Khảo sát chiến lược học từ vựng tiếng anh của sinh viên chuyên ngữ năm thứ nhất tại một trường của đại học thái nguyên

Trang 1 THAI NGUYEN UNIVERSITY SCHOOL OF FOREIGN LANGUAGES PHAM MAI LINH AN INVESTIGATION INTO ENGLISH VOCABULARY LEARNING STRATEGIES USED BY ENGLISH MAJOR Trang 2 THAI NGUYEN UNIVERSI

INTRODUCTION

Rationale

Learning vocabulary is considered an indispensable part of language learning and production as limited knowledge of vocabulary results in learners’ difficulties in production as well as comprehension of language Horwitz (1988) found that vocabulary acquisition was considered by learners to be the most crucial part of language learning Wilkins, D (1972, p.97) also pointed out that "while without grammar, very little can be conveyed, without vocabulary, nothing can be conveyed" Furthermore, Schmitt (2008, p.339) added that "one thing that students, teachers, materials writers, and researchers can all agree upon is that learning vocabulary is an essential part of mastering a second language." Concerning the complexity of this issue, vocabulary learning strategies as a sub-category of learning strategies in general are believed to be significant in language learning, and consequently, being aware of these strategies is important for both teachers and students

According to cognitive theory, which deals with the mental processes involved in learning, each individual language learner has his or her own way of approaching learning, which, in turn, results in different outcomes in foreign language acquisition At my school, where I have been teaching for more than 4 years, one of the teaching obstacles here is the difference in the proficiency levels of students, especially among the freshmen When students start their first year at the school, they are expected to be at level A2 in the Common European Framework of Reference for Languages (CEFR), which means they should have the ability to deal with simple, straightforward information and begin to express themselves in familiar contexts However, while some of them, approximately 10% of the students in each of my classes, demonstrate exceptional ability in understanding lectures, expressing themselves in English, and receiving near-perfect scores on all tests, the

2 majority of them can barely communicate and exchange information in a simple manner I had a lot of discussions with them to find out the reasons for that Then, I realized that, during these discussions, some of the most common questions they asked me were: "I cannot understand the instructions and questions from my course books; what should I do?", "There are too many new words for me; how can my classmates understand them all?", and "What is the best way to learn English vocabulary?" There is definitely no simple and single answer to these questions Hence, in order to help solve the problem, an effort should be made to investigate the students’ vocabulary learning strategies and suggest a way to expand their vocabulary size

Vocabulary learning strategies have been developed in learners’ attempts to apply learning strategies in vocabulary acquisition A number of studies exploring individual vocabulary learning strategies and the relationship between vocabulary learning strategies and vocabulary size have been conducted However, few studies have been conducted to investigate learners’ vocabulary learning strategies used in a Vietnamese EFL teaching context The researcher was inspired to conduct this study with the title of “An investigation into English vocabulary learning strategies used by English major freshmen at a school of Thai Nguyen university” in the context of English teaching at Thai Nguyen University's school due to a lack of literature on the subject This study was carried out to explore the vocabulary learning strategies of English major freshmen at the school and the relationship between their vocabulary learning strategies and their vocabulary size.

Aims of the study

By examining the vocabulary learning strategies of English major freshmen at a School of Thai Nguyen University and pointing out the relationship between their vocabulary learning strategies and their vocabulary size, this study aims at encouraging the students to develop suitable English vocabulary learning strategies in their learning process to expand their vocabulary size The study focuses on answering two main research questions:

- What are the commonly-used English vocabulary learning strategies of English major freshmen at the School?

- What is the relationship between the students’ use of vocabulary learning strategies and their vocabulary size?

Scope of the study

The study was conducted with the participation of 158 first-year English major students at the school The number of participants was chosen based on Slovin (1960)’s formula sampling techniques

Because of the researcher’s time limit and some other conditions, the focus of this study is only on the investigation of the most commonly used vocabulary learning strategies of the school’s freshmen, including the determination strategies, memory strategies, social strategies, cognitive strategies, and metacognitive strategies; and the relationship between students’ vocabulary learning strategies and their vocabulary size.

Significance of the study

On completion, the study is expected to benefit not only the students but also teachers and researchers Moving from high school to the university, the first-year students are expected to experience new teaching and learning styles in a brand new environment They are also required to have an adequate amount of vocabulary in order to achieve their learning goals in class The results of this study, which reveal the students’ current preferred vocabulary learning strategies, their vocabulary size, and the relationship between them when starting university, may be a starting point to help students recognize and develop suitable strategies to enrich their vocabulary knowledge Besides, understanding the students’ vocabulary learning strategies will also enable teachers to choose and properly adjust their teaching materials, teaching activities, and teaching styles to help students enhance their vocabulary size Furthermore, the study can be a reference for researchers who wish to study the impacts of variables such as learning styles and learning strategies on language achievements

LITERATURE REVIEW

Language learning strategies

2.1.1 The definitions of learning strategies

In fact, the term "language learning strategies" (LLS) has been defined differently by different authors and researchers Tarone (1981) defined language learning strategies as an attempt to develop linguistic and sociolinguistic competence in the target language Rubin (1987) defined language learning strategies as what learners do to learn and do to regulate their learning Chamot

(1987) indicated that LLS are techniques, approaches, or deliberate actions that students take in order to facilitate learning and recall of both linguistic and content information In Wenden’s view (1987), the term refers to language behaviors learners engage in to learn and regulate the learning of the second language (L2), to what learners know about the strategies they use (i.e., strategic knowledge), and to what learners know about aspects of L2 learning Weinstein and Mayer (1986) defined the term as behaviors and thoughts that a learner engages in during learning that are intended to influence the learner’s encoding process Some other researchers also proposed different definitions For example, Oxford (1990), Ellis

Above all, Oxford (1990) comprehensively defines "learning strategies" as specific actions taken by the learner to make learning easier, faster, more enjoyable, more self-directed, more effective, and more transferable to new situations

2.1.2 The characteristics of learning strategies

The main characteristics of learning strategies were summarized by Takac, P

(1) LLS are specific actions or techniques used by learners rather than general approaches to learning It is best to use the term ‘strategy’ to refer to all

5 activities undertaken in learning taking into account the continuum from broad categories to more specific strategies

(2) Some LLS are observable and some are not, for LLS involve both physical and mental activities Absence of observable behavior does not imply absence of a mental process

(3) LLS are problem-oriented They are efficient and productive in problem- solving

(4) LLS contribute to learning both directly and indirectly

(5) LLS are conscious, potentially conscious or subconscious depending on individual learners and the task they are engaged in

(6) The use of LLS is motivated by learners’ desire to learn, but other factors, such as affective ones, should also be taken into account

(7) LLS can be changed, i.e the existing LLS can be adapted, new ones learned and acquired, and unsuccessful ones abandoned

(8) LLS are oriented towards the broad goal of development of communicative competence

(9) LLS enable learners to self-regulate their own learning and become autonomous and effective outside the classroom

(10) LLS change and expand the role of teachers: they help, facilitate,advise, coordinate, diagnose, cooperate, offer ideas and directions, and participate in communication

(11) In addition to the cognitive aspect, LLS also involve the metacognitive, social and affective aspects

(12) The choice of LLS is influenced by a number of factors such as teachers’ expectations, learners’ proficiency level, age, sex, nationality, learning style, previous experience in learning, education, motivation, self-efficacy, as well as personal beliefs and assumptions about language learning

(13) LLS are systematic: learners do not incidentally discover a LS; they use them systematically on the basis of their knowledge

(14) LLS are finite: it is possible to determine a limited number of LLS, because they are not an idiosyncratic creation of every learner

In terms of taxonomy, multiple efforts have been made to identify as well as classify learning strategies employed by language learners Among them, O’Malley and Chamot’s (1990)is probably the best known taxonomies of language learning strategies Building on the framework of Anderson’s cognitive theory (1983), O’Malley and Chamot (1990) classified learning strategies into four categories:

(1) Cognitive strategies concern mental steps or actions that are employed in learning or problem solving, and that require direct analysis, transformation or synthesis (i.e direct manipulation) of learning material They include processing language in the human mind and constitute mental processes directly concerned with obtaining, storage,retrieval and use of information in order to learn

(2) Metacognitive strategies involve planning of learning, setting of goals, thinking about the learning process, monitoring of performance and comprehension, as well as evaluation of results and the learning process These strategies operate at a different level to cognitive strategies: figuratively speaking, learners look at their learning from the ‘outside’ Metacognitive strategies also contain the aspect of learners’ awareness of their own strategy use, i.e conscious control and regulation of adequate strategy use in various learning situations, and enable learners to analyze their own learning

(3) Social strategies entail cooperation with other learners, the teacher or speakers of the L2 These strategies put learners in an environment where practicing is possible and they do not affect learning directly

(4) Affective strategies are learners’ attempts to understand and gain control over their feelings by using various relaxation techniques, self-encouragement, etc Although affective strategies do not directly affect learning, their role in language learning is still seen as important

The last two sets of strategies are often taken together and form a category of socioaffective strategies

Vocabulary and vocabulary learning strategies

The term "vocabulary" refers to a person's knowledge of terms, as well as their definitions To master a word, learners must understand its register, association, collocation, grammatical behavior, written form, spoken form, and frequency, among other things All of these characteristics are referred to as "word knowledge" (Schmitt 2000, p.5) According to Schmitt (2000, p.23), the meaning of a word is determined by the relationship between the word and its referent, which can be a person, thing, action, or situation.The core meaning aspects of a term are defined in dictionaries For many students, knowing the meaning of a word entails mastering its definition in dictionaries However, a word's meaning might vary depending on the situation The register is involved in this occurrence It is commonly employed in people's daily lives, and it refers to the denotation of a word's meaning in diverse settings from its underlying meaning It is the connection between the content, the sender, the receiver, the context, and the goal For example, the dictionary definition of the word "pet" is "a tamed animal maintained for company or enjoyment." In casual contexts, though, it is used to address the person you admire or love

There are five steps to learning vocabulary in a foreign language, according to Brown and Payne (1994):

(1) having new word encountering sources

(2) obtaining a clear image of the new words' forms, either visual or aural or both

(3) learning the meaning of the words

(4) forming a strong memory association between the forms and meanings of the words

2.2.2 Receptive and productive word knowledge

According to Meara (1997), lexical organization is at the root of both receptive and productive mastery Nation (2001, p.24-25) comes to the same

8 conclusion, claiming that there are two categories of word knowledge related to the mental processes involved in vocabulary development The following is how he describes several sorts of knowledge: Receptive vocabulary usage entails perceiving a word's form while listening or reading and recovering its meaning The desire to express a meaning through speech and writing, as well as retrieving and generating the right spoken and written word form, are all part of productive vocabulary use Many studies have contrasted the proportions of receptive and productive word knowledge, but few have looked into the types and quantities of lexical items required for learners to become productive.In terms of receptive knowledge, Schmitt (2014) claims that knowing the form-meaning of a word, using these form- meanings in speaking and writing, and then recalling the meaning to aid learners in producing communication is sufficient Parts of speech, derivation forms, and collocations, on the other hand, are examples of productive word knowledge that are already provided by context to represent word knowledge features From this standpoint, productive mastery is more difficult and advanced because 1) more word knowledge components are necessary, and 2) many of these components are contextual in nature, requiring a considerable period of time to develop

2.2.3.1 The definitions of vocabulary learning strategies

According to Schmiit (1997), vocabulary learning strategies could be any action which affects the process by which the information is obtained, stored, retrieved, and used in a rather broadly–defined process Similarly, Cameron (2001, p.92) defines vocabulary learning strategies (VLS) as “actions that learners take to help themselves understand and remember vocabulary” Thus, it can be claimed that knowledge of vocabulary learning strategies can help students learn better and control their own learning process It also helps them deal with each new word they encounter in the best way possible

2.2.3.2 The importance of vocabulary learning strategies

The main benefit of all learning strategies, including vocabulary learning strategies, is that learners have more control over their own learning and feel more

9 accountable for their studies (Nation, 2001) As a result, the strategies will foster learner autonomy, independence, and self-direction (Oxford, 1990) Learners who are provided with a variety of vocabulary acquisition tools can choose how they want to approach unfamiliar words Learning new vocabulary can be made much easier for learners if they have a good understanding of existing strategies and the ability to apply them in appropriate situations For example, when the learner chooses which words to study themselves, they can remember the words better than when the words are chosen by someone else Learners can acquire a large amount of vocabulary with the help of vocabulary learning strategies, according to Nation (2001), and these strategies are actually effective for learners of various language levels

2.2.3.3 Classifications of vocabulary learning strategies

Although there are many different perspectives on how to identify vocabulary learning processes, the study is based on Schmitt's work (1997), which is considered as the most comprehensive and famous one, and consequently has been widely used in many studies for its ease of application and for the ease ofcoding and analyzing the obtained data According to Schmitt's approach, there are five types of vocabulary learning strategies:

Students may find the meaning of unknown words by guessing For example, guessing from context, checking the part of speech, or using reference materials Learners also use a bilingual dictionary or monolingual dictionary to acquire the meaning of new words

Another way to acquire the meaning of new words is asking someone who knows the meaning Teachers and classmates are usually the ones who learners ask They may be asked to give the L1 translation, give a synonym, or provide an example of a sentence Many learners think that asking other people for translation is convenient However, some people may provide a wrong translation and sometimes make learners confused

A mnemonic is a device that we can use to remember things It can be a group of words, a song, or other things that are easily remembered This technique is used toremember something that is hard to remember Keyword technique is also used to remember the definition of a word A keyword is chosen which is acoustically similar to the new word Students can also memorize words with the picture that represents the word’s meaning

This category includes written repetition and verbal repetition such as saying a new word when reading, studying vocabulary lists and flash cards, or taking notes during classes They are almost the same as memory strategies but they do notconcentrate on mental processing

Learners use this strategy to control and evaluate their own learning Increasing exposure to the language is required to acquire the words efficiently, for example, watching English television programs or listening to English songs, realizing which new words should be skipped, or learning new words continually over time

2.2.3.4 Factors affecting students’ vocabulary learning strategies

The ability of learners to learn vocabulary is thought to be influenced by two sorts of factors: intralexical and extralexical elements An intralexical factor is one that is derived from the word itself, such as spelling, length, and semantic aspects (Laufer, 1997) Extralexical factor refers to a component that is not directly related to a word's internal features, such as the involvement of memory in vocabulary learning, the influence of first and other languages, and the variances among individual learners (Takac, 2008)

In a recent study, Boonkongsaen, N (2012) synthesized the findings of the empirical research works carried out in Thailand and in other countries during the last two decades or more under Ellis’s framework (1994) and presented the overview of factors that may affect learners’ VLS use The results of this study

11 reveals that there are three main groups of factors affecting students’ vocabulary learning strategies:

(1) Learners’ individual difference factors, which include belief, attitude, motivation and language learning experience

(2) Social and situational factors, including the field of study, course type, class level, gender and language learning environment

(3) Learners’ learning outcomes, including students’ language achievement, language proficiency and vocabulary knowledge.

Vocabulary size

Vocabulary size is typically defined as the number of words in a language for which an individual has at least a basic form-meaning mapping knowledge (Meara,

1997) According to Nation (1990), in order to function well in English, all learners must know between 2,000 and 3,000 word levels He discovered that roughly 87 percent of the terms in the book were all in the most frequent 2,000 headwords (base words) of English in an analysis of a text for young native speakers and another for native speakers at the secondary level The remaining 8%, 3%, and 2% of the text are made up of university words, which appear often in most types of academic papers, technical words, and low-frequency words, respectively Nation also came to the conclusion that data from collections of large texts backed up their findings from short texts Laufer (1998) indicated that the minimum vocabulary size required for reading comprehension is around 3,000 words It was discovered that students with a vocabulary below 3,000 words performed poorly on the reading test, regardless of their academic abilities In terms of text coverage, the 3,000 word families are said to cover between 90% and 95% of any text Furthermore, if someone wants to read sophisticated, real, academic writings, they must have a good command of at least 5,000 words (Hirsh & Nation, 1992)

In brief, these studies suggest a threshold size of around 2,000 high- frequency words is necessary for effective basic language use and a vocabulary size of 3,000 to 5,000 words is needed for successful text comprehension

Vocabulary size test

Recent research has demonstrated that relatively large vocabulary sizes are required to operate efficiently in English, which necessitates assessing whether learners have learned (or are in the process of acquiring) the appropriate vocabulary This has resulted in the development of a number of different vocabulary size tests, all of which were designed to evaluate vocabulary sizes in a reliable and valid way

A number of influential tests currently exist for vocabulary size measurement in English includes: the Vocabulary Levels Test (VLT) (Nation, 1990; Schmitt, Schmitt, & Clapham, 2001), the Vocabulary Size Test (VST) (Nation & Beglar,

2007), the Productive Levels Test (Laufer & Nation, 1999), and the Lexical Frequency Profile (LFP) (Laufer & Nation, 1995)

The most widely used vocabulary test for pedagogical purposes is the Vocabulary Levels Test (Nation, 1990; Schmitt, Schmitt, & Clapham, 2001) It's a tool that uses five frequency bands to assess test-takers' written receptive word knowledge The first 2,000 word frequency levels use terms from West (1953), while the 3,000, 5,000, and 10,000 word frequency bands use words from Thorndike and Lorge (1944) and Kucera and Francis' (1967) frequency criteria (as cited in McLean & Kramer, 2015) The major goal of the test is to determine whether or not students have mastered the most common language so that appropriate learning resources can be assigned Because 98 percent coverage is required for simple comprehension of written materials, mastery of the level is determined by successfully answering 29 or more questions for the 30 items in the relevant section (Nation, 2013) It has been shown to be very useful as a diagnostic exam in directing attention to the appropriate levels of vocabulary from both the teacher and the student The learners must match three out of the six words on the left with the meanings stated on the right in VLT items like the following:

A more recent test of vocabulary size frequently used is the Vocabulary Size Test(Nation & Beglar, 2007).The VST is designed to measure written receptive vocabulary knowledge, estimating a total number of the test-takers’ vocabulary size

It is a proficiency test but the estimate can also be used to diagnose long-term vocabulary growth and set new vocabulary learning goals As Nation and Beglar

(2007, p.10) elaborate, the word family is chosen because learners beyond a minimal proficiency level are assumed to have some control of word building devices and are able to see a formal and a meaningful relationship between regular derivatives of a word family There are two versions of the test, a 14,000 version containing 140 multiple-choice items and two parallel 20,000 versions containing

100 multiple choice items Take the former as example, 10 items for each of the fourteen 1,000 word family frequency lists from the Corpus are sampled in order It is believed that frequency level is directly related to the probability of being known That is, items in the first 1,000 level are the most likely to be known and those in the 14th 1,000 least likely

The following is a sample item from the 5th 1,000 word level

1 miniature: It is a miniature a) a very small thing of its kind b) an instrument for looking at very small objects c) a very small living creature d) a small line to join letters in handwriting

The Productive Levels Test (PLT) is a more appropriate diagnostic measure of controlled productive vocabulary knowledge, the ability to use a word when compelled to do so The overall structure of the test is modeled on the Vocabulary Levels Test (Nation, 1983; 1990) Laufer and Nation (1999) modify the VLT format to a test of controlled productive vocabulary ability in the form of sentence completion item type like the following It prompts test-takers to produce

14 predetermined target words by giving a sentence context or a definition with a clue of the beginning letters of the target words For example:

The garden was full of fra flowers

The ability to use a word at one’s free will is referred to as free productive ability This type of vocabulary use ismeasured by the Lexical Frequency Profile (LFP) (Laufer & Nation, 1995) The test-takers are asked to write 300-ormore word essays on a given subject (Laufer & Nation, 1995; Gu, 2010) to diagnose their free control of words offrequency levels By inputting the essay to a special LFP computer program, calculation is done in seconds to showthe percentage of words a learner uses at different vocabulary frequency levels in a composition It is based on thebelief that a test-taker’s productive vocabulary size could be deduced from the percentage count of infrequentwords he uses in the composition

There are a lot more vocabulary size tests coming up to measure different aspects of vocabulary knowledge and ability However, these four tests are among some of the most popular ones, especially, the Vocabulary Levels Test (Nation, 1990; Schmitt (2000), Schmitt, & Clapham, 2001) and the Vocabulary Size Test (Nation & Beglar, 2007) are increasingly used in research studies as a primary measure as presented in the next section.

Previous studies

Vocabulary learning strategies have recently gotten a lot of attention since they can help us understand the processes that language learners go through when acquiring new words Recent research has focused on finding vocabulary learning strategies and the relationship between students' use of vocabulary learning strategies and their vocabulary size, with a range of outcomes

For example, Heshmatifar, Z (2013) investigated what strategies are more or less common for learning vocabulary among EFL students at Hakim Sabzevari University in Iran by employing a questionnaire adapted from the taxonomy of vocabulary learning strategies developed by Schmitt (1997) The results of the study revealed that the determination strategies were the most frequently used, while the social strategies were rarely used by the students

In another study, Letchumanan, K & Paramasivam, Govindasamy, P & Farahaiyan, A (2016) provided an overview of preferred vocabulary learning strategies by learners Data from the study showed that learners do use certain vocabulary learning strategies and that these strategies have become their preferred vocabulary learning strategies The study also confirmed that multiple uses of vocabulary learning strategies are preferred by learners, especially the cognitive, determination, and metacognitive strategies

In order to explore the relationship between the vocabulary learning strategies and vocabulary size of English language teaching students at Eastern Mediterranean University, Kalajahi, S.A.R (2012) used a vocabulary learning strategies questionnaire adapted from Kudo’s study (1999) and the vocabulary levels test of Schmitt’s (2000) This study found no relationship between the psycholinguistic strategy and the vocabulary size of the participants, and the relationships between the metacognitive strategy and the vocabulary size, as well as the vocabulary learning strategy questionnaire and the vocabulary size of the participants, were negligible The findings also revealed that students did not operate on certain strategies but rather a variety of strategies

Employing the same vocabulary level test and another vocabulary learning strategies questionnaire developed by Sener (2003), a study by Tlfarlolu, F.F.Y & Bozgeyik, Y (2012) indicated that the participants used a wide range of VLS Furthermore, memory strategies correlated positively with the participants’ academic and general vocabulary proficiency levels However, there were also some differences among the proficiency groups about which specific VLS were correlated with their vocabulary proficiency levels

Kristanto, B (2015) also attempted to identify the use of vocabulary learning strategies and to find out the vocabulary learning strategies' use in relation to vocabulary size, using a 27-item questionnaire adapted from Schmitts’ taxonomy and the Vocabulary size test (Nation & Beglar, 2007) Statistical analysis revealed that social strategies were the most frequently used strategies, whereas metacognitive strategies were not used by all students Correlation analysis showed

16 that the relationship exists at a moderate level between vocabulary learning strategy use and vocabulary size score

Using the same vocabulary size test (Nation & Beglar, 2007) with a Strategy Inventory for Language Learning (SILL) questionnaire (version 7), Maghsoudi, N

& Golshan, M (2017) found that the most frequently used vocabulary learning strategy subgroup was metacognitive and the least frequent one was social strategy Besides, no significant correlation was found between vocabulary size and vocabulary learning strategies except for a small and reverse correlation between vocabulary size and compensation strategy

It can be seen from these studies that English learners tend to use a wide variety of vocabulary learning strategies instead of only one strategy However, the vocabulary learning strategies that they preferred and used frequently differed in different study contexts Besides, there was a relationship between students’ vocabulary learning strategies and their vocabulary size, but it is also at different levels in different study subjects and contexts Therefore, more studies are needed to shed light on the issue

METHODOLOGY

Research design

Based on the means and the purposes of the study, the researcher has decided to carry out the study as a descriptive research The chief aim of descriptive research is to describe the current circumstances as they exist and also describe the facts about current phenomena which are unknown Some distinctive characteristics of descriptive research are, firstly descriptive research is a quantitative research method that attempts to collect quantifiable information for statistical analysis of the population sample; secondly, in descriptive research, none of the variables are influenced in any way Hence, the nature of the variables or their behavior is not in the hands of the researcher.Its common means of obtaining information include the use of the questionnaire, personal interviews with the aid of study guide or interview schedule, and observation, either participatory or not.Statistical tools are allowed to be utilized for as long as it sufficiently fits the requirement for data analysis This research method is appropriate for the study as the study’s purpose is to describe and evaluate the vocabulary learning strategies used by freshmen at the School and to find out the relationship between students’ vocabulary learning strategies and their vocabulary size.The study will follow eight steps in conducting descriptive research:

Steps in descriptive survey research (adapted from Lodico et al., 2010)

Collect valid and reliable data

Analyze and interpret the survey results

Subjects and locale of the study

The subject of the study was 158 first-year English major students at the school, including 150 girls and eight boys They are mostly 18–19 years old, and their English is at the elementary level (A1-A2, based on their placement test’s results at the university) The number of participants chosen was based on Slovin (1960)’s formula sampling techniques, which is written as: n = N/(1+(N.e2)) where n = Number of samples; N = Total population; e = Error tolerance

According to Stephanie Ellen (2021), Slovin’s formula allows a researcher to sample the population with a desired degree of accuracy It also gives the researcher an idea of how large the sample size needs to be to ensure reasonable accuracy of results In this study, the total population N67, which is quite large, and due to the researcher’s time and effort limit, the error tolerance was choosen to be 6%

The study was carried out in the first semester of the school year 2021–2022 The students were in the first few weeks of the semester when the study was conducted, so their vocabulary learning strategies and their vocabulary size were identified and measured regardless of the influences of the teaching curriculum.

Research instruments

To address the aim of the study, the learner vocabulary learning strategies questionnaire and the vocabulary size test were the two main instruments employed to collect the data

A questionnaire, according to Nunan (1992), is a tool for gathering data that consists of open and/or closed questions as well as additional probes that require a response from individuals It is an excellent technique for collecting information about beliefs, attitudes, motivation, and preferences, and it allows a teacher to acquire a large quantity of data rapidly

Questionnaires were chosen as one of the most essential data collection devices in this study since they not only provide information from a large number of participants but also aid in the gathering of information on a variety of topics

A 30-item questionnaire adapted from Schmitt's Taxonomy was used in order to investigate the most commonly used vocabulary learning strategies of the freshmen It was designed specifically for the purposes of this study There are about 59 strategies in 5 categories in Schmitt’s Taxonomy Yet only 30 strategies were adopted in the questionnaire due to some limitations and appropriateness to the students’ English level For example, in the determination category, there are 3 strategies for using a dictionary that may confuse the respondents; thus, they were grouped into 1 question Another cut-off strategy in this category is "Analyze supra- segmental features," which was not suitable for the respondents’ learning level

In preparation for designing the questionnaire for this study, the researcher studied the content of learning strategies, vocabulary learning strategies, and how to construct a questionnaire from many sources: textbooks, journals, other research studies, and by consulting the advisor The questionnaire for this survey study was based on Schmitt’s taxonomy for vocabulary learning strategies since it is one of the most comprehensive lists of strategies available and it matched the researcher’s purpose However, modifications were made in order to suit the subjects’ background knowledge, competence level, and learning environment

The questionnaire consisted of two parts The first part was designed to collect information concerning the students’ general background information This section contained information about the respondents' age, gender, major, and length of time studying English.The questions in this part were in the form of gap-filling and check-list items The second part of the questionnaire consisted of 30 questions which were classified under 5 different groups of strategies as 6 statements on determination strategies (items 1-6), 5 statements on social strategies (items 7-11), 9 statements on memory strategies (items 12-20), statements on cognitive strategies (items 21-26), and statements on metacognitive strategies (items 27-30) The questionnaire asks about the frequency of use of vocabulary learning strategies implemented by the students The frequency of use is measured by a 5-point likert- scale from 1 (never) to 5 (always)

Aside from the questionnaire, one of the most important methods for gathering data for the study is the vocabulary size test The vocabulary size test, devised by Paul Nation, was used in this investigation The VST was chosen for the study because it is a novel, widely utilized test that is increasingly being employed as a key measure in research investigations to measure students’ receptive vocabulary size and to see if there is any relationship between students’vocabulary size and strategy use Although the test was briefly discussed in the literature review, more details are provided here

The test was developed by Paul Nation and it first appeared in The Language Teacher (Nation & Beglar, 2007) and has been reproduced in books (Nation & Gu, 2007; Schmitt, 2010) and on several websites Atpresent, the VST exists in two English monolingual versions: the original 1 – 14,000 word version (14K) and a more recent 1 – 20,000 word version (20K) This study employed the former, as it isthe version most widely available The 14K test consists of 140 items, divided into 14 sections of 10 items each Each section in the test corresponds to an underlying 1,000-word frequency band in a 14,000 word frequency list of English word families developed from the British National Corpus (BNC) The VST was developed to “provide a reliable, accurate, and comprehensive measure of alearner’s vocabulary size from the 1st 1000 to the 14th 1000 word families of English” (Nation & Beglar, 2007, p.9), with its intended use being mainly pedagogical in nature, namely to determine whether learners have enough vocabulary to read in English: “Users of the test need to be clear what the test is measuring and not measuring It is measuring written receptive vocabulary knowledge, that is, the vocabulary knowledge required for reading.” (Nation, 2011)

There is some evidence in support of the validity of the test In one of the well-designed studies, Beglar (2010, p.107) provides validity evidence to the VST by identifying its construct validity in content, substantive, structural,generalizability validity from Messick’s validity framework and investigating responsiveness and interpretability.Rasch-based approach to

21 instrument validation is applied to assess the dimensionality of the instrument It is foundthat the VST can distinguish learners with widely differing levels of written receptive vocabulary knowledge andprovide a sufficient number of frequency levels for measuring learners’ lexical acquisition over long periods of time Ten items per level are sufficient enough to estimate the test-taker’s lexical knowledge with a high degree ofprecision and the number of items for each level could be substantially reduced, for example, to five The results from Rasch analysis support that the test displays a high degree of psychometric unidimensionality, i.e, measuringonly the written receptive vocabulary knowledge but no other things The test also performs consistently and reliably with changes in the gender of the subjects, versions of different item numbers and learners of various proficiency levels with a high degree of general ability A high degree of responsiveness is indicated in distinguishing persons into levels of ability and its potential to measure changes in lexical knowledge over long periods of time It suggests that the 14, 000 word frequency level is enough to measure the written receptive lexical knowledge for EFL learners as knowledge of the most frequent 14,000 words together with proper nouns could account for over 99% ofthe running words in written and spoken text.

Data gathering procedure

First and foremost, a pilot study was carried out The purpose of the pilot study was to see how useful the questionnaire was and whether it mirrored the research objectives It would also help the researcher determine whether the language used in the questionnaire was acceptable for the students' level of competency and what should be adjusted or explained Furthermore, a questionnaire pilot study would allow the researcher to determine the amount of time required to complete all of the questions A total of ten students took part in the pilot survey They were given specific instructions on how to respond to the questions The amount of time these students had to complete their assignments was clearly noted

Following the completion of the first step, the students were invited to complete the questionnaire online They were given enough time to fully respond to the questions The students were informed that their participation in the study was

22 entirely optional, that their responses would be kept private, and that their responses would not have an impact on their grades

After the questionnaire, the vocabulary size test was administered to 158 students in the regular class time They were explained how to answer the questions and had a maximum 45 minutes to answer They were allowed to ask questions about the test whenever necessary.

Data analytical method

After being collected, data from the questionnaire and the vocabulary size test was analyzed by means of SPSS for Windows (Statistical Product and Services Solutions) (version 26) Firstly, descriptive statistics were calculated to see the overall patterns of vocabulary learning strategies used by the students and their vocabulary size Then, the results from the vocabulary size test were computed to see the relationship between vocabulary learning strategies and the vocabulary size of the students As for the VST, the correct answers were counted, and an overall score was found The participants’ scores were multiplied by 100 to get their total vocabulary size up to the 14th 1000-word-family level As for the questionnaire, descriptive statistics (mean, frequency, and standard deviation) were conducted

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

Results from the vocabulary learning strategies questionnaire

4.1.1 General information about the participants

Table 4.1 General information about the participants

Number of years of learning

As can be seen from the above statistics, female students out number male ones by 94.9% and 5.1%, respectively It means their gender is less likely to be a factor that influences their vocabulary learning strategies and vocabulary learning outcomes in this study The majority of students reported that they had been learning English for 5–10 years, which indicates that most of them have been exposed to English since they were in the 3rd grade at primary school The rest of the students said they had been studying English for 3-5 years, which means they must have started learning English in secondary or high school There are no students who reported themselves with more than 10 years of experience studying English, which might be because all of them are quite young, just at the ages of 18 and 19

The first research question was to determine which VLS were commonly used by the students The completed VLS questionnaire was analyzed using SPSS (version 26) after data collection Descriptive statistics, such as means and standard deviations, of the five categories and their subdivisions, were used to describe the most and least frequently employed vocabulary learning strategies To begin with, each category of vocabulary learning strategies with different individual items was analyzed

Table 4.2 Descriptive statistics for Determination strategies

Rank Category Item Description N Min Max Mean

1 DET 1 I use a dictionary to check for meanings of new words

2 DET 6 I guess the meaning of new words from context

3 DET 4 I analyze the affixes and roots of the new word

4 DET 3 I analyze the part of speech of the new word

5 DET 5 I analyze any available pictures or gestures to guess the word

6 DET 2 I analyze the word by breaking it into sound segments

Firstly, taking the determination strategies into consideration, it is crystal clear that among the six items of the strategies, item number 1, "I use a dictionary to check for meanings of new words" was the most frequently-used one, with a mean

M = 4.57 The strategy item 6, "I guess the meaning of new words from context" was the second most often used item, with a mean M=2.91, followed by the item number 4, "I analyze the affixes and roots of the new word" (M = 2.86) Students are less likely to use item number 3, "I analyze the part of speech of the new word" (M = 2.78), item number 5, "I analyze any available pictures or gestures to guess the word" (M = 1.51), and item number 2, "I analyze the word by breaking it into sound segments" (M =1.38) very often

Table 4.3 Descriptive statistics for Social strategies

Rank Category Item Description N Min Max Mean

1 SOC 9 I ask my classmates for the meanings of new words

2 SOC 7 I ask my teacher to translate the words into Vietnamese

3 SOC 11 I know some new words when working in groups

4 SOC 8 I ask my teacher for new word’s synonym

5 SOC 10 I ask my teacher to put an unknown word into a sentence to helpme understand the word’s meaning

As is shown by table 4.3, item number 9 of the social strategies, "I ask my classmates for the meaning of the word" (M = 2.77), was applied most frequently by the students Item number 7, "I ask my teacher to translate the words into Vietnamese" (M = 1.87) and item number 11, "I know some new words when working in groups" (M = 1.81) were used at a moderate frequency Meanwhile, items number 8 and 10, "I ask my teacher for a new word’s synonym" (M = 1.52) and "I ask my teacher to put an unknown word into a sentence to help me understand the word's meaning" (M = 1.37) were mostly seldom used by the students

Table 4.4 Descriptive statistics for Memory strategies

Rank Category Item Description N Min Max Mean

1 MEM 19 I remember the new word together with the context where the new word occurs

2 MEM 18 I remember the sentence in which the word is used

3 MEM 12 I remember words by doing group work activities in class

4 MEM 13 I link the word to a visual image in my mind

5 MEM 17 I group words together with storyline

6 MEM 16 I use sound and meaning associations

7 MEM 20 I try to use newly learned words in imaginary situations in my mind

8 MEM 15 I link the word to a

Vietnamese word with a similar sound

9 MEM 14 I link the word to another English word with a similar sound

It can be seen in table 4.4 that items number 19 and 18 of the memory strategies, which are "I remember the new word together with the context where the new word occurs" (M = 2.92) and "I remember the sentence in which the word is used" (M = 2.60) respectively, were sometimes employed by the students Other items, including number 12, "I remember words by doing group work activities in class" (M = 1.88); number 13, "I link the word to a visual image in my mind" (M 1.51); number 17, "I group words together with a storyline" (M = 1.38); number 16,

"I use sound and meaning associations" (M = 1.38) and number 20, "I try to use newly learned words in imaginary situations in my mind" (M = 1.37), were used less often It is also noticeable that there are two items reported as never being used by students, which are number 15, "I link the word to a Vietnamese word with a similar sound" (M = 1.00) and number 14, "I link the word to another English word with a similar sound" (M = 1.00)

Table 4.5 Descriptive statistics for Cognitive strategies

Rank Category Item Description N Min Max Mean

1 COG 24 I repeatedly write the word

2 COG 26 I write a new word on a flash card so I can remember it

3 COG 21 I repeatedly say the word in my mind frequently

4 COG 25 I remember words by doing a project

5 COG 23 I repeatedly say the word aloud

6 COG 22 I repeatedly spell the word in my mind

As for cognitive strategies, the most frequently used item was item number

24, "I repeatedly write the word" (M = 3.04), followed by item number 26, "I write a new word on a flash card so I can remember it" (M = 2.94) Item numbers 21, "I repeatedly say the word in my mind frequently" (M = 1.23) and 25, "I remember words by doing a project" (M = 1.11) were used less frequently The other two items, which are "I repeatedly say the word aloud" (M = 1.00) and "I repeatedly spell the word in my mind" (M = 1.00) were not used by any students

Table 4.6 Descriptive statistics for Metacognitive strategies

Rank Category Item Description N Min Max Mean

1 MET 27 I listen to English songs and news

2 MET 28 I do not worry very much about the difficult words found when reading or listening; I pass them

3 MET 30 I remember words by doing dictations

4 MET 29 I use on-line exercises to test my vocabulary knowledge

Regarding the metacognitive strategies, item number 27, "I listen to English songs and news" (M = 2.15), was the most frequently used strategy, followed by item number 28, "I do not worry very much about the difficult words found when reading or listening; I pass them" (M = 1.54), and item number 30, "I remember words by doing dictations" (M = 1.1) No student used item number 29, "I use on- line exercises to test my vocabulary knowledge" (M = 1.00)

Table 4.7 Top 5 of the most frequently-used items in all five vocabulary learning strategies

Rank Category Item Description N Min Max Mean

1 DET 1 I use a dictionary to check for meanings of new words

2 COG 24 I repeatedly write the word

3 COG 26 I write a new word on a flash card so I can remember it

4 SOC 9 I ask my classmates for the meanings of new words

5 MEM 19 I remember the new word together with the context where the new word occurs

When it comes to the most and the least frequently used items in all five categories, Table 4.7 shows that the most frequently used items are spread across the three categories of vocabulary learning strategies, namely determination strategies (DET), cognitive strategies (COG), and memory strategies (MEM) The highest mean (M = 4.57) was achieved by strategy item 1, "I use a dictionary to check for meanings of new words." Item 24, "I repeatedly write the words" reached the second highest mean of 3.04, followed by using flash cards (Item 26; M = 2.94), asking classmates for meanings (Item 9; M = 2.92), and remembering the new words together with their contexts (Item 9; M = 2.77)

Table 4.8 Top 5 of the least frequently-used items in all five vocabulary learning strategies

Rank Category Item Description N Min Max Mean

1 DET 5 I analyze any available pictures or gestures to guess the word

2 DET 2 I analyze the word by breaking it into sound segments

3 SOC 10 I ask my teacher to put an unknown word into a sentence to helpme understand the word’s meaning

4 COG 25 I remember words by doing a project

5 MET 30 I remember words by doing dictations

The results shown in Table 4.8 reveal that analyzing pictures or gestures (Item 5; M = 1.51), analyzing words by breaking them into sound segments (Item 2;

M = 1.38), asking teachers to make sentences (Item 10; M = 1.37), remembering words by doing projects (Item 25; M = 1.23) and remembering words by doing dictations (Item 30; M = 1.11), were determined as the least frequently used items in all five vocabulary learning strategies

Table 4.9 The items that are unemployed by students

Category Item Description N Min Max Mean

MET 29 I use on-line exercises to test my vocabulary knowledge

COG 23 I repeatedly say the word aloud

COG 22 I repeatedly spell the word in my mind

MEM 15 I link the word to a

Vietnamese word with a similar sound

MEM 14 I link the word to another English word with a similar sound

According to studies, no pupils used several items that are part of cognitive and metacognitive strategies That could be due to the students' lack of awareness of them, or because they were too difficult for them to implement in the learning process at the time the study was conducted

Following individual analysis, the representative variants of all five vocabulary learning strategies were analyzed collectively to determine which vocabulary learning strategies were most and least commonly used by the students

Table 4.10 Overall descriptive statistics for 5 vocabulary learning strategies

Rank Strategy N Min Max Mean

As shown in table 4.10, determination strategies (M = 2.52; SD = 0.57) were the most commonly used of the five vocabulary learning strategies, followed by social strategies (M = 1.79), cognitive strategies (M = 1.68; SD = 0.34), memory

33 strategies (M = 1.67; SD = 0.48), and metacognitive strategies (M = 1.48; SD 0.53)

Overall, the data demonstrate that learners adopt a variety of vocabulary acquisition techniques depending on their preferences, but their determination approach choice is particularly noteworthy.

Results from the vocabulary size test

The second research question was an attempt to explore if there was any relationship between vocabulary learning strategies and vocabulary size among the learners In order to do so, the vocabulary size test was employed as a second research instrument to determine the students’ vocabulary size The findings of the vocabulary size test were reported in the tables and figures below once they were collected and analyzed

Table 4.11 Descriptive statistics for the vocabulary size test

As it is illustrated in table 4.11, the minimum test score of the students was

12 out of 140 questions A learner’s total score on the 140-item test needs to be multiplied by 100 to find the learner’s total vocabulary size So, a score of 12 out of

140 means that the learner’s vocabulary size is 1,200 word families Similarly, the

34 maximum test score of the students was 52 out of 140, which means the maximum vocabulary size of the students in this study was 5,200 words

According to the findings of some previous studies, a threshold size of roughly 2,000 high-frequency words is required for effective basic language use, and a vocabulary size of 3,000 to 5,000 words is required for successful text comprehension To be more exact, Laufer (1998) claimed that a 3,000-word threshold vocabulary size is required for reading comprehension Furthermore, if someone wants to read sophisticated, real, academic writing, they must have a good command of at least 5,000 words (Hirsh & Nation, 1992) Therefore, after being calculated, the students’ vocabulary size was grouped into four categories, which are from 0 to 1900 words, from 2000 to 2900 words, from 3000 to 5000 words, and more than 5000 words, as presented in figure 4.1

Referring to figure 4.1, this study showed an achievement score of between 0–1900 words for 32 students (20.3%), an achievement score of between 2000–

2900 words for 100 students (63.3%), and an achievement score of between 3000-

5000 words for 21 students (13.3%) Meanwhile, only five students achieved a score of more than 5000 words It can be said that the majority of them have an

From 0 to 1900 words From 2000 to 2900 words

Nu mbers of st ude nts in the to tal of 15 8

Students' vocabulary size (14000-word scale)

35 adequate size of 2000 words However, the students’ test performance seems to indicate an inadequate vocabulary size at the 3000 to 5000-word level, as well as the higher word level As a result, the study's findings appear to indicate that the majority of the freshmen would have difficulties with advanced studies at the university level.They must develop more effective vocabulary learning strategies to increase their vocabulary size to be able to cope with academic studies at university.

Relationship between students’s vocabulary learning strategies and their

To answer the second research question asking if there was a relationship between the vocabulary learning strategies used by freshmen students and their vocabulary size test scores, the Pearson Correlation Coefficient between the representative variants of all five vocabulary learning strategies and the results from the vocabulary size test was performed The correlation analysis between 158 students’ use of vocabulary learning strategies and their vocabulary size is shown in Table 4.12

Table 4.12 Correlations between students’ vocabulary learning strategies and vocabulary size

COG SOC MEM DET MET

** Correlation is significant at the 0.01 level (2-tailed)

* Correlation is significant at the 0.05 level (2-tailed)

Table 4.12 presents the correlations between the VLS and the vocabulary size of the students It can be seen from the table that the significant value (sig.) of all five VLS and vocabulary size test results is less than 0.05, indicating that there is a correlation association between all of the VLS and the test results There is a high positive value of correlation coefficient r = 0.595 for the cognitive strategies, a high positive value of correlation coefficient r = 0.813 for the memory strategies, a high value of r = 0.783 for the determination strategies, a high value of r = 0.681 for the metacognitive strategies, and a moderate value of r = 0.445 for the social strategies

It can be concluded that the correlations between the strategies and the vocabulary size of the participants are mostly strong and positive Among them, the correlation between the memory strategies and the vocabulary size is the strongest, with r 0.813 and sig 0.00, followed by the determination strategies (r = 0.783, sig 0.00),

37 the metacognitive strategies (r = 0.681, sig 0.00), the cognitive strategies (r 0.595, sig 0.00) and the social strategies (r = 0.445, sig 0.00)

After correlation analysis, regression analysis helped to determine the linear relation between variables COG, SOC, MEM, MET, DET with the dependent variable Vocab size

Total 19819.772 157 a Dependent Variable: Vocab size b Predictors: (Constant), MET, DET, SOC, COG, MEM

It is illustrated in the table that F significant is 0.00 < 0.05, which means the regression model is accepted

Std Error of the Estimate

1 950 a 903 899 0.3563 1.792 a Predictors: (Constant), MET, DET, SOC, COG, MEM

The coefficient of R square helps to measure the degree of fit of the model in the sense that the independent variables explain how much of the variability of the dependent variable As can be seen from the table above, the adjusted R Square is

0.899, or 89.9%, which is satisfactory It means the inputted independent variables in the regression model impacted 89.9% of the variation of the dependent variable, Vocab size

MET 059 020 428 2.871 033 072 1.037 a Dependent Variable: Vocab size

The result indicates that all independent variables have an impact on the dependent variable as their tested significant values are less than 0.05

Multicollinearity generally occurs when there are high correlations between two or more predictor variables When this condition exists, researchers cannot have confidence in the individual coefficients of the independent variables In this study, the VIF value of independent variables is less than 10 Thus, there is no multicollinearity in the model

The regression function is described as follows:

Vocab size= 0.737*DET+ 0.177*SOC+ 0.830*MEM+ 0.225*COG + 0.428*MET

Through the regression model, it can be seen that factor MEM is the most influential factor on the dependent factor Vocab size, with a standardized Beta coefficient of 0.830,followed by factor DET (β = 0.737), factor MET (β= 0.428), factor COG (β= 0.225), and finally factor SOC (β= 0.177)

In brief, the findings from the correlation analysis and regression analysis indicate that all five vocabulary learning strategies have positive influences on the student’s vocabulary size The more they apply them, the bigger their vocabulary size will be However, it is also worth noticing that students who use memory strategies often seem to have a bigger vocabulary size than others.

Discussion

The findings of the study addressed the two research questions clearly The results from the vocabulary learning strategies questionnaire are attached to the first research question: "What are the commonly-used English vocabulary learning strategies of English major freshmen at the school?" Accordingly, the study found that the students used a variety of vocabulary acquisition techniques depending on their preferences; however, they revealed more interest in determination strategies rather than other categories of strategies Among the other strategies, the students used social and cognitive strategies more frequently, while memory and metacognitive strategies were used less frequently This finding is partly consistent with the results of other studies which investigated second language learners' vocabulary learning strategies, such as Heshmatifar, Z (2013) and Tılfarlıoğlu, F.F.Y & Bozgeyik, Y (2012) Both of them pointed out in their research that among the five vocabulary learning strategies based on Schmitt’s taxonomy, determination strategies were reported as the most frequently-used strategies Looking at sub-categories of strategies applied by the freshmen in this study reveals more interesting results The students used the item “I use a dictionary to check for meanings of new words” as a determination strategy more often than any other strategies among the overall 30 sub-categories of strategies The reason for this is that the students are freshmen students and they have just started learning at university, they use determination strategies In the determination strategy, there are activities such as guessing the meaning of theword in textual context, using a bilingual or monolingual dictionary, making word lists, using vocabulary cards,analyzing the word’s suffixes and roots Within these strategies, the use of a bilingual dictionary is at theforefront Students in this period act timidly and study

40 independently Altan (2003) argues that there is a direct relationship between vocabulary learning strategies and language learning success So the more students use thestrategy, the more successful they become Strategy use increases student achievement and improves problem solving skills (Gửk and Sılay,2008) Students do not know exactly how to use a strategy at this stage as they have just started learning the language Furthermore, it is now very convenient for students to use a variety of online dictionaries on their smart phones, which they can bring with them at all times and places, as well as on their laptops However, they should be aware that using a dictionary to check for the meanings of new words is just a way to determine, not to retain the words’ meanings It is also important that students know how to use both monolingual and bilingual dictionaries appropriately to fit their different academic needs This results is similar to findings in many other studies (e.g Fan, 2003; Gu & Johnson, 1996; Zhang, 2009, Mokhtar, Rawian, Yahaya, 2017; Kulikova, 2015; Rogulj, 2016)

Data analysis of the representative variants of the five vocabulary learning strategies also revealed that social strategies were the second most frequently used strategies with the item “I ask my classmate for the meaning of new words” ranked the fourth in the top five most frequently-used sub-categories of strategies According to Gu and Johnson (1996: 647), students who are successful and aware that they are beginning to learn the language use metacognitive strategies This finding was unlike the findings of Heshmatifar, Z.'s study, which found social strategies as the least frequently used strategies by Iranian EFL undergraduate students She explained that in her research context, the nature of vocabulary learning was considered as an individual or asocial process Therefore, students resisted asking others' assistance for the meaning of new words Another reason was the educational system in Iran, which was known as teacher-oriented Teachers were in front of the classroom and provided all the knowledge students needed Teachers provided the information through lecturing, and the students should just listen and take note Such teaching procedures did not have any place for group work or discussion in the classroom Hence, it can be inferred from the current

41 study that since the study was conducted before the university studying environment had much influence on the students’ learning strategies, their tendency toward social strategies was developed in their previous studying context where they were likely to have a close-knit relationship with their friends and teachers The university learning environment is a bit different The students will have to make new friends and meet new teachers, so it seems that teachers need to pay more attention to this strategy when designing teaching materials and teaching activities Social learning activities such as discussion, pair work, group work, and doing projects should be adequately implemented

Even though having two items ranked the second and the third in the top five most frequently-used items in all five vocabulary learning strategies, which are “I repeatedly write the word” and “I write a new word on a flascard so I can remember it”, the cognitive strategies were determined as the third frequently-used among the five vocabulary learning strategies As mentioned in the literature review, cognitive strategies include activities such as verbal repetition, written repetition, creating a word list, taking notes during the class, listening word lists from tape, etc Verbal and written repetition were used the most in these strategies Considering the other cognitive strategies, students are not active in using other materials Since they are at the beginner level, they learn words by themselves with simple methods without using different sources According to Ausubel (1967: 10), cognitive learning strategies emphasizes ‘meaningful learning’, i.e learning with understanding which is not manifested in behaviour, but which can be described as ‘a clearly articulated and precisely differentiated conscious experience that emerges when potentially meaningful signs, symbols, concepts, or propositions are related to and incorporated within a given individual’s cognitive structure’ The cognitive theory suggests that linguistic codes and structures are stored and retrieved from the memory in exactly the same way as other kinds of information What is important is the extent to which the learner has acquired formal and functional characteristics of the language and mental processes This implies the possibility of ‘degrees’ of knowledge, i.e the fact that the learner can know something only partially (Ellis, 1995) This

42 finding, to a considerable extent, corroborates the findings reported in some research studies (e.g Takac, V.P 2008; Rogulj & Čizmić, 2016) It seemed that the two mentioned items, which are quite easy for practice, were appropriate for young learners The other items in the cognitive strategies, on the other hand, appeared to be less atractive to the students This probably implies that the students are not likely to invest additional cognitive efforts into the vocabulary learning process

The least commonly used vocabulary learning strategies found in this study were the metacognitive strategies This contrasted with the findings of Maghsoudi,

N & Golshan, M (2017), which found metacognitive strategies to be the most commonly used strategies by Iranian EFL learners The questionnaire items categorized in the meta-cognitive group are related to the ability of self-regulation among the participants As the most frequent strategy was meta-cognitivestrategy, it implies that Iranian learners can successfully self-monitor and self-regulate their learning of vocabulary The freshmen in this study, on the other hand, may require more guidance and support from teachers in order to enhance their learning autonomy In order to be a good learner, each student must be able to learn independently, in addition to participating in classroom activities The results of the questionnaire also found some vocabulary learning strategies were not used by any students The finding may be because of the students' limited range of vocabulary strategies or because these strategies were not suitable for them at the time the study was conducted

In order to answer the second research question, which was "What is the relationship between the students’ use of vocabulary learning strategies and their vocabulary size?", the vocabulary size test was employed to discover the students’ vocabulary size The test results indicate that the average vocabulary size of the freshmen is around 2000 words The minority of them have a vocabulary size of between 3000 and 5200 words The finding explains the fact that in the same classroom, there are always some students who have a better understanding of the lessons and get better academic achievements, while others have great difficulties in understanding the learning materials As a result, developing more effective

43 vocabulary learning strategies to increase the students' vocabulary size so that they can be able to cope with academic studies at university is obviously a crucial need

Answering the second research question, the data analysis with the use ofthe Pearson Correlation Coefficient reveals that there was a strong relationship between the vocabulary learning strategies used and the vocabulary size of the students To be more specific, with r = 0.813 (sig 0.00), the memory strategy has the highest correlation with the students’ vocabulary size among all five types, followed by the determination strategy (r = 0.783, sig 0.00), metacognitive strategy (r = 0.681, sig 0.00), cognitive strategy (r = 0.595, sig 0.00), and social strategy (r = 0.445, sig 0.00) According to the findings, all five vocabulary learning strategies contributed to the students' vocabulary size However, it's worth noting that, despite being the fourth most commonly utilized approach by students, memory strategies contributed the most to the learners' vocabulary growth The findings are consistent with those of Tılfarlıoğlu, F.F.Y & Bozgeyik, Y (2012), who found that, together with other vocabulary learning strategies, memory strategies were most positively correlated with both university level and overall VLT scores, and that these strategies, which are primarily about language learners managing their own vocabulary development through various means such as creating opportunities to learn vocabulary or checking their own vocabulary development, were found to be reversible This suggests that increased usage of memory methods resulted in considerable improvements in "academic" and "general" vocabulary proficiency In addition, Kristanto, B (2015)also showed that the relationship exists at a moderate level between vocabulary learning strategies used and vocabulary size score.This results is also in agreement with some scholars, e.g., Gu and Johnson (1996), Komol & Sripetpun (2011) who supported that the use of vocabulary learning strategies seems torelate to learners’ vocabulary knowledge In the other words, students with high frequently use ofvocabulary learning strategies have greater vocabulary size, and vice versa However, some other researchers, such as Kalajahi, S.A.R (2012) and Maghsoudi, N & Golshan, M (2017), in the same attempt, found no relationship between vocabulary learning strategy preferences and vocabulary size Therefore,

44 the role of context and individual preferences for strategy use cannot be overlooked The topic seems controversial, and more research in the field may shed light on the existence of any relationship between vocabulary learning strategies and vocabulary size

CONCLUSIONS

Conclusion

At the outset of this investigation, two main goals were established The first goal was to examine the vocabulary learning strategies of the students to see which ones are commonly used The students’ vocabulary learning strategies were explored using a vocabulary learning strategies questionnaire adapted from Schmitt’s Taxonomy The second goal of the study is to find out if there is any relationship between the students’ vocabulary learning and their vocabulary size In order to achieve this goal, the vocabulary size test devised by Paul Nation was used After being collected, the data from the questionnaire and the vocabulary size test were analyzed by means of SPSS for Wìndows (Statistical Product and Services Solutions) (version 26)

In general, the results of the vocabulary learning strategies questionnaire indicate that the students tend to employ a wide range of vocabulary learning strategies instead of just one or two Among the five vocabulary learning strategies, determination strategies were pointed out as the most commonly used ones by the students The second most frequently used strategies were social strategies, followed by cognitive strategies, memory strategies, and metacognitive strategies

The results from the vocabulary size test reveal that the average vocabulary size of the freshmen was around 2000 words; not many of them got a hold of a vocabulary size at the 3000 to 5000-word level, as well as the higher word level The study's findings appear to indicate that the majority of the freshmen would have difficulties with advanced studies at the university level They must develop more effective vocabulary learning strategies to increase their vocabulary size to be able to cope with academic studies at university The results from the correlational analysis pointed out that all of the five vocabulary learning strategies had positive

46 influences on the student’s vocabulary size The memory strategies, despite being the fourth most commonly utilized approach by students, were the ones that have the strongest link with the students’ vocabulary size, followed by the determination strategies, metacognitive strategies, cognitive strategies, and social strategies.As a result, in addition to their preferred vocabulary learning strategies, students are recommended to use memory strategies in their studies more frequently in order to extend their vocabulary and improve their academic performance

Overall, the VLS questionnaire and vocabulary size test results have completely answered the two research questions Firstly, the study's findings show that most students used a variety of vocabulary acquisition tactics; nonetheless, they appeared to be more willing to use the determination strategies Additionally, the results of the vocabulary size test revealed that the majority of them appeared to lack an average vocabulary size for comprehending university-level materials Furthermore, the researchers discovered that all of five vocabulary learning strategies had positive influences on the student's vocabulary size However, it is also worth noticing that the students who used memory strategies often seem to have bigger vocabulary sizes than others.

Implications

The conclusions of the research study indicate that it is critical to investigate vocabulary learning strategies, vocabulary size, and their interaction They may assist students, teachers, and administrators in becoming aware of VLS profiles, vocabulary knowledge, and proficiency so that vocabulary education and training can be designed and delivered appropriately

According to Nation (2001), strategy training has been shown to be extremely effective in broadening students' strategic knowledge Students should be informed about the effective exploration of their strategies in addition to being aware of the many approaches to managing their vocabulary studies Furthermore, students, particularly less successful students, can be taught to make educated choices about which method to use in certain learning situations

There is little doubt that teachers play a significant influence in students' strategy development They are the ones who provide students with the opportunity to learn about and practice methods The purpose of strategy training is to encourage learners to take control of their own learning To attain this goal, teachers must have broad strategy knowledge in order to prepare their students for both instructional and independent study situations Because students may find it difficult to improve their strategic competence and may resist strategy training (Brown,

2002), it is critical to assist learners in becoming aware of their own styles, preferences, and habits, as well as to get them to practice effective strategies and take charge of their own learning

To make the VLS training more effective, teachers must explain why students need the VLS training, how it relates to their language acquisition, and how they will profit from it This will encourage pupils to take an active role in the training, resulting in greater results The ultimate goal of VLS training should be for students to develop autonomy in their vocabulary learning so that they can appropriately transfer a given method to a new scenario on their own They should find ways to adjust their strategy utilization to their own demands and requirements, as well as establish strategy combinations that work for them (Oxford, 1990).

Limitations of the study

Despite the researcher's best efforts, there are numerous limitations to the current study that must be addressed As an example, because of the small sample size (N = 158), the findings should be regarded with caution Further research may use larger samples in order to make their conclusions more generalizable Furthermore, because this study only analyzed quantitative data, it is suggested that future studies add qualitative data analysis to acquire more accurate results and a better understanding of vocabulary learning strategies and their effectiveness in expanding learners' lexical knowledge To achieve this purpose qualitative data collection techniques such as journal writing, diaries, and classroom observations might be undertaken

Recommendations for further research

In terms of further research, future researchers can look into how learners' personality factors affect the link between vocabulary learning strategies and vocabulary teaching tactics A number of characteristics, including age, gender, proficiency level, achievement, and learning habits are thought to influence the usage of learning strategies It appears reasonable to anticipate that taking these variables into account would have an impact on the research findings

Secondly, researchers might look into whether the process of assessing vocabulary has an impact on the use and growth of vocabulary learning strategies It is intended that research will continue to be conducted in order to shed more light on questions surrounding vocabulary learning strategies This is the only way to gain a better understanding of the complex processes of vocabulary instruction and, ultimately, lexical development in foreign languages

Thirdly, the findings in this study are limited to only freshmen students from one course of study As such, caution must be observed in making any generalization from the results of this study It is recommended that more research be done to revisit the relationship between vocabulary learning strategies and vocabulary size in other tertiary institutions and among students studying different courses

Finally, it is also necessary for teachers to recognize that some strategies may be more suited to some minority ethnic students than to others and to give students adequate opportunities to explore and experience varied strategies to find ones that suit them Also, they need to know factors affecting students’ vocabulary learning strategies The more teachers know about factors affecting students’ vocabulary learning strategies, the more readily the teacher can design such lessons that students with many different characteristics can receive what they need (Oxford & Ehrman, 1995)

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APPENDIX 1: Questionnaire of Vocabulary Learning Strategies

6 How long have you been studying English? 3-5 years / 5-10 years / more than 10 years

Part II: Statements of Vocabulary Learning

A This vocabulary learning strategy is designed for students who learn English as a foreign language You will find out about vocabulary learning strategies Please read each statement

B Put (√ ) in the box (5,4, 3, 2, 1) that tells the degree of opinion on the strategies you use to learn English vocabulary Please mark the statement that most describes you

5 = always use it 4 = often use it 3 = sometimes use it 2 = seldom use it 1= never use it

Type The Statement of Vocabulary Learning

DET 1 I use a dictionary to check for meanings of new words

Type The Statement of Vocabulary Learning

DET 1 I use a dictionary to check for meanings of new words

DET 2 I analyze the word by breaking it into sound segments

DET 3 I analyze the part of speech of the new word

DET 4 I analyze the affixes and roots of the new word

DET 5 I analyze any available pictures or gestures to guess the word

DET 6 I guess the meaning of new words from context

SOC 7 I ask my teacher to translate the words into Vietnamese

SOC 8 I ask my teacher for a new word’s synonym

SOC 9 I ask my classmates for the meaning of the word

10 I ask my teacher to phut an unknown word into a sentence to helpme understand the word’s meaning

SOC 11 I know some new words when working in groups

MEM 12 I remember words by doing group work activities in class

MEM 13 I link the word to a visual image in my mind

MEM 14 I link the word to another English word with a similar sound

MEM 15 I link the word to a Vietnamese word with a similar sound

MEM 16 I use sound and meaning associations

MEM 17 I group words together with a storyline

MEM 18 I remember the sentence in which the word is used

MEM 19 I remember the new word together with the context where the new word occurs

MEM 20 I try to use newly learned words in imaginary situations in my mind

COG 21 I repeatedly say the word in my mind frequently

COG 22 I repeatedly spell the word in my mind

COG 23 I repeatedly say the word aloud

COG 24 I repeatedly write the word

COG 25 I remember words by doing a project

COG 26 I write a new word on a flash card so I can remember it

MET 27 I listen to English songs and news

28 I do not worry very much about the difficult words found when reading or listening, I pass them

MET 29 I use on-line exercises to test my vocabulary knowledge

MET 30 I remember words by doing dictations

Circle the letter a-d with the closest meaning to the key word in the question

1 SEE: They saw it a cut b waited for c looked at d started

2 TIME: They have a lot of time a money b food c hours d friends

3 PERIOD: It was a difficult period a question b time c thing to do d book

4 FIGURE: Is this the right figure? a answer b place c time d number

5 POOR: We are poor a have no money b feel happy c are very interested d do not like to work hard

6 DRIVE: He drives fast a swims b learns c throws balls d uses a car

7 JUMP: She tried to jump a lie on top of the water b get off the ground suddenly c stop the car at the edge of the road d move very fast

8 SHOE: Where is your shoe? a the person who looks after you

1 MAINTAIN: Can they maintain it? a keep it as it is b make it larger c get a better one than it d get it

2 STONE: He sat on a stone a hard thing b kind of chair c soft thing on the floor d part of a tree

3 UPSET: I am upset a tired b famous c rich d unhappy

4 DRAWER: The drawer was empty a sliding box b place where cars are kept c cupboard to keep things cold d animal house

5 PATIENCE: He has no patience a will not wait happily b has no free time c has no faith d does not know what is fair

6 NIL: His mark for that question was nil a very bad b nothing c very good d in the middle

7 PUB: They went to the pub a place where people drink and talk b place that looks after money c large building with many shops d building for swimming

8 CIRCLE: Make a circle a rough picture

V b the thing you keep your money in c the thing you use for writing d the thing you wear on your foot

9 STANDARD: Her standards are very high a the bits at the back under her shoes b the marks she gets in school c the money she asks for d the levels she reaches in everything

10 BASIS: This was used as the basis a answer b place to take a rest c next step d main part b space with nothing in it c round shape d large hole

9 MICROPHONE: Please use the microphone a machine for making food hot b machine that makes sounds louder c machine that makes things look bigger d small telephone that can be carried around

10 PRO: He's a pro a someone who is employed to find out important secrets b a stupid person c someone who writes for a newspaper d someone who is paid for playing sport etc

1 SOLDIER: He is a soldier a person in a business b student c person who uses metal d person in the army

2 RESTORE: It has been restored a said again b given to a different person c given a lower price d made like new again

3 JUG: He was holding a jug a A container for pouring liquids b an informal discussion c A soft cap d A weapon that explodes

4 SCRUB: He is scrubbing it a cutting shallow lines into it b repairing it c rubbing it hard to clean it d drawing simple pictures of it

5 DINOSAUR: The children were pretending to be dinosaurs a robbers who work at sea b very small creatures with human form but with wings

1 COMPOUND: They made a new compound a agreement b thing made of two or more parts c group of people forming a business d guess based on past experience

2 LATTER: I agree with the latter a man from the church b reason given c last one d answer

3 CANDID: Please be candid a be careful b show sympathy c show fairness to both sides d say what you really think

4 TUMMY: Look at my tummy a cloth to cover the head b stomach c small furry animal d thumb

5 QUIZ: We made a quiz a thing to hold arrows b serious mistake c set of questions d box for birds to make nests in

VI c large creatures with wings that breathe fire d animals that lived a long time ago

6 STRAP: He broke the strap a promise b top cover c shallow dish for food d strip of material for holding things together

7 PAVE: It was paved a prevented from going through b divided c given gold edges d covered with a hard surface

8 DASH: They dashed over it a moved quickly b moved slowly c fought d looked quickly

9 ROVE: He couldn't stop roving a getting drunk b travelling around c making a musical sound through closed lips d working hard

10 LONESOME: He felt lonesome a ungrateful b very tired c lonely d full of energy

6 INPUT: We need more input a information, power, etc put into something b workers c artificial filling for a hole in wood d money

7 CRAB: Do you like crabs? a sea creatures that walk sideways b very thin small cakes c tight, hard collars d large black insects that sing at night

8 VOCABULARY: You will need more vocabulary a words b skill c money d guns

9 REMEDY: We found a good remedy a way to fix a problem b place to eat in public c way to prepare food d rule about numbers

10 ALLEGE: They alleged it a claimed it without proof b stole the ideas for it from someone else c provided facts to prove it d argued against the facts that supported it

1 DEFICIT: The company had a large deficit a spent a lot more money than it earned b went down a lot in value c had a plan for its spending that used a lot of money d had a lot of money in the bank

2 WEEP: He wept a finished his course b cried c died d worried

1 DEVIOUS: Your plans are devious a tricky b well-developed c not well thought out d more expensive than necessary

2 PREMIER: The premier spoke for an hour a person who works in a law court b university teacher c adventurer d head of the government

3 BUTLER: They have a butler a man servant

3 NUN: We saw a nun a long thin creature that lives in the earth b terrible accident c woman following a strict religious life d unexplained bright light in the sky

4 HAUNT: The house is haunted a full of ornaments b rented c empty d full of ghosts

5 COMPOST: We need some compost a strong support b help to feel better c hard stuff made of stones and sand stuck together d rotted plant material

6 CUBE: I need one more cube a sharp thing used for joining things b solid square block c tall cup with no saucer d piece of stiff paper folded in half

7 MINIATURE: It is a miniature a a very small thing of its kind b an instrument to look at small objects c a very small living creature d a small line to join letters in handwriting

8 PEEL: Shall I peel it? a let it sit in water for a long time b take the skin off it c make it white d cut it into thin pieces

9 FRACTURE: They found a fracture a break b small piece c short coat d rare jewel

10 BACTERIUM: They didn't find a single bacterium a small living thing causing disease b plant with red or orange flowers c animal that carries water on its back b machine for cutting up trees c private teacher d cool dark room under the house

4 ACCESSORY: They gave us some accessories a papers allowing us to enter a country b official orders c ideas to choose between d extra pieces

5 THRESHOLD: They raised the threshold a flag b point or line where something changes c roof inside a building d cost of borrowing money

6 THESIS: She has completed her thesis a long written report of study carried out for a university degree b talk given by a judge at the end of a trial c first year of employment after becoming a teacher d extended course of hospital treatment

7 STRANGLE: He strangled her a killed her by pressing her throat b gave her all the things she wanted c took her away by force d admired her greatly

8 CAVALIER: He treated her in a cavalier manner a without care b politely c awkwardly d as a brother would

9 MALIGN: His malign influence is still felt a evil b good c very important d secret

10 VEER: The car veered a went suddenly in another direction b moved shakily c made a very loud noise

VIII d thing that has been stolen and sold to a shop d slid sideways without the wheels turning

1 OLIVE: We bought olives a oily fruit b scented pink or red flowers c men's clothes for swimming d tools for digging up weeds

2 QUILT: They made a quilt a statement about who should get their property when they die b firm agreement c thick warm cover for a bed d feather pen

3 STEALTH: They did it by stealth a spending a large amount of money b hurting someone so much that they agreed to their demands c moving secretly with extreme care and quietness d taking no notice of problems they met

4 SHUDDER: The boy shuddered a spoke with a low voice b almost fell c shook d called out loudly

5 BRISTLE: The bristles are too hard a questions b short stiff hairs c folding beds d bottoms of the shoes

6 BLOC: They have joined this bloc a musical group b band of thieves c small group of soldiers who are sent ahead of others d group of countries sharing a purpose

7 DEMOGRAPHY: This book is about demography a the study of patterns of land use b the study of the use of pictures to show facts

1 ERRATIC: He was erratic a without fault b very bad c very polite d unsteady

2 PALETTE: He lost his palette a basket for carrying fish b wish to eat food c young female companion d artist's board for mixing paints

3 NULL: His influence was null a had good results b was unhelpful c had no effect d was long-lasting

4 KINDERGARTEN: This is a good kindergarten a activity that allows you to forget your worries b place of learning for children too young for school c strong, deep bag carried on the back d place where you may borrow books

5 ECLIPSE: There was an eclipse a a strong wind b a loud noise of something hitting the water c The killing of a large number of people d The sun hidden by a planet

6 MARROW: This is the marrow a symbol that brings good luck to a team b Soft centre of a bone c control for guiding a plane d increase in salary

7 LOCUST: There were hundreds of locusts a insects with wings b unpaid helpers c people who do not eat meat d brightly coloured wild flowers

IX about numbers c the study of the movement of water d the study of population

8 GIMMICK: That's a good gimmick a thing for standing on to work high above the ground b small thing with pockets to hold money c attention-getting action or thing d clever plan or trick

9 AZALEA: This azalea is very pretty a small tree with many flowers growing in groups b light material made from natural threads c long piece of material worn by women in

India d sea shell shaped like a fan

10 YOGHURT: This yoghurt is disgusting a grey mud found at the bottom of rivers b unhealthy, open sore c thick, soured milk, often with sugar and flavouring d large purple fruit with soft flesh

8 AUTHENTIC: It is authentic a real b very noisy c Old d Like a desert

9 CABARET: We saw the cabaret a painting covering a whole wall b song and dance performance c small crawling insect d person who is half fish, half woman

10 MUMBLE: He started to mumble a think deeply b shake uncontrollably c stay further behind the others d speak in an unclear way

1 HALLMARK: Does it have a hallmark? a stamp to show when to use it by b stamp to show the quality c mark to show it is approved by the royal family d Mark or stain to prevent copying

2 PURITAN: He is a puritan a person who likes attention b person with strict morals c person with a moving home d person who hates spending money

3 MONOLOGUE: Now he has a monologue a single piece of glass to hold over his eye to help him to see better

1 AWE: They looked at the mountain with awe a worry b interest c wonder d respect

2 PEASANTRY: He did a lot for the peasantry a local people b place of worship c businessmen's club d poor farmers

3 EGALITARIAN: This organization is egalitarian a does not provide much information about itself to

X b long turn at talking without being interrupted c position with all the power d picture made by joining letters together in interesting ways

4 WEIR: We looked at the weir a person who behaves strangely b wet, muddy place with water plants c old metal musical instrument played by blowing d thing built across a river to control the water

5 WHIM: He had lots of whims a old gold coins b female horses c strange ideas with no motive d sore red lumps

6 PERTURB: I was perturbed a made to agree b Worried c very puzzled d very wet

7 REGENT: They chose a regent a an irresponsible person b a person to run a meeting for a time c a ruler acting in place of the king d a person to represent them

8 OCTOPUS: They saw an octopus a a large bird that hunts at night b a ship that can go underwater c a machine that flies by means of turning blades d a sea creature with eight legs

9 FEN: The story is set in the fens a low land partly covered by water b a piece of high land with few trees c a block of poor-quality houses in a city d a time long ago