teachers’ roles in the classroom
I think in the classroom, the teacher
24 decides what activities to do in class 1 2 3 4 5
16 decides the materials the students use in class 1 2 3 4 5
7 decides how to impart the curriculum
32 equips students with necessary learning skills 1 2 3 4 5
9 modifies the lessons as students suggest if suitable 1 2 3 4 5
10 makes the lesson interesting to follow 1 2 3 4 5
23 identifies appropriate learning opportunities for the class 1 2 3 4 5
26 helps students to figure out how to do the tasks 1 2 3 4 5
11 checks if the task is going well 1 2 3 4 5 Self- developed
34 helps students to get ready for the task 1 2 3 4 5
19 is a good model of English speaker 1 2 3 4 5
12 Teacher’s participation improves the atmosphere in class 1 2 3 4 5
21 initiates students to use English 1 2 3 4 5
39 listens to students’ ideas with respect 1 2 3 4 5
15 is knowledgeable about the subject teaching 1 2 3 4 5
27 has practical experience of the subject teaching 1 2 3 4 5
14 is ready to offer help when needed 1 2 3 4 5 Koca et al
5 shows the way to pick good resources 1 2 3 4 5
18 finds out how well the students performed 1 2 3 4 5
33 draws students’ attention to their mistakes 1 2 3 4 5
41 provides beneficial feedback 1 2 3 4 5 Self- developed
31 tries to develop his/her own skills 1 2 3 4 5
25 advises students what to do if they want to study more 1 2 3 4 5
42 observes if new thing works well in class 1 2 3 4 5
Part 4: Perceived peers’ roles in the classroom
I think in the classroom, my friend…
2 works with me to do class tasks 1 2 3 4 5
9 shares his/ her ideas to do the task 1 2 3 4 5
23 asks me for help when needed 1 2 3 4 5 Self- developed
17 finishes well his/ her part 1 2 3 4 5
10 raises new ideas to explore together 1 2 3 4 5
18 explains the matters for me when I ask 1 2 3 4 5
15 shares the learning ways he/she thinks is effective 1 2 3 4 5
7 shares the materials/lessons provided in class 1 2 3 4 5
20 shares the outside resources he/she has 1 2 3 4 5 Self- developed 1 shares with me how to find good learning materials 1 2 3 4 5
6 encourages me to keep trying 1 2 3 4 5
21 does not allow ‘put-downs’ 1 2 3 4 5
4 soothes out the problems I am facing 1 2 3 4 5 Self- developed
19 encourages me to try new ways of doing the task 1 2 3 4 5
5 Peer’s hard work inspires me to study harder 1 2 3 4 5
24 appraises the various suggestions I have given 1 2 3 4 5
12 points out my problem if there is any 1 2 3 4 5
8 gives me useful comments to make my work better 1 2 3 4 5
13 listens to my feedback with respect
This questionnaire is designed to explore the perception of English majors about their OUT-
OF-CLASS LEARNING and the roles of teachers and peers IN THE CLASSROOM The learning process discussed is of LEARNING ENGLISH It takes about 15-20 minutes to complete the questionnaire