EARTH SCIENCES Edited by Imran Ahmad Dar Earth Sciences Edited by Imran Ahmad Dar Published by InTech Janeza Trdine 9, 51000 Rijeka, Croatia Copyright © 2012 InTech All chapters are Open Access distributed under the Creative Commons Attribution 3.0 license, which allows users to download, copy and build upon published articles even for commercial purposes, as long as the author and publisher are properly credited, which ensures maximum dissemination and a wider impact of our publications. After this work has been published by InTech, authors have the right to republish it, in whole or part, in any publication of which they are the author, and to make other personal use of the work. Any republication, referencing or personal use of the work must explicitly identify the original source. As for readers, this license allows users to download, copy and build upon published chapters even for commercial purposes, as long as the author and publisher are properly credited, which ensures maximum dissemination and a wider impact of our publications. Notice Statements and opinions expressed in the chapters are these of the individual contributors and not necessarily those of the editors or publisher. No responsibility is accepted for the accuracy of information contained in the published chapters. The publisher assumes no responsibility for any damage or injury to persons or property arising out of the use of any materials, instructions, methods or ideas contained in the book. Publishing Process Manager Danijela Duric Technical Editor Teodora Smiljanic Cover Designer InTech Design Team First published January, 2012 Printed in Croatia A free online edition of this book is available at www.intechopen.com Additional hard copies can be obtained from orders@intechweb.org Earth Sciences, Edited by Imran Ahmad Dar p. cm. ISBN 978-953-307-861-8 Contents Preface IX Part 1 Geology 1 Chapter 1 The Expanding International Coal Market 3 Jude Clemente Chapter 2 Weathering Indices for Assessment of Weathering Effect and Classification of Weathered Rocks: A Case Study from NE Turkey 19 Sener Ceryan Chapter 3 The Effectiveness of Petrified Wood as a Geobiological Portal to Increase Public Understanding of Geologic Time, Fossilization, and Evolution 45 Renee M. Clary and James H. Wandersee Chapter 4 Debris Flow Phenomena: A Short Overview? 71 Chiara Calligaris and Luca Zini Chapter 5 Heat-Transfer-Model Analysis of the Thermal Effect of Intrusive Sills on Organic-Rich Host Rocks in Sedimentary Basins 91 Dayong Wang, Minglong Zhao and Tian Qi Chapter 6 Submarine Mass Movements: Sedimentary Characterization and Controlling Factors 99 Gemma Ercilla and David Casas Part 2 Geochemistry 129 Chapter 7 Self-Organization of the Khibiny Alkaline Massif (Kola Peninsula, Russia) 131 Gregory Ivanyuk, Victor Yakovenchuk, Yakov Pakhomovsky, Natalya Konoplyova, Andrei Kalashnikov, Julia Mikhailova and Pavel Goryainov VI Contents Part 3 Seismology 157 Chapter 8 Seismic Imaging of Microblocks and Weak Zones in the Crust Beneath the Southeastern Margin of the Tibetan Plateau 159 Haijiang Zhang, Steve Roecker, Clifford H. Thurber and Weijun Wang Part 4 Petroleum Geology 203 Chapter 9 Advances and Challenges of Reservoir Characterization: A Review of the Current State-of-the-Art 205 Ailin Jia, Dongbo He and Chengye Jia Chapter 10 Mechanisms and Effective Prevention of Damage for Formations with Low-Porosity and Low-Permeability 225 Jienian Yan and Jiaojiao Geng Part 5 Hydrology 243 Chapter 11 Application of Hagedoorn’s Plus-Minus Method to Hydrology Study 245 Jiandang Ge Chapter 12 Responses of River Deltas to Sea-Level and Supply Forcing: Autostratigraphic View 255 T. Muto, A.L. Petter, R.J. Steel, J.B. Swenson, A. Tomer and G. Parker Part 6 Hydrogeology 271 Chapter 13 Numerical Geodynamic Modeling of Continental Convergent Margins 273 Zhonghai Li, Zhiqin Xu and Taras Gerya Chapter 14 The Thermogeographic Model in Paleogeography: Application of an Abiotic Model to a Plate Tectonic World 297 Lee-Ann C. Hayek and Walter H. Adey Part 7 Minerology 311 Chapter 15 Mesothermal Lode Gold Deposit Central Belt Peninsular Malaysia 313 Kamar Shah Ariffin Part 8 Mining 343 Chapter 16 Computer Aided Ore Body Modelling and Mine Valuation 345 Kaan Erarslan Contents VII Part 9 Volcanology 373 Chapter 17 Mud Volcano and Its Evolution 375 Bambang P. Istadi, Handoko T. Wibowo, Edy Sunardi, Soffian Hadi and Nurrochmat Sawolo Chapter 18 Xujiaweizi Rift Lower Cretaceous Yingcheng Group Volcanic Sequence Stratigraphic Features 435 Zhang Yuangao, Chen Shumin, Feng Zhiqiang, Jiang Chuanjin Zhang Erhua, Xin Zhaokun and Dai Shili Part 10 Remote Sensing 455 Chapter 19 Laser Altimetry: What Can Be Learned About Geology and Surface Processes from Detailed Topography 457 Tim Webster Chapter 20 Remote Predictive Mapping: An Approach for the Geological Mapping of Canada’s Arctic 495 J. R. Harris, E. Schetselaar and P. Behnia Part 11 Environmental Sciences 525 Chapter 21 Monitoring of Heavy Metal Concentration in Groundwater of Mamundiyar Basin, India 527 Imran Ahmad Dar, K. Sankar, Dimitris Alexakis and Mithas Ahmad Dar Chapter 22 Age Dating of Middle-Distillate Fuels Released to the Subsurface Environment 541 Gil Oudijk Chapter 23 Geology and Geomorphology in Landscape Ecological Analysis for Forest Conservation and Hazard and Risk Assessment, Illustrated with Mexican Case Histories 583 María Concepción García-Aguirre, Román Álvarez and Fernando Aceves Chapter 24 Radiolarian Age Constraints of Mid-Cretaceous Black Shales in Northern Tunisia 599 Ben Fadhel Moez, Soua Mohamed, Zouaghi Taher, Layeb, Mohsen, Amri Ahlem and Ben Youssef Mohamed Chapter 25 Miogypsinid Foraminiferal Biostratigraphy from the Oligocene to Miocene Sedimentary Rocks in the Tethys Region 619 Kuniteru Matsumaru Preface The studies of Earth's history, and of the physical and chemical properties of the substances that make up our planet, are of great significance to our understanding both of its past and its future. The geological and other environmental processes on Earth and the composition of the planet are of vital importance in locating and harnessing its resources. Earth Sciences deploy an interdisciplinary mix of physics, chemistry, biology, math, and natural science to understand the mysteries of nature. They focus on the solid Earth (rocks, minerals, mountain belts, volcanoes, earthquakes, sedimentary basins, oil and gas deposits, etc.) as well as on the history of life (paleontology) and its impact on the Earth. In recent decades, geologists have become increasingly concerned with the history of the Earth's climate, how the physical and chemical behavior of the oceans has changed over time, and how drifting continents and evolving life have interacted to control the composition of the atmosphere and oceans and hence to control global climate. Environmentalists also examine how human activities affect our environment, including the quality of air, water, and soil. This book is primarily written for research scholars, geologists, civil engineers, mining engineers, and environmentalists. Hopefully the text will be used by students, and it will continue to be of value to them throughout their subsequent professional careers. This does not mean to infer that the book was written solely or mainly with the student in mind. Indeed from the point of view of the student in environmental science it could be argued that this text contains more detail than he will require in his initial studies. This book offers one of the most comprehensive and up-to-date treatments of topics from fundamental geologic principles, to the specifics of environmental and geologic hazards, all from a truly environmental perspective. It fully discusses both processes and environmental issues and details, where appropriate, of the quantification of geologic processes. The book has been divided into 11 sections; geology, geochemistry, seismology, petroleum geology, hydrology, hydrogeology, mineralogy, mining, volcanology, remote sensing, and environmental sciences. X Preface A great many people have contributed to the development of this book. The editor is very thankful to all the authors. Portions of the manuscript of the Book Earth Sciences were contributed by Mr. Clemente Jude, Prof. Ceryan Sener, Dr Clary Renee, Dr Wang Dayong, Dr Ercilla Gemma, Dr Ivanyuk Gregory, Dr Zhang Haijiang, Prof. Jia Ailin, Dr Ge Jiandang, Prof. Muto Tetsuji, Dr Li Zhonghai, Dr Adey Walter, Prof. Ariffin Kamar Shah, Prof. Erarslan Kaan, Mr. Istadi Bambang, MSc Yuangao Zhang, Dr Tim Webster, Dr Jeff Harris, Mr. Oudijk Gil, Dr Garcia-Aguirre, Dr Calligaris, Dr Imran Ahmad Dar, Dr Matsumaru Kuniteru, Dr Ben Fadhel Moez and Dr Jiaojiao Geng. The Editor wishes to offer his thanks to all those involved. The Editor is also very thankful to InTech President, Aleksandar Lazinica. In particular, the Editor would like to record his grateful appreciation to Ana Pantar, editorial consultant at InTech for inviting him to edit this prestigious book. Lastly, but by no means least, one must thank Ms. Danijela Duric, publishing process manager, for her timely and kind communication with the Editor during the entire process. Imran Ahmad Dar Department of Industries and Earth Sciences, The Tamil University, Ocean and Atmospheric Sciences & Technology Cell, India . and Walter H. Adey Part 7 Minerology 311 Chapter 15 Mesothermal Lode Gold Deposit Central Belt Peninsular Malaysia 313 Kamar Shah Ariffin Part 8 Mining 343 Chapter 16 Computer Aided Ore. Imran Ahmad Dar Department of Industries and Earth Sciences, The Tamil University, Ocean and Atmospheric Sciences & Technology Cell, India Part 1 Geology 1 The Expanding International. EARTH SCIENCES Edited by Imran Ahmad Dar Earth Sciences Edited by Imran Ahmad Dar Published by InTech Janeza Trdine 9, 510 00 Rijeka, Croatia Copyright © 2 012