Workplace incivility and its outcomes the role of coping strategies and mindfulness

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INTRODUCTION

Research background and research problem

1.1.1 Review of studies on workplace incivility

Employment and professional work make up a large part of the lives of a significant portion of the global adult population In addition to being a place to earn a living and develop a career, the workplace also takes place social interaction Besides the positive side of social interactions in the workplace, there is an increase in the number of concerns focused on interpersonal issues in the workplace, such as workplace aggression, workplace bullying, workplace deviance, and counterproductive workplace behaviour It negatively affects both organizations and individuals (Hanrahan & Leiter, 2014) Thousands of studies have investigated how such mistreatment behaviour in the workplace impacts targets' work attitudes, behaviors, and well-being (Vasconcelos, 2020) Among various types of workplace mistreatment, low-intensity negativity workplace interpersonal conflicts, namely workplace incivility (WI), have received less academic attention (Vasconcelos,

2020) It has been estimated that 98 percent of workers experience incivility, with 50 percent experiencing such conduct at least weekly (Porath & Pearson, 2013) The critical characteristics of WI that help distinguish it from other negative interpersonal constructs in the workplace are low intensity and ambiguity Despite incivility being a mild form of workplace mistreatment with low intensity (Lim et al., 2008), daily minor stressors can have an even more substantial impact on individual health and organizations (Schilpzand et al., 2016) It is more challenging to recognize and deal with compared to other types of workplace mistreatment, which are easily interpreted with clear purpose and have training programs to deal with (Porath & Pearson, 2013)

This phenomenon is even more popular in the evolution of the 4.0 industry

As the 4.0 industry progresses, job demands have evolved significantly Employees in various sectors, especially banking and aviation – the two industries leading in technological evolution, face new challenges and tasks (Itani, 2019; Rodrigues et al.,

2023) They must adapt to tech-enabled environments, learn new technologies, and perform their duties effectively while keeping up with industry changes Job demands also include serving tech-savvy customers, handling complex systems, meeting increasing performance targets, and integrating regularly updated digital tools in their customer interaction process These increased job demands and create stressful work environments, contributing to heightened tensions and conflicts in the workplace, leading to increased incidents of incivility (Schilpzand et al., 2016)

WI can come from many sources, including sources inside the organization (supervisors and coworkers) and external sources (customers) Most previous studies on incivility combine incivility from supervisors and coworkers (and sometimes even customers) without distinguishing between the potentially diverse impacts of each source (Schilpzand et al., 2016) Schilpzand et al (2016) argue that relatively little is known about whether uncivil behavior from different sources (supervisors, coworkers, and customers) leads to different outcomes, while the degree of impact and severity to the target can vary from various sources Vasconcelos (2020) also calls for more research investigating WI's outcomes from multiple sources and how individuals cope with incivility Although there was a considerable rise in the number of documents, Vasconcelos (2020), through a literature review, indicated that 63.4% of the sample study used WI as an antecedent factor, indicating that this is an emerging research field

To evaluate and analyze the research works related to the dissertation topic, the author employed a review of this topic, starting with searching numerous databases from the Web of Science and Scopus The author used bibliometric analysis (co-citation, co-word analysis) to better understand the evolution within research themes Co-citation analysis is the most favoured analysis used in bibliometrics and employed in the majority of bibliometric studies in management Co-citation is defined as the frequency with which two units are cited together Co-citations connect publications, authors, or journals in the way the writers use them (Zupic & Čater,

2014) The fundamental assumption of citation analysis by co-citation is that when two documents are cited together more often, their content is more likely to be relevant Co-word analysis is a content analysis technique that uses words in publications to construct relationships and shape the conceptual structure of the domain (Zupic & Čater, 2014) The basic idea behind this approach is that when words frequently appear together in a document, the concepts behind those words are closely related This dissertation combined two bibliometric techniques, including co-citation and co-word analysis, to provide an overview of this research field's intellectual structure

The terms ‘workplace incivility’ and “incivility” were searched in the topic field [title/abstract/keyword] from the Scopus and Web of Science database The scope time of this study is restricted to July 2023 The number of initial articles was

1047 From 1047 documents, the author involved those belonging to the criteria on Business, Management and Accounting, Psychology, Social Sciences, Nursing, Medicine Arts and Humanities, Economics, Econometrics and Finance, Health Professions Before performing the analysis, the data was transferred to a Microsoft Excel spreadsheet for data cleaning and the removal of duplicates The author also carefully read each document's title, abstracts, and keywords to ensure they were relevant No duplicate or irrelevant articles were found Then, the author continued to limit the documents in terms of ‘document types’ – Article, 'Source type' – Journal, and 'Language' – English Hence, a total of 830 publications were grouped for the final analysis

Overall, research on WI has appeared since 1999 Between 1999 and 2008, the number of articles published each year was less, with an annual average of 2.625 documents The figures then increased slightly from 2009 to 2017 (between 14 and

41 published articles per year) The years 2018 and 2022 showed the maximum number of publications, with the number of documents in these years ranging from

75 to 125 Overall, the average annual number of publications published was 34.045 in the 1999 – 2022 period (as of the end of 2022) (see Appendix 1) The co-word and co-citation network for 830 publications was created by VoSviewer software In this study, the selected sample contains at least 25 citations The final number of selected articles for conducting analyses was 591 Such publications were then analyzed and distributed into different clusters using VoSviewer software

For co-word analysis, this study collected all keywords from sample publications to conduct a co-word analysis exploring the evolution in research themes from 1999-2023 (July) The co-word network created by VoSviewer software (Van Eck & Waltman, 2009) shows the relationship between keywords (see Appendix 3) (the minimum number of occurrences of a keyword was five) The author then categorized keywords generated from co-word analysis into five clusters (Table 1.1) The main content of each cluster was identified by carefully reading critical studies on each theme Groups were named based on the majority of references that belong to them and with the support of their centrality articles Figure 1.1 shows the five cluster structures of WI research discovered from co-word analysis using the Word Smart Local Moving algorithm (Van Eck & Waltman, 2009)

WI as a type of workplace interpersonal conflict public relations (90); relations (75); psychological aspect (37); interpersonal job stress (40)

The link between WI and its outcomes job satisfaction (100); burnout (53); well-being (30); emotional exhaustion (30); turnover intention (29); mental health (28); job performance (23); emotional stress (21); personnel turnover (20); anxiety (16); work engagement (16); workload (15); psychological well-being (12); cynicism (10); psychological distress (9); professional burnout (8); knowledge hiding (7); distress syndrome (7); negative affect (6); organizational justice (6); trust (6); depression (6); psychological detachment (5); engagement (5); counterproductive work behavior (6); work withdrawal (6); psychological safety (5); creativity (5); perceived insider status (5)

Prominent theories in WI research psychological model (7); conservation of resources theory (7); affective events theory (5); social exchange theory (5)

Situational or personal factors that can differ the effect of WI female (50), male (48); adult (45); middle age (28); social support (23); coping behavior (22); leadership (9); mindfulness (9); narcissism (8); personality (5); work experience (5); dark triad (5); resilience (5)

WI and other interpersonal constructs workplace incivility (215); bullying (129); workplace violence (41); aggression (37); harassment (24); customer incivility (16); supervisor incivility (14); coworker incivility (13); violence (10); ostracism (10); cyber incivility (8); sexual harassment (7); rudeness (7); workplace aggression (6); workplace deviance (6)

Figure 1.1 Co-word clusters in WI research

The author then integrated a co-citation analysis with the co-word analysis Through co-citation analysis, the representatives are identified for each research theme The first group has its representatives, such as Hershcovis (2011), Penney & Spector (2005), and Spector & Jex (1998) (Table 1.2) The documents in this category were usually cited as references for identifying WI as a type of workplace interpersonal conflict construct and considered as a job stressor; thus, the authors used relevant theoretical approaches to ground the hypotheses The second group has its representatives are Andersson & Pearson (1999), Cortina & Magley (2001), Lim et al (2008) and Lim & Cortina (2005) The study objectives for most of the documents in this cluster are mainly related to the effect of WI on employees' attitudes, cognitive, and behaviours The third group's representatives are Bakker & Demerouti (2007), Kern & Grandey (2009), and Schilpzand et al (2016) This cluster's study objectives are mainly related to prominent theories in the WI research field Next, the fourth group, with representatives such as Meier & Semmer (2013), Preacher et al (2007), Taylor et al (2012), was used as references either related to individual variables that make individuals more likely to become the target of incivility or situational or personal factors that can moderate the impact of WI Finally, the final group with representatives such as Dormann & Zapf (2004), Einarsen et al (2009), and Hoel et al (2002) with study objectives is to distinguish concepts WI from other workplace mistreatment constructs (e.g., workplace bullying or harassment)

Table 1.2 Co-citation clusters and representative citations of each group

This dissertation focused on the second group, “ The link between WI and its outcomes” to identify the various outcomes of experiencing WI, and the fourth group,

“Situational or personal factors that can differ the effect of WI” to identify the possible moderators in the link between WI and its outcomes By carefully reviewing WI’s outcomes and the factors that moderate its effect, this dissertation evaluates previous studies' achieved results and limitations in the WI research topic, thereby identifying research gaps

For the outcomes of WI, all keywords collected in this group through co- word analysis from VoSviewer software continued to be categorized into clusters

WI as a type of workplace interpersonal conflict

Fox & Spector, 1999; Hershcovis, 2011; Hershcovis & Barling, 2009; Penney & Spector, 2005; Robinson et al., 2013; Spector & Jex, 1998

The link between WI and its outcomes

Andersson & Pearson, 1999; Cortina & Magley, 2001; Lim & Cortina, 2005; Lim et al., 2008; Lim & Lee, 2011; Porath & Pearson, 2013

Prominent theories in WI research

Bakker et al., 2004; Bakker & Demerouti, 2007; Kern & Grandey, 2009; Schilpzand et al., 2016

Situational or personal factors that can differ the effect of WI

Bauer et al., 2006; Chang et al., 2012; Meier & Semmer, 2013; Preacher et al., 2007; Taylor et al., 2012

WI and other interpersonal constructs

Dormann & Zapf, 2004; Einarsen et al.; 2009; Hoel et al., 2002; Leiter et al., 2011; Notelaers et al., 2018

Particularly, experiencing WI was found to be related to various affective, attitudinal, and behavioral consequences of victims, which can be categorized into the following groups:

Research Objectives

Through the WI literature review, the author identifies research gaps in WI literature Particularly, (1) the lack of empirical evidence understanding the underlying mechanism of the link between WI and its nonwork outcome (subjective well-being) and work-related outcomes (in-role and extra-role performance); (2) limited studies have examined the moderators in the link between WI and its outcomes; (3) limited studies investigating the potentially diverse impact of each source of WI on employees To fill the research gap, the topic " Workplace incivility and its outcomes: the role of coping strategies and mindfulness" has been chosen for this doctoral dissertation The main objective of the dissertation was to explore whether and how workplace incivility can affect employees’ nonwork outcomes (i.e., subjective well- being) and work-related outcomes (i.e., job performance) In addition, whether coping strategies and mindfulness can play as moderators in mitigating the impact of workplace incivility was also explored Specifically, this dissertation conducted two main studies, study 1 and study 2 , to address such research gaps Each study had its own set of objectives, outlined in the article below

Study 1 mainly focused on the effect of WI on frontline employees’ nonwork outcomes (i.e., subjective well-being) in the context of the banking sector This study aimed to:

1 Examining the impact of workplace incivility on employees' subjective well- being through the mediating role of work-family enrichment

2 Investigating the moderating role of coping strategies in the linkages between workplace incivility and work-family enrichment, which in turn, relates to subjective well-being

Study 2 focused on the effect of WI on frontline employees’ work-related outcomes (i.e., in-role and extra-role performance) in the context of the aviation sector This study aimed to:

1 Examining the mediating role of psychological distress in the relationship between workplace incivility and employees' in-role and extra-role performance

2 Investigating the moderating role of mindfulness in the workplace incivility and psychological distress relationship, which in turn impacts employees' in- role and extra-role performance.

Research significance

This dissertation responded to the call from previous studies to investigate the outcomes of workplace incivility on the target's personal life (SWB) and work (in- role and extra-role performance); and explore which factors can buffer its harmful effect This dissertation contributes to workplace incivility literature in several ways

Firstly, the impact of WI on SWB remains unexplored

While prior studies have focused on investigating the range of factors predicting SWB, the factors that can cause the decrease in SWB (i.e., WI) remain limited, especially in the service industry context Understanding the effect of negative factors on employees' SWB is a critical research topic because SWB is associated with various work and non-work outcomes (Lee et al., 2016) Unsolved problems related to occupational stress and strain (i.e., WI) which can lower SWB, need to be addressed and interventions (Simon et al., 2010) to minimize further harmful effects It is especially true for service firms where the SWB of frontline employees plays a vital role in the success of an organization

Secondly, there is a lack of studies investigating the possible mediating role of the positive side of the work-home interface in the link between WI and its outcomes

Schilpzand et al (2016) and Zhou et al (2019) call for research on identifying mediators of the effects of WI, especially the positive side of the work-home interface (i.e., work-home enrichment) Empirical studies have rarely investigated the potential mediating role of work-family enrichment in the association between WI and its outcomes (Agrawal & Mahajan, 2021), especially the link between WI and SWB This dissertation fills this gap by investigating the impact of WI on employees' SWB via the mediating role of work-family enrichment

Thirdly, the findings of the associations between WI and job performance are inconsistent

Although the relationship between workplace incivility and employee performance has been established, the findings are inconsistent (Cheng et al., 2020; Shin et al., 2022), and more research is needed For example, Saleem et al (2022) revealed that WI indirectly impacted employees’ job performance via trust in the supervisor, while Jawahar & Schreurs (2018) found that incivility from supervisor did not impact employees’ task performance To the best of my knowledge, little research has examined the underlying mechanism in the relationship between workplace incivility and job performance Specifically, this dissertation contributes to the COR theory by investigating psychological distress as a mediating variable between workplace incivility and job performance Understanding the mechanisms explaining the link between workplace incivility and performance is valuable because extending this line of research can develop more efficient and powerful interventions to address workplace incivility (Jawahar & Schreurs, 2018; MacKinnon & Fairchild,

Fourthly, research on the effect of WI from different sources on FLEs has not received much attention from scholars

The dissertation responds to the calls from previous studies to investigate the effect of WI from separate sources (Schilpzand et al., 2016; Vasconcelos, 2020) Specifically, the dissertation results would enrich the WI literature by disparate incivility from insider-instigated (supervisor and coworker incivility) and outsider- instigated (customer incivility) sources and examine its impact on FLE's SWB and job performance

Fifthly, variables mitigating the impact of WI and being potential factors to protect personal resources (e.g., coping strategies, mindfulness) have not yet been widely studied in the context of WI

Questions about whether and how coping strategies and mindfulness act as moderating variables to remedy the harmful effects of WI on its outcomes are unresolved (Hülsheger et al., 2021; Jang et al., 2020; Shahbaz & Parker, 2022) By understanding how coping strategies and mindfulness buffer the negative impact of workplace incivility from multiple sources, this dissertation could help managers have effective interventions to reduce the negative effect of WI, thus enhancing their employees’ subjective well-being and job performance.

Research methodology

Theories and previous studies were used as the foundation to identify research gaps, propose research models, research methods, and serve to explain the research results obtained in the current study After research models were proposed and the first draft scale was formed A two-phrase study was utilized in this dissertation: a pilot study and a main survey In the pilot study, two group discussions with five human resource management lecturers and ten frontline staff were conducted to evaluate the contents of the measure scales of the two studies In the subsequent quantitative phase of the pilot study, a survey with 50 frontline staff was undertaken to refine the scales Cronbach's alpha reliability and exploratory factor analysis (EFA) were used for the preliminary assessment of the scales using SPSS software (Nguyễn Đình Thọ, 2011) A sample of 452 FLEs working at different banks and airports in Vietnam was then used for data analysis for Study 1 and Study 2

Data from Study 1 was collected from FLEs working at different banks in

Vietnam The data was used to address the two proposed research questions Particularly, (1) does WI indirectly impact employees’ SWB through the mediating role of WFE, and (2) do coping strategies moderate the link between WI and WFE? For study 2 , the data was collected from FLEs in the aviation sector Particularly, questionnaires were dispatched for check-in staff working in Tan Son Nhat International Airport The data collected addressed two remaining research questions:

(1) does WI indirectly impact employees’ job performance (i.e., in-role and extra- role performance) via the mediating role of psychological distress, and (2) does mindfulness play as a moderator in the link between WI and psychological distress? Both studies employed the partial least squares structural equation modelling (PLS-SEM) technique for measurement and structural assessment.

Research context

1.5.1 Aviation and banking sectors as research context

Service companies face fierce competition and must implement changes to achieve better performance (Chatterjee et al., 2022) In this context, the role of frontline workers becomes even more critical as they are intermediate between customers and the company, and their performance is closely linked to the survival of service firms (Chatterjee et al., 2022) Frontline employees are at the forefront of delivering operational efficiency and quality customer service in both banking and aviation By enhancing their performance, organizations can optimize processes, reduce errors, and streamline interactions with customers Happy employees lead to better performance (Darvishmotevali & Ali, 2020) Therefore, determining which factors can lower employees' well-being and performance is critical for managers to have interventions minimizing its harm Besides, FLEs are the targets who can often encounter WI from various sources, including supervisors, coworkers, and customers Hence, they are suitable research subjects to examine the effect of uncivil behavior from multiple sources on their work-related and non-work outcomes Especially, this dissertation targets frontline employees working in the banking and aviation sectors as the research context for several reasons:

First, this dissertation extends workplace incivility literature in terms of research context There is a lack of studies on workplace mistreatment in such sectors While previous studies on the effects of workplace interpersonal conflict (i.e., WI) have mainly focused on FLEs of other industries (e.g., hotel, restaurant, telecommunication call centers frontline service), it is surprising that only a few empirical studies were conducted among FLEs working banking and aviation sectors (Bamfo et al., 2018; Mannocci et al., 2018) By investigating the impact of workplace incivility in such two sectors, this dissertation contributes to extending the existing literature on workplace incivility in terms of research context

Second, the rapid development of the banking and aviation sectors and their roles in Vietnamese society and the economy The banking and aviation sectors play a crucial role in the development of Vietnamese society and the economy Vietnam's aviation is the seventh fastest-growing worldwide (Vu, 2021), while Vietnam's banking industry is the fastest-growing worldwide (VNA, 2022a) Such two industries facilitate the development of other industries in the economy Their role especially comes under the spotlight during and post-COVID-19 pandemic Vietnam airlines delivered life-saving vaccines and medical supplies free of charge during COVID-19 to save lives (Nghia, 2020) Banks, meanwhile, not less important, played a crucial role in distributing various governments' aid packages, such as channeling loans and guarantees through their systems and offering repayment moratoria, which help to maintain the resilience of the country's economy to the impact of the pandemic (VNA, 2022b) Thus, the competence and performance of those industries and their employees significantly affect the country's sustainable development, emphasizing the important findings that factors can lower employees' well-being and job performance This dissertation proposed that workplace incivility can lead to various consequences for employees and organizations, including negatively affecting employees’ well-being and job performance The study results can give implications to reduce such negative interpersonal conflicts, ultimately leading to enhanced employees’ well-being and job performance and increased competitive advantage of such industries

Third, FLEs in the two industries face extreme job demands, which can exacerbate workplace incivility In the banking sector, FLEs are facing overwhelming job demands, including a broader range of customer service, working long hours, meeting the bank's goals (i.e., selling investment funds, insurance contracts, and bonds), and adapting to significant changes in the restructuring process (Giorgi et al.,

2017) In the aviation sector, FLEs also face substantial challenges They are taggers and packers who handle passengers as fast as possible and move more weight daily while often wearing heels They also need to concentrate highly on their work as their performance links directly to aviation safety (Cheng-Hua & Hsin-Li, 2012) Nearly 75% of check-in workers experienced neck pain that affects their ability to work, and more than two-thirds have shoulder and back pain to a degree that can affect their job performance More work demands can lead to blaming and verbal or physical aggression and exacerbate WI (Francis et al., 2015) Since such two working conditions can facilitate uncivil behaviors between persons, they can be considered suitable research settings to investigate the results of WI

Fourth, the banking and aviation sectors provide an opportunity to examine the impact of workplace incivility from multiple sources As various jobs in the service industry may be at risk by one or several main sources of incivility (Sliter et al., 2010), it is worthwhile to explore the impact of incivility from two research contexts instead of one as it facilitates the author to address the research gaps in this dissertation, which explores the impact of WI from all sources on employees’ work and non-work outcomes Each of these occupations has unique sources of WI For example, banking employees may encounter WI from supervisors and coworkers rather than from customers, while airport check-in staff increasingly face uncivil customer behaviors and are also easily vulnerable to supervisor incivility

1.5.2 Study 1 – Banking sector as research context, and coworkers and supervisors are main sources of workplace incivility

Since joining the World Trade Organization (WTO) in the banking sector in 2007, Vietnam's economy has significantly developed over the past decade by improving the business environment and attracting high foreign investment (Leung, 2009) Along with the strong growth, this is also a highly competitive industry due to the appearance of a number of large-scale private commercial banks in Vietnam since

2018 (Private Banks Stepping up Competition, 2022) In order to promote competitive advantages, the role of FLEs in satisfying customers becomes even more critical when most banks strive to offer the same range of services and similar charges or interest rates (Mainardes et al., 2019) A strong statistical association exists between employee well-being and customer satisfaction (Chamberlain & Zhao,

2019) Therefore, reducing job demands and enhancing the subjective well-being of FLEs are effective strategies for retail banks in Vietnam to create and maintain a competitive advantage The research results can provide empirical evidence for banking managers to understand the factors that can contribute to employees’ subjective well-being and, thus, take appropriate interventions to enhance employees’ SWB Study 1 aimed to examine how and to what extent WI impacts employees’ SWB with data collected from FLEs working in banks

Study 1 selected incivility from coworker and supervisor sources as the main sources of WI for frontline banking staff In the banking sector, supervisors must achieve excessive customer service goal setting and reach the financial and profitable strategic objective that bank executives assign In so doing, they delegate such heavy duties to their subordinates More overwhelming tasks will likely lead to interpersonal conflicts between supervisors and their subordinates (Hoai, 2019) With lower job positions, encountering uncivil behavior, such as verbal attacks or disrespectful attitudes from supervisors, is inevitable for frontline bankers There is also competition among frontline staff in banks with pressure to fulfill assigned business targets, such as deposit mobilization tasks (Hoai, 2019) When competition among banking employees is high, the working environment can be "toxic" as coworkers do not support each other They are even willing to blame and verbalize their coworkers (Hoai, 2019), which would intensify WI In addition, like most other service industries, compared to the incivility of supervisors and coworkers, customer incivility has less impact on employees' work experience (Schilpzand et al., 2016) It can be explained that the customers are neither agents nor members of the organization; therefore, they do not directly reflect the company's treatment of employees, and uncivil customers can be seen as part of a frontline employee's job (LeBlanc & Kelloway, 2002) Thus, study 1 will focus on the incivility enacted from inside organization sources, including coworkers and supervisors in the banking research context

1.5.3 Study 2 - The aviation sector as the research context, and customers and supervisors are the main sources of workplace incivility

For the aviation industry, FLEs can be divided into airport ground staff (e.g., check- in staff) and in-flight service staff (e.g., flight attendants) Airport ground employees provide a wide range of services and interactions from the moment a passenger checks in at the airport until that passenger boards, while in-flight service staff (e.g., flight attendants) are in charge of serving passengers from the time they board until they arrive at the destination airport (Cheng-Hua & Hsin-Li, 2012) Airport ground staff play an important role in aviation safety, setting the stage for in-flight safety

Thus, their job performance is associated with passenger satisfaction and aviation safety Study 2 selected FLEs working in airports as respondents and investigated whether and how WI can affect their job performance The research results can help airport managers understand what factors can lower employees’ job performance and take appropriate interventions to buffer its harmful effects Study 2 considered the outsider instigator (customers) and insider (supervisors) as two main sources of workplace incivility

The unique service environment, like the airport, can cause passengers stress, anxiety, and irritation Airport FLEs often experience uncivilized or abusive behavior from angry passengers (Arnold, 2021) In Vietnam, this phenomenon even worsens as the terminal and airside capacity have not been improved in proportion to the rapid increase in the number of passengers (HCM City to Focus on Improving Traffic at

Tân Sơn Nhất Airport, 2022) As current airport infrastructure cannot meet the increased number of passengers, airport service quality decreases, causing air traffic congestion at major airports such as Tan Son Nhat International Airport The lack of airport capacity also leads to increased canceled and delayed flights, especially in peak seasons and peak hours, which frustrates passengers (Air Passengers Reach Record Number, Delays and Cancellations Increase, 2022) Consequently, aviation frontline staff is a "punching bag" for angry passengers Indeed, the number of conflicts between passengers and service staff at airports in Vietnam is increasing and attracting great public attention (Lê, 2019) These incidents are significantly more frequent and adverse during the COVID-19 pandemic when many regulations are added to the check-in and boarding process, which reduce the speed of service, put a great deal of stress on passengers (Arnold, 2021) and stimulate more impatient and deviant behaviors from customers toward check-in staff (Voorhees et al., 2020) Experiencing uncivilized behavior from frustrated passengers is becoming more common among aviation frontline staff than ever (Arnold, 2021)

In addition, in the aviation sector, the supervisor's role is even more critical as they train employees, guide employees to handle such daily conflict situations with passengers, and motivate their subordinates to overcome such negative experiences (Shin et al., 2021) Supervisor support helps FLEs perform better (Shin et al., 2021) Therefore, without supervisor support and frequent experiences of mistreatment from supervisors can result in severe consequences to FLEs' occupational health and reduce their performance (Schilpzand et al., 2016) Thus, the author considered incivility from customers and supervisors to be the main source of incivility for FLEs working in the airport.

Overview articles

The dissertation highlights the significance of workplace incivility as a growing research area While previous studies have examined different outcomes of workplace incivility (WI), there has been a lack of research on its nonwork-related outcomes, particularly subjective well-being Furthermore, the findings regarding the relationship between workplace incivility and job performance have been inconsistent To address these gaps, this dissertation aims to investigate the mechanisms and boundary conditions in the relationship between multiple sources of workplace incivility (including customers, coworkers, and supervisors) and their impacts on both work-related and non-work-related outcomes In order to achieve the research objectives, the dissertation proposes an overall conceptual model (Figure 1.2) that outlines the relationships and interactions between the variables under investigation.

Figure 1.2 The overall conceptual: the link between the Workplace and its work-related and non-work-related outcomes

Two sub-models were proposed to address the research questions Study 1 , which research method and research results were presented in Chapter 3, focused on the nonwork outcomes of workplace incivility The study aimed to investigate whether and how workplace incivility impacts employees’ subjective well-being Work-family enrichment was treated as a mediator, and coping strategies were proposed as the moderator in the above relationship (Figure 1.3) A cross-sectional sample collected from banking frontline employees was used for the data analysis PLS-SEM was used for the measurement and structural assessment of the research model The study offers new insights into how and to what extent workplace incivility influences subjective well-being

Figure 1.3 Research model of Study 1

This dissertation also expands the literature on WI by investigating its work- related outcomes through study 2 , the research method and results of which are presented in Chapter 4 The study aimed to examine the underlying mechanism in the relationship between workplace incivility and employees’ in-role and extra-role performance Psychological distress was treated as a mediator, and mindfulness as a moderator in the relationship (Figure 1.4) A cross-sectional sample collected from frontline employees working in airports was used for the data analysis PLS-SEM was also used for measurement and structural assessment of the research model The study offers new insights into how and to what extent workplace incivility influences job performance.

Dissertation structure

This dissertation consists of five chapters The first section of this dissertation, chapter 1, generally introduces the research problem, gaps analysis, proposed research model, methodology, and the contribution of this dissertation

In chapter 2, the theoretical background was extensively reviewed, and the overall research model was proposed The overall model presents the definitions of workplace incivility, work-family enrichment, psychological distress, subjective well-being, in-role and extra-role performance, coping strategies and mindfulness The associations between variables of two sub-models - Study 1 and 2 -were also presented in detail in this chapter

Chapter 3 presents the research method and results of Study 1, which was published in the Asia-Pacific Journal of Business Administration Chapter 4 contains the research method and results of Study 2, which are under third-round peer review in the Service Business journal

In the final section of this dissertation, chapter 5, key conclusions, overall research findings, and theoretical contributions were presented The limitations and future research were also discussed

This chapter aims to provide a foundation for research on incivility in the workplace

A bibliometric review was conducted to identify the evolution of research in workplace incivility The research gaps were then determined and presented in this chapter To address the research gaps, two studies were conducted in this dissertation Particularly, the dissertation explores the mechanism and boundary conditions in the relationship between workplace incivility and employees’ subjective well-being (Study 1) and the relationship between workplace incivility and employees’ job performance (Study 2) The rationale of the research context, the research method, and the overview of the two studies were also presented Finally, the structure of this dissertation has been outlined.

LITERATURE REVIEW

Theoretical framework

The conservation of resources (COR) theory (Hobfoll, 1989) is rooted in resource theory and psychosocial theories of stress and human motivation COR theory is one of the most influential theories explaining the interaction between human stress and an individual's well-being This theory has been widely used as an explanatory model of organizational stress (i.e., WI) and how individuals in organizations cope with occupational stress in different industries and countries (Alvaro et al., 2010) The COR theory describes how people react to the stressors they encounter in their environment and how those encounters affect their well-being and performance (Hobfoll, 2002) According to the theory, people tend to acquire, maintain, and protect their resources, and stress occurs when resources are threatened or actually lost (Hobfoll, 2002) Resources play a central role in COR theory In COR theory, resources are not limited to money, things, and people Values, skills, conditions, and cultures are also resources under their value in creating change and facilitating the acquisition of additional resources (Hobfoll, 1989) In general, resources can be objects (i.e., house), characteristics (i.e., optimism), conditions (i.e., marriage), or energies (i.e., time, money, physical energies) (Hobfoll, 1989), which are valued by individuals themselves or act as a means by which individuals achieve certain objects, personal characteristics, conditions, or energies Hobfoll (1989) also distinguishes between contextual and individual resources Contextual resources are outside the self and can be found within the individual's social context (e.g., a supervisor's or coworker's social support), while personal resources close to the self include skills and personality (e.g., optimism and self-efficacy) Such resources can buffer against the potential negative effects of stressful events that tax resources (Alvaro et al.,

The theory consists of a number of assumptions The first assumption mentions that people use resources to deal with the presence of a stressor Stress occurs if coping is unsuccessful or if many resources need to be invested (Hobfoll,

2002) Stressors from loss of resources can prevent people from obtaining more resources, which leads to lower levels of well-being and accomplishing goals (e.g., job performance) (Hobfoll, 2002) According to Hobfoll (2002), the loss of resources far outweighs the effect of acquiring an equivalent resource Therefore, individuals try to gain additional resources and compensate for the loss The second central assumption is that resources can generate new resources In the absence of stressors, people try to get more resources This activity makes it easier for the individual to get through the tough times and be happier because the extra resources are valuable In addition, people can use their existing resources to get more resources (Hobfoll,

2002) For example, individuals with established social networks may be more likely to succeed and receive a wider range of benefits From there, resources create a spiral of accumulating and increasing resources The term "resources spiral" is clarified by three other assumptions of the COR theory

Individuals with more resources are more likely to avoid problems, allowing them to utilize their current resources to gain more rather than being forced to spend their limited resources to avoid resource loss (Assumption 3) In addition, individuals who experience stressful situations will be better equipped to deal with stressors when they own resources (Assumption 4) People with more resources are less negatively affected when they face resource depletion because they have alternative resources (Assumption 5) The gain spiral of resources is also reflected in the sixth and seventh assumptions of the COR theory In particular, the effects of resources tend to persist over time and under different circumstances (Assumption 6) Resource owners are viewed favorably by both others and themselves (Assumption 7) The creation of new resources from existing resources constitutes a continuous cycle

2.1.2 The work-home resources (W-H R) model

Building on COR theory, ten Brummelhuis & Bakker (2012) proposed a model that provides a theoretical framework that comprehensively explains the positive and negative interfaces between work and home According to the WH-R model, demands and resources in one domain (i.e., work or home) lead to a loss or gain of personal resources, respectively, in another domain (i.e., home or work) Such loss and gain of resources are key drivers of work-home conflict and the work-home enrichment process, respectively In other words, when contextual demands and resources are the antecedents of the work-home interface, personal resources are the linking pins between the work and home domains Personal resources can be structural (e.g., skills, knowledge, experience, health) or volatile (mood, attention, time, physical or cognitive energy) While structural resources are more durable and can be used many times to deal with stressful events (e.g., social networks), volatile resources are temporary because they can only be used once or are only available temporarily (e.g., mood, attention) Ten Brummelhuis & Bakker (2012) also posit a positive link between contextual resources and WFE, while contextual demands can lower work-home enrichment and higher work-home conflicts Contextual demands (e.g., emotional demands, overload, cognitive demands) refer to physical, emotional, social, or organizational aspects of the social context that require sustained physical and/or mental effort (ten Brummelhuis & Bakker, 2012)

The W-HR model also explains how key resources may moderate the link between contextual demands, contextual resources, and work–home interface Key resources explain why some people are better than others at coping with stressful circumstances and collecting new resources Key resources are defined as

"personality traits that enable a more active and efficient coping style" (ten Brummelhuis & Bakker, 2012; p 548) People with more key resources are better at problem-solving and coping with stress (ten Brummelhuis & Bakker, 2012) Furthermore, key resources also allow people to utilize their contextual resources optimally Besides, ten Brummelhuis & Bakker (2012) indicated that macro resources can reinforce or buffer the causal links between contextual demands and resources and the work-home interface Macro resources are defined as "characteristics of the larger economic, social, and cultural system in which a person is embedded" (e.g., social power and status) (ten Brummelhuis & Bakker, 2012, p.548)

2.1.3 Theory of work-family enrichment

Greenhaus & Powell (2006) emphasize the possibility that people can benefit by participating in different roles, such as less pressure in a particular role due to the

"buffer of influence" of other roles or having a greater appreciation of status in a role Greenhaus & Powell (2006) defined "enrichment between work and family when the extent of experiences in a determined role influences the experiences of another role" (p 73) The influence of a role can enhance the quality of life in another role According to Greenhaus & Powell (2006), enrichment occurs when the resources gained from Role A (i.e., work) are applied and promote an improved quality of life in Role B (i.e., home) For enhancing the WFE, they pointed out two paths leading to the emergence of WFE: instrumental and affective paths Instrumental enrichment occurs when resources accumulated in a person's work role directly impact family role performance, and affective enrichment occurs when resources gained in one's work indirectly affect family role performance through positive affect on the work role (moods and emotions) The resources obtained from the work role through both instrumental and affective pathways ultimately promote positive affect toward family roles due to enhanced performance in the family role

Thus, Greenhaus & Powell (2006) consider the creation of resources as an important driver of the enrichment process and propose five types of resources: skills and perspectives, psychological and physical resources, social-capital resources, flexibility, and material resources Skills refer to "a broad set of task-related cognitive and interpersonal skills, coping skills, multitasking skills, and knowledge and wisdom” (Greenhaus & Powell, 2006, p 80) Perspectives involve ways of perceiving or handling situations, such as respecting individual differences, valuing differences in cultural background, and understanding other people's problems In other words, this type of skill can expand one's "worldview" (Kanter, 1977)

Psychological and physical resources include positive self-assessments, such as self- efficacy, self-esteem, personal hardiness, optimism and hope, and physical health

Social-capital resources are derived from interpersonal relationships in work and family roles, including influence and information Flexibility refers to discretion to determine when, how, and where to meet role requirements Finally, material resources include money or objects obtained from work and family roles The authors also emphasize that the resources generated by role experiences are interdependent, and acquiring one can trigger acquiring other resources For example, skills and information can enhance self-efficacy and facilitate social capital Furthermore, psychological resources and hardiness can promote effective coping skills and physical health.

Overview of the study variables

Workplace incivility (WI) represents the majority of mistreatment behaviour in the workplace (Neuman & Baron, 1997) This type of workplace mistreatment seems to be a common phenomenon within organizations Research on WI stems from the highly influential publication of management scholars: Andersson & Pearson (1999) The definition provided by Andersson and Pearson quickly became the most cited issue in research on uncivilized behavior in the workplace (Hutton, 2006) WI was defined as "low-intensity deviant behavior, with ambiguous intent to harm the target" (Andersson & Pearson, 1999, p 457), which is induced in the workplace Incivility behaviour includes derogatory comments, interrupting others, not responding to others, condescending behavior, disparaging body language, demeaning others, making demeaning remarks, and do not listen to someone (Andersson & Pearson, 1999; Cortina et al., 2013) These behaviors can be intentional or unintentional but are characterized by low intensity (Andersson & Pearson, 1999)

Despite its low intensity, WI is a significant problem that increases costs for individuals and organizations (Pearson et al., 2000) Andersson & Pearson (1999) argue that WI can spread and become part of the workplace culture through the social process of reciprocal exchanges and interchanging incivilities between coworkers Porath & Pearson (2010) also posit that this phenomenon will worsen workplace culture as uncivilized behaviors become more intentional and intense For organizations, the cost of uncivil behaviour is estimated at $14,000 per employee annually due to project delays and work distractions (Porath & Pearson, 2010) Experiencing WI causes victims to spend more time than usual on a task and lower quality of work because they worry about the incidents and try to hide from the perpetrator (Porath & Pearson, 2010) Targets feel anxious, seek to avoid the instigator, withdraw from work, and even vent their frustrations on clients (Porath & Pearson, 2010)

WI has only recently received attention from empirical research This concept is relatively new compared to other types of interpersonal conflicts in the workplace, such as workplace aggression, workplace bullying, and workplace deviance, which scholars have focused on the most (Vasconcelos, 2020) According to Schilpzand et al (2016), there are three distinguishing features between WI and the other negative interpersonal constructs in the workplace

First, low intensity is an important defining aspect of WI that distinguishes it from other constructs For example, aggressive behaviour involves yelling, swearing, threatening, ignoring someone, or refusing to cooperate Such behaviour is more severe Meanwhile, on the surface, the instigator of uncivilized behavior can appear calm, measured, and even polite to the target (Porath & Pearson, 2013)

Second, the intentionality of uncivilized behavior is harder to discern The seemingly related constructs of aggression, bullying, and abusive supervision are more overt than incivility, which shows a clear intent to harm Such behaviours can be diagnosed explicitly (Hanrahan & Leiter, 2014), and the targets of these behaviors are easy to interpret such behaviour as hostile Perhaps because of the obvious and immediate consequences of these stronger actions, scholars have mainly focused on more obvious forms of workplace deviance than WI, which have ambiguous intent to harm victims (Taylor, 2004) Andersson & Pearson (1999) argue that uncivilized acts sometimes occur through ignorance or simple negligence of instigators, not premeditated by the mastermind, and with no intent to cause harm In addition, some uncivilized behavior is simply due to misunderstanding or being overly sensitive to the targets Therefore, it is challenging to diagnose uncivilized behavior

A third characteristic that helps to differentiate WI from other types of mistreatments, such as abusive supervision, is the sources of incivility Incivility can be enacted by the organization's insiders (i.e., supervisors and coworkers) or outsiders (i.e., customers) These distinctions are important because multiple sources can cause various outcomes of WI (Schilpzand et al., 2016) As the difference in work status between different instigators and targets, the effect of WI on targets' cognitive, emotional, and behavior varies compared to other workplace interpersonal structures where instigators come only from a supervisor or coworker (i.e., abusive supervisor) (Schilpzand et al., 2016) As workplace incivility can come from multiple sources, employees are more likely to experience uncivilized behavior than other types of interpersonal conflicts in the workplace (Cortina & Magley, 2001)

As aforementioned, WI can come from multiple sources from both inside the organization (coworkers and supervisors incivility) and outside of the organization (customer incivility) (Schilpzand et al., 2016) Hershcovis & Barling (2009) posit that the status and role differentials between the instigators and targets can differ in the effect's severity and how the victims react to the incidents Through a literature review, Schilpzand et al (2016) argue that most research on incivility examines incivility from supervisors and coworkers (and sometimes even customers) together or just one type of perpetrator regardless of the diverse effects of each source For example, Van et al (2010) and Sliter et al (2011) examined the consequences of uncivilized customer behavior for call center staff and bank tellers, respectively, while Lim & Teo (2009) focused on the effect of uncivil cyber behaviors by supervisors toward their employees

For the outcomes of WI, results on the effects of incivility from multiple sources are inconsistent For example, Spence-Laschinger et al (2009) found that both supervisor and coworker incivility differently explained variance in employees' job satisfaction, commitment, and turnover intentions, while the studies by Porath & Erez (2007) did not find the source of incivility made much of difference on its outcomes Therefore, Schilpzand et al (2016) called for further research to examine whether incivility from multiple sources (supervisors, coworkers, customers) would lead to different outcomes, thus allowing for the comparisons of outcomes between sources

Previous studies show that victim dispositional, demographic differences, and workplace environmental factors (e.g., leadership, climate) can be antecedent factors of experiencing WI (Vasconcelos, 2020)

Individual characteristics Cortina et al (2017) suggest that trait affectivity and Big Five personality traits can predict who is inclined to be a target of workplace incivility Trait affectivity is the tendency to experience and express certain emotions (Watson et al., 1988) Individuals potentially vulnerable or less able to arouse empathy in others may become the targets the perpetrators seek (Cortina et al., 2017) Perpetrators also often target the person who may be defenseless or have personality traits that might make them less popular and, therefore, less likely to receive attention and support from bystanders Cortina et al (2017) emphasize that people with "social skills deficits" and "odd personalities" may be especially vulnerable to "prey" Also, personality traits that are less pleasing to others and, ultimately, are more likely to be targeted by perpetrators (Milam et al., 2009) For instance, extroverts enjoy interacting to generate and maintain positive emotions and are skilled at socializing with others Thus, they are less likely to be a target as they own their social network (Costa & McCrae, 1992) On the other hand, individuals with a higher degree of neuroticism are more prone to anxiety and insecurity They may be less socially skilled, making them easier to be a target of incivility (Han et al., 2022)

Demographic Cortina et al (2017) suggest that women, people of color, and younger employees may be more likely to be selectively targeted for incivility because of their historic lower-status position in the workplace However, the association between demographic differences and experiencing WI is inconsistent (Han et al., 2022) For example, Lim & Lee (2011) report that younger individuals experience more incivility On the other hand, previous studies indicated that gender, race, and age had no relationship with experienced incivility (e.g., McCord et al.,

2018) Besides, Han et al (2022) revealed that tenure could influence experienced incivility Particularly, shorter-tenured may have less power than those who are longer-tenured and may be viewed as "safer" targets Thus, incivility may be targeted towards shorter-tenured employees

Environmental and leadership characteristics Cortina et al (2017) argue that perpetrators are more likely to take advantage of the lax environment, exploit environmental vulnerabilities, and instigate uncivilized behavior when there is little reason to believe that doing so would be necessary to take the consequences

Organizational leadership and workplace culture can establish norms preventing incivility or allowing it to develop Walsh & Magley (2020) also revealed that workplace environments are directly related to incivility (i.e., lack of civility norms, incivility climate) For example, civilization norms encourage respectful treatment among organizational members and serve as informal guidelines for social relationships in the workplace On the other hand, leadership, such as passive- avoidant leaders who avoid the duties and responsibilities in their leadership role, could lead to accelerated WI (Bass & Avolio, 1995) They are often absent when necessary, and even when present, they are reluctant to intervene in potentially troubling situations in the workplace (such as incivility behavior among subordinates) until their intervening behaviors cannot be avoided (Bass & Avolio, 1995)

Schilpzand et al (2016), through a literature review, found that the majority of research on incivility has used and validated the Workplace Incivility Scales (WIS) (Cortina & Magley, 2001) This seven-item scale asks participants to indicate how often they encountered uncivil behavior from a supervisor or co-worker (i.e., demeaned, excluded, or ignored by their superiors or co-workers) during the past five years Some authors have also used reduced or adapted Workplace Incivility Scales (e.g., Griffin, 2010; Oore et al., 2010) The other authors developed scales to measure workplace incivility For example, Walsh et al (2012) developed and validated the Workplace Uncivil Behavior Questionnaire This 20-item scale asks participants to report how often they experienced behaviors (i.e., others raising voices, rolling eyes when talking to them; being interrupted or excluded in the workplace) in the past year Penney & Spector (2005) modified and used an incivility measure by combining

43 items from three different instruments Other scholars (e.g., Sliter et al., 2011) have used and adapted the Interpersonal Conflict at Work scale (Spector & Jex, 1998) to measure workplace incivility The wide-ranging research on incivility inspired the authors to develop sector-specific measures of workplace incivility For example, Walsh et al (2012) developed the Norms for Civility scale to measure civility in workgroups, and Wilson & Holmvall (2013) developed and validity of the customer incivility scales to capture the effects of customer-instigated incivility precisely

Hypothesis development

2.3.1 Examining the non-work outcomes of Workplace incivility - Study 1: Linking workplace incivility and frontline employees’ subjective well-being: The role of work-home enrichment and coping strategies

2.3.1.1 Workplace incivility, work-family enrichment, and subjective well-being

This study adopts the work-home resources (WH-R) model (ten Brummelhuis & Bakker, 2012), the theory of work-family enrichment (Greenhaus & Powell, 2006) and the conservation of resources (COR) theory (Hobfoll, 1989) to develop the hypotheses The work-home resources (WH-R) model (ten Brummelhuis & Bakker,

2012) builds upon COR theory (Hobfoll, 1989), which explains the process of increased or decreased work-home enrichment through a gain or loss, respectively, in personal resources Work-home enrichment is defined as “the process whereby contextual resources from home and work domains lead to the development of personal resources The personal resources developed in each domain subsequently facilitate performance in the other domain” (Ten Brummelhuis & Bakker, 2012, p

549) In contrast, contextual demands (e.g., emotional demands, overload, cognitive demands) drain personal resources, which in turn lowers work-home enrichment and enhances work-home conflict Research on the nonwork domain has primarily focused on the "negative side" of the work-family interface (Lim & Lee, 2011; Witt

& Carlson, 2006; Zhou et al., 2019), the association of WI and its "positive side" (i.e., work-family enrichment - WFE) has received less attention Schilpzand et al (2016) and Zhou et al (2019), meanwhile, call for research on identifying mediators of the effects of WI, especially the work-family interface The WH-R model provides a rationale for explaining the link between work demand and work-family enrichment

WI is considered a contextual work demand, referring to an emotional aspect that requires mental effort (Andersson & Pearson, 1999) When confronted with WI, victims are unable to gain resources while trying to exert control over their emotions (Alola et al., 2018), and negative moods also spread from work to home, affecting family performance This experience will likely result in a negative association with WFE, and this is consistent with the theory of work-family enrichment (Greenhaus

Greenhaus & Powell (2006) suggest that the working state characterized by positive affect and high performance can be considered the most proximal antecedent of WFE, while the negative affect from work (e.g., WI), conversely, reduces WFE They pointed out two paths leading to the emergence of WFE: instrumental and affective paths Instrumental enrichment occurs when resources accumulated in a person's work role directly impact family role performance, and affective enrichment occurs when resources gained in one's work have indirect effects on family role performance through positive affect on the work role (moods and emotions) The resources obtained from the work role through both instrumental and affective pathways ultimately promote performance in family roles due to enhanced positive affect The mechanism of the relationship between WI and WFE can be explained by the affective path Supportive supervisors and coworkers (one type of social capital resource) (Greenhaus & Powell, 2006) are more important than formal policies in promoting WFE (Brough et al., 2014) because employees have highly positive emotions and good moods at work This positive affect may spill over into the family realm and facilitate performance in the family role In contrast, WI was associated with low worksite social support from supervisors and coworkers (Tsuno et al., 2017), which was negatively associated with WFE Instead of accumulating social resources at work and creating a positive mood in both work and home, WI makes people feel too tired to perform tasks that need attention at home (Grzywacz & Marks, 2000) At home, employees may feel unproductive (for men) and inhibit absorption with chores (for women) (Rothbard, 2001) Previous studies have also shown that WI leads to negative home outcomes, such as negative work rumination after returning home and symptoms of insomnia (Demsky et al., 2018), and reduces family satisfaction (Liu et al., 2020) This may support the negative impact of WI on WFE

In addition, there is a positive association between WFE and SWB SWB refers to the degree to which a person believes or feels that their life is going well and has been conceptualized to include affective and cognitive assessments of one's life (Diener et al., 2018) The affective component refers to affective assessments of the emotions people experience in daily life (e.g., sadness, anger, fear, joy, etc.) (Watson et al., 1988), while the cognitive component is conceptualized as how people evaluate their overall life satisfaction concerning a self-imposed ideal (Diener et al., 1985) Andrews & Withey (1976) argued that SWB should be defined as an assessment of overall life satisfaction rather than aggregating affective assessments with specific daily emotions Life satisfaction is based on comparing one's circumstances with what is considered the ideal standard, depending on their point of view, and is not a common or the same standard for everyone (Andrews & Withey, 1976) The life satisfaction scale has also received considerable attention from scholars and has been used in thousands of studies to measure SWB (Diener et al., 2018) Regarding the mechanism of enhancing well-being, COR theory (Hobfoll, 1989) suggests that in the absence of stressors, people gain more resources, which can increase well-being

WFE can be an antecedent that promotes the SWB (i.e., high satisfaction and low strain) of individuals Specifically, the experience of work-family enrichment serves as a "resource reservoir" that facilitates resource gain and enhances well-being

"because additional resources per se are valued" (Ten Brummelhuis & Bakker, 2012, p 547) Empirical studies demonstrate that WFE increases employees' life satisfaction (Lu et al., 2009; Zhang et al., 2018) and maintains overall health (Carlson et al., 2011)

The work-home interface has been found to mediate the relationship between general work stress and employee well-being in several empirical studies (Yoo & Lee, 2018) In this study, the author expected that employees who experienced WI, an interpersonal stressor from work, were not only prevented from obtaining resources but also experienced widespread negative moods that spill over into family life (lower work-family enrichment) and thus affect SWB Thus, the author proposed the following hypotheses (Figure 2.1):

H1a Work-family enrichment mediates the relationship between coworker incivility and subjective well-being

H1b Work-family enrichment mediates the relationship between supervisor incivility and subjective well-being

Coping strategies are defined as "efforts to prevent or diminish the threat, harm, and loss, or to reduce associated distress" (Carver & Connor-Smith, 2010, p 685), constituting cognitive or behavioral "efforts to master conditions that tax or exceed adaptive resources" (Latack, 1986, p.1) In this study, coping strategies were measured using the higher-order construct, Brief Scales for Coping Profile, consisting of six dimensions: active solution, changing a point of view, seeking help for solutions, changing mood, emotional expression involving others, and avoidance and suppression (Kageyama et al., 2004) Active solution refers to an individual's proactive effort, anticipating problems, and finding solutions to solve problems

Seeking help for solution is an attempt to obtain help from others to solve problems Changing mood refers to an attempt to engage in other activities to quell feelings of insecurity, such as anxiety or discontent Changing a point of view involves finding positive values in problems or changing attitudes and values, on the basis that thinking about the things that are impossible to change is useless Emotional expression involving others involves emotional acts that show others how one feels, such as anger, fear, or venting one's frustration on others Avoidance and suppression refers to a person enduring or delaying solving problems without doing anything about them The combination of different coping techniques can produce an effect that is different from a single coping technique (Inoue et al., 2018) and is more helpful in dealing with stressors (Zeidner, 1995) Coping styles are shaped by a person's appraisal of stressful events, personal resources (such as self-efficacy or optimism), and the social support resources they can approach (such as instrumental help or advice) (Skinner & Zimmer-Gembeck, 2016), and they distinguish one individual from another However, earlier research argued that individuals have stable dispositional tendencies over time to employ their coping styles in a certain stress domain (e.g., workplace incivility), and individuals' coping styles are generally quite persistent (Carver & Connor-Smith, 2010)

The WH-R model (ten Brummelhuis & Bakker, 2012) suggests that key resources are conditional factors promoting work-home enrichment, and WFE is more likely for those with key resources because key resources attenuate the negative relationship between contextual demands (e.g., incivility from coworkers and supervisors) and personal resources Coping strategies can be considered key resources, and appropriate coping strategies can optimally utilize contextual resources and help people deal with contextual demands (Thoits, 1994) It can therefore be predicted that individuals with a higher level of coping strategies will be better able to reduce the negative impact of incivility from both coworkers and supervisors on WFE Very few exceptions for the study by Welbourne et al (2016) considered coping strategies as a moderator in the relationship between WI and work- related outcomes (job satisfaction, sense of community) However, whether coping strategies moderates the link between WI – nonwork outcomes (e.g., WFE) remains unanswered Prior research has also confirmed the role of coping strategies in mitigating the negative impact of work or home stressors on their outcomes For example, Ten Brummelhuis et al (2011) found that when experiencing work stressors, employees with an active coping style may gain more job resources to deal with them Gopalan et al (2021) revealed that active coping buffers the negative effect of family incivility on family-work enrichment Moavero (2020) showed that positive coping strategies (e.g., "looking for support from family or friends") act as a moderator in the relationship between stressors from patient care and its outcome- job performance Based on the WH-R model and empirical findings, authors predict that coping strategies mitigate the impact of WI on WFE Therefore, the author proposed the following hypotheses (Figure 2.1):

H2a: Coping strategies moderate the relationship between coworker incivility and work-family enrichment in such a way that this relationship lessens when coping strategies are higher

H2b: Coping strategies moderate the relationship between supervisor incivility and work-family enrichment in such a way that this relationship lessens when coping strategies are higher

2.3.1.3 Gaps in the workplace incivility research

Gaps in literature The research on WI has witnessed significant growth in response to the increasing prevalence of workplace incivility in the workplace As workplace incivility research expands, there is a growing need to integrate different constructs and theories to enhance our understanding of the outcomes of workplace incivility While previous studies have primarily focused on the work-related outcomes of WI, there remains a limited understanding of its spillover effects into the home domain, specifically in terms of lower work-family enrichment and subsequent reductions in employees' subjective well-being (SWB) Meanwhile, subjective well- being of frontline employees plays a vital role in the service company's success Moreover, the potential mediating role of work-family enrichment in the relationship between WI and its outcomes, particularly concerning SWB, remains unanswered (Agrawal & Mahajan, 2021) By exploring this link, the dissertation contributes to a better understanding of the underlying mechanism by which WI affects employees' subjective well-being

Furthermore, there are unresolved questions regarding the role of coping strategies as moderating variables to mitigate the negative effects of WI on its outcomes Several studies (i.e., Hülsheger et al., 2021; Jang et al., 2020; Shahbaz & Parker, 2022) have raised the issue of whether and how coping strategies can act as moderator buffers against the detrimental impact of workplace incivility from multiple sources Study 1 seeks to address these questions and enhance our understanding of how coping strategies can effectively alleviate the negative consequences of WI By gaining insights into the role of coping strategies, managers can implement more targeted interventions to reduce the adverse effects of WI, ultimately enhancing employees' subjective well-being and job performance The findings from this research can provide valuable insights to help organizations and managers develop interventions that improve employees' subjective well-being and job performance in the face of workplace incivility

EXAMINING THE NON-WORK OUTCOMES OF

Research Method

The research procedure employed in this dissertation consists of two main phases: preliminary research and formal research The preliminary research phase incorporates both qualitative and quantitative methods Initially, the scales adopted from previous studies were translated from English to Vietnamese by two bilingual researchers, following the back-translation method outlined by Brislin (1970) The first draft scales are shown in the Appendix 5.1 of the dissertation Subsequently, in- depth interviews with the participation of five experts were carried out to refine the initial draft scales Through in-depth discussions, adjustments to the observed variables are made, ensuring their cultural adaptation of scales, and forming the second draft scales The results of in-depth interviews are shown in Appendix 7

A quantitative pilot study was then conducted to assess the reliability and validity of the adjusted scales In this preliminary quantitative study, a sample of 50 respondents was selected using convenience sampling These respondents are frontline employees currently working in their positions The purpose of this pilot study is to evaluate the reliability (consistency) and validity (accuracy) of the scales The results from the pilot test are shown in Appendix 11, indicating thatthe reliability and validity of all constructs were satisfactory

Next, a formal survey was carried out using detailed questionnaires designed based on the second draft scale The survey targets frontline employees working at different banks in Vietnam To determine an appropriate sample size, the study referred to Bollen (1986), who suggests having a sample size at least five times the total number of observed variables With 37 observed variables in this study, a required sample size greater than 185 was deemed appropriate The researchers contacted and obtained permission from the managers of seven bank branches, including Vietcombank, TPbank, Agribank, Sacombank, Shinhan Bank, SCB, and Techcombank, due to their geographical proximity, accessibility, and willingness to participate in the research The data collection process ensured confidentiality, allowing respondents to complete their questionnaires anonymously during business hours or at home As a gesture of gratitude and to improve efficiency, each respondent received 50,000 VND cash as compensation for their responses The official survey was conducted over two months, from April 2021 to June 2021 A total of 300 questionnaires were distributed, and 281 questionnaires were returned After excluding responses with missing data, 266 usable questionnaires remained and were included in the final data analysis Therefore, the study's sample size of 266 respondents provides a sufficient basis for accurate and reliable data analysis according to Bollen's recommendation Bollen (1986) The study was carried out according to the process shown in Figure 3.1

Figure 3.1 Experimental research process 3.1.2 Sample profile and measures

Sample profile Women made up 57.9% of the sample, while 42.1% were men In general, participants were between 25–35 years old Their mean length of employment in banks was over five years, accounting for 46.2% of the respondents The marital status of the participants was defined as single (44.4%) or married (55.6%) The majority of respondents had a bachelor's degree as their highest level of education (68%) (Table 3.1)

Table 3.1 Demographics of frontline employees

Measures Each item was rated on a five-point scale by respondents

Supervisor Incivility and Coworker Incivility were measured using five items each developed by Cho et al (2016) A sample item is "My supervisor(s)/ my coworker(s) was condescending to me."

Work-family enrichment was measured with a three-item scale adopted from Kacmar et al (2014) A sample item is "My involvement in my work helps me to understand different viewpoints, and this helps me be a better family member."

Subjective well-being was measured with a five-item scale used by Diener et al

(1985) A sample item is "In most ways, my life is close to my ideal."

Coping Strategies was adopted from Kageyama et al (2004) It was composed of six specific dimensions: Avoidance and suppression (4 items), Changing a point of view

(4 items), Seeking help for solution (2 items), Emotional expression involving others

(3 items), Active Solution (3 items), and Changing Mood (3 items).

Data analysis and results

This study used PLS-SEM for data analysis, including two steps In the first step, the measurement model evaluates the reliability, convergent validity, and discriminant validity of the construct The second step involves the structural model evaluation, testing the collinearity among the constructs and hypotheses proposed PLS-SEM was used for data analysis in this study as it has advantages that make it suitable for data analysis According to Hair et al (2019, p.5), PLS-SEM gains prominence “when the structural model is complex and includes many constructs, indicators and/or model relationships” PLS path modeling affords greater theoretical parsimony and less model complexity The model in the first study includes unidimensional (coworker and supervisor incivility; work-family enrichment; subjective well-being) and multidimensional constructs (coping strategies) PLS–SEM is, therefore, suitable when estimating such a complex hierarchical model In addition, PLS can be effectively used for both small and large sample sizes

3.2.2.1 Assessment of the measurement model

To test the psychometric properties of the measurement scales, the author conducted confirmatory factor analysis (CFA) to assess the reliability, convergent validity, and discriminant validity of the construct

Internal consistency reliability of the items was assessed using Cronbach's alpha and composite reliability (CR) Despite CR being preferred when applying structural equation modelling to data analysis, Cronbach's Alpha "may be used as a conservative measure of internal consistency reliability" (Hair et al., 2017, p 101)

In this study, all CR values exceeded the cut-off value of 0.7 Therefore, the CR values were satisfactory (Bagozzi & Yi, 1998) (Table 3.2) However, in the case of the active solution and emotional expression constructs, the alpha value was lower than the desired threshold of 0.7 (0.606 and 0.639, respectively) This difference was not statistically significant The alpha coefficient may be lower than the CR value because it underestimates internal consistency as a lower bound estimate of confidence (Peterson & Kim, 2013)

Convergent validity was tested by examining item loadings and average variance extracted (AVE) values As shown in Table 3.2, most indicator loadings range from 0.580 to 0.953 with significance at 0.01, higher than the recommended threshold of 0.5 (Hair et al., 1998), except for the factor loading of the fourth item of the changing a point of view construct and the third item of the active solution construct In particular, the item "I sleep more than usual" (CHAP4) measures the changing point of view construct and the item "I think calmly about what I should be doing now" (ACT3) measures the active solution construct with its loading values of 0.402 and 0.437, respectively In addition, three items measured “the emotional expression involving others” construct was also omitted because all loading values of its indicators are below the threshold of 0.5, according to Hair et al (1998) 's suggestion (see APD 13.1) All AVE values were over 0.5, ensuring convergent validity because all constructs explained more than 50% of their indicators' variance (Sarstedt et al., 2017)

Discriminant validity was evaluated using the AVE value of each construct and the HTMT of correlations The square root of each construct's AVE value was compared with its bivariate correlations with all opposing constructs (Grégoire & Fisher, 2006) Discriminant validity exists when the AVE square root is higher than the values of its bivariate correlations (Ringle et al., 2010) According to Table 3.3, all square roots of AVE are greater than the correlation values below the diagonal, indicating that the discriminant value is confirmed However, these methods have been considered insufficiently sensitive to detect discriminant validity, and a new, more sensitive criterion, named the heterotrait-monotrait ratio of correlations (HTMT), has been introduced in the literature "The HTMT criterion is defined as the mean value of the indicator correlations across constructs" (Sarstedt et al., 2017, p.17) All HTMT values of constructs are below the threshold of 0.85 (Table 3.4), implying that all constructs in the path model are conceptually distinct The result of bootstrapping with 5000 samples shows that none of the HTMT confidence intervals of those constructs includes the value of 1 (the significance level at α = 5%) Thus, the discriminant validity of all constructs is verified

Table 3.2 Scale items and latent construct evaluation

Construct name and items Cronbach’s

Avoidance and suppression _AVO 0.747 0.827 0.549 Changing a point of view_CHAP 0.747 0.847 0.597 Seeking help for solution_SEE 0.731 0.882 0.788

Emotional expression involving others_EMO

Table 3.3 Discriminant validity (Fornell-Larcker criterion)

ACT AVO CHAM CHAP COI EMO SEE SPI SWB WFE Coping

Note: ACT: Active Solution; AVO: Avoidance and suppression; CHAM: Changing Mood; CHAP: Changing a point of view; COI: Coworker incivility; EMO: Emotional expression involving others; SEE: Seeking help for solution; SI: Supervisor Incivility; SWB: Subjective Well-being; WFE: Work-family Enrichmen; Coping: Coping strategies

Table 3.4 Heterotrait-Monotrait Ratio (HTMT)

ACT AVO CHAM CHAP COI EMO SEE SPI SWB WFE

Note: ACT: Active Solution; AVO: Avoidance and suppression; CHAM: Changing Mood; CHAP: Changing a point of view; COI: Coworker incivility; EMO: Emotional expression involving others; SEE: Seeking help for solution; SI: Supervisor Incivility; SWB: Subjective Well- being; WFE: Work-family Enrichment; Coping: Coping strategies

Assessment of the hierarchical structure of coping strategies

Hierarchical constructs are defined as constructs with multiple dimensions, where each dimension captures a portion of the overall latent construct (Petter et al., 2007; Wetzels et al., 2009) These higher-order constructs have been confirmed to be successful in enhancing theoretical parsimony and reducing model complexity, supporting the matching of the level of abstraction for predictor and criterion variables (Edwards, 2001) This study used coping strategies as a hierarchical reflective construct, which comprises six first-order reflective constructs (avoidance and suppression, changing a point of view, seeking help for solutions, emotional expression involving others, active solution, and changing mood) For the measurement model, this dissertation followed the disjoint two-stage approach suggested by Sarstedt et al (2019) in which measurement models of lower-order reflective constructs were assessed first In this stage, the higher-order construct is not modeled All six lower-order constructs are assessed for reliability and validity in the first stage As mentioned previously, most indicators of this second-order construct were retained The author then used the latent variable score of five remaining second-order constructs for the second stage to continue assessing the reflective measurement model of the higher-order component – coping strategies The Cronbach’s alpha and CR values of the higher-order construct are 0.811 and 0.851 (table 3.2), respectively, well above the cut-off values; thus, the reliability was satisfactory In addition, the AVE value of this higher-order construct is 0.572, thus, the convergent validity was verified The discriminant of the higher-order construct was also confirmed as its AVE square root is higher than the values of its bivariate correlations (table 3.3), and HTMT values are below the threshold of 0.85 (table 3.4)

3.2.2.2 Common method variance (CMV) tests

The use of single respondents (banking frontline employees) for both independent and dependent variables in this study may cause the problem of CMV (Podsakoff et al., 2003) To mitigate this problem, in the design phase, the author followed the recommendations for questionnaire design by Podsakoff et al (2003) Several ways were established to minimize the influence of CMV First, a pilot study was conducted to ensure all constructs were clear and straightforward for respondents Second, all respondents were notified that there were no "right or incorrect" answers and that their responses were used only for research purposes Finally, the author used Harman's single-factor test proposed by Podsakoff & Organ (1986) to detect CMV among variables According to this approach, exploratory factor analysis was performed to calculate eigenvalues for the analysis in which all indicators are loaded onto a single factor The assumption is that if CMV exists, a single factor can account for most of the covariance in all variables In this study, Harman's single-factor test was performed on all 37 indicators The result indicated that a single factor accounted for only 28.858% of the total variance, which was lower than the accepted threshold of 50% (Podsakoff et al., 2003) The results of this test indicated that CMV was not an issue in study 1

3.2.2.3 Assessment of the structural model

Before testing the hypotheses, collinearity between predictor variables must be checked (Sarstedt et al., 2017) The variance inflation factor (VIF) was used to detect collinearity As this model involves more than one construct that predicts a criterion variable, a collinearity test is required The SmartPLS results in Table 3.5 indicate that all VIF values are below 5, indicating that there is no collinearity among the predictors (Sarstedt et al., 2017)

The study sought to test the mediation effect of WFE to gain a better understanding of the role of WI in explaining the variance of SWB in the model Hypotheses 1a and 1b predicted that WFE would mediate the relationship between COI, SI, and SWB, respectively Mediation effects were tested using the procedure suggested by Carrión et al (2017) The mediation effect satisfies several important criteria: a significant indirect effect is the only prerequisite for establishing a mediation effect, and the significance of the direct effect must be examined to determine the type of mediation

The first step involves determining the significance of the indirect effects and their magnitude, which is performed using the bootstrapping technique

Table 3.6 Summary of the structural model

COI -> SWB 0.061 0.666 -0.112 0.241 -0.091 0.258 COI -> WFE -0.188 * 2.523 -0.328 -0.041 -0.321 -0.031 WFE -> SWB 0.493 *** 9.366 0.378 0.586 0.336 0.578

Indirect effects β t –values Percentile BC

H1a COI -> WFE -> SWB -0.093* 2.695 -0.164 -0.02 -0.16 -0.016 H1b SI -> WFE -> SWB -0.063 1.764 -0.139 0.03 -0.137 0.005

Moderating effects β t –values Percentile BC

Note: *p