Phương pháp luận nghiên cứu khoa học

Phương Pháp Luận Nghiên Cứu Khoa học Lecture Notes on Research Methodology LỚP CAO HỌC VẬT LÝ CHẤT RẮN Lê Thị Ngọc Loan October 2017 Tai ngay!!! Ban co the xoa dong chu nay!!! Research Methodology: An Introduction: • MEANING OF RESEARCH: Research in common parlance refers to a search for knowledge • Once can also define research as a scientific & systematic search for pertinent information on a specific topic In fact, research is an art of scientific investigation • Research is an academic activity and as such the term should be used in a technical sense • According to Clifford Woody research comprises defining and redefining problems, formulating hypothesis or suggested solutions; collecting, organizing and evaluating data; making deductions and reaching conclusions; and at last carefully testing the conclusions to determine whether they fit the formulating hypothesis OBJECTIVES OF RESEARCH To gain familiarity with a phenomenon or to achieve new insights into it (studies with this object in view are termed as exploratory or formulative research studies); To portray accurately the characteristics of a particular individual, situation or a group(studies with this object in view are known as descriptive research studies); To determine the frequency with which something occurs or with which it is associated with something else (studies with this object in view are known as diagnostic research studies); To test a hypothesis of a causal relationship between variables (such studies are known as hypothesis-testing research studies) TYPES OF RESEARCH • (i) Descriptive vs Analytical: • Descriptive research includes surveys and fact-finding enquiries of different kinds • In social science and business research we quite often use the term Ex post facto research for descriptive research studies • The main characteristic of this method is that the researcher has no control over the variables; he can only report what has happened or what is happening • The methods of research utilized in descriptive research are survey methods of all kinds, including comparative and correlation methods • In analytical research, on the other hand, the researcher has to use facts or information already available, and analyze these to make a critical evaluation of the material • (ii) Applied vs Fundamental: • Applied (or action) research : aims at finding a solution for an immediate problem facing a society or an industrial/business organization, • Fundamental (to basic or pure) research: is mainly concerned with generalizations and with the formulation of a theory • (iii) Quantitative vs Qualitative: • Quantitative research is based on the measurement of quantity or amount • Qualitative research, on the other hand, is concerned with qualitative phenomenon, i.e., phenomena relating to or involving quality or kind (iv) Conceptual vs Empirical: • Conceptual research : is that related to some abstract idea(s) or theory • Empirical research ; It is data-based research, coming up with conclusions which are capable of being verified by observation or experiment We can also call it as experimental type of research (v) Some Other Types of Research: • One-time research or longitudinal research In the former case the research is confined to a single timeperiod, whereas in the latter case the research is carried on over several time-periods • Field-setting research or laboratory research or simulation research, depending upon the environment in which it is to be carried out • Clinical or diagnostic research Such research follow case-study methods or in-depth approaches to reach the basic causal relations • Conclusion-oriented and decision-oriented While doing conclusion-oriented research, a researcher is free to pick up a problem, redesign the enquiry as he proceeds and is prepared to conceptualize as he wishes 4‐11‐2019 Information sources in research Online sources Methodology Personal input Encyclopedia Idea’s Handbooks Tertiary sources Primary sources Course material Colleagues RESEARCH; Research publication; Presentation; Course assignment; Public communication; Online article; Report; … Research data Computer programs Figures Secondary sources Pictures Professional literature Computer code Department of Physics and Astronomy Primary and secondary sources • Use and refer to primary sources where possible • Secondary sources should be mentioned when they add a relevant contribution Primary sources Secondary sources Tertiary sources description First hand information, first communication/publication of study or research results Interpretation, synthesis, discussion, combination, … of information from primary source Overview of secondary sources examples Research report, results of experiments, research and clinical trials Review article, handbooks, encyclopedia’s Literature guide, internet directories Department of Physics and Astronomy 4‐11‐2019 Citing and paraphrasing Paraphrasing = rewriting an idea of another author in your own words Citing or quoting = copying or translating literally the text or idea from another author Source should always be mentioned correctly, with reference to the literature list Make clear that the text, idea, theory, … is not your own Be careful with paraphrasing! Can be inappropriate e.g when context is missing or different, when words are replaced with synonyms, … Citing customs (e.g use of quotation marks) can be discipline dependent Department of Physics and Astronomy Using images, figures, slides, data • Correct reference to source • If copyright: permission of copyright owner needed for republication • Archiving of own data is important Example: • ‘From author, year.’ • ‘From [Ref], with permission of Publisher.’ (full reference given in literature list) • ‘Slide courtesy of …’ or ‘Slide received from …’ 10 Example from “Superconductivity: An Introduction” R Kleiner and W Buckel, 3rd edition, Wiley – VCH, p419 Department of Physics and Astronomy 4‐11‐2019 Referring to online sources • Dynamic = not verifiable on longer term • Static sources are preferred over dynamic sources • Correct reference url + date of consultation Example: ‘This description was found at Wikipedia [4] on Lorenz equations.’ In literature list: [4] Wikipedia: Lorenz system [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lorenz_system] consulted on December 2017 11 Department of Physics and Astronomy Plagiarism: any identical or lightly-altered use of one’s own or someone else’s work without adequate reference to the source What? Ideas, text (including internet and translations), structures, images, plans, computer code, … Where? publications, thesis, grant applications, course assignments, … Self-plagiarism is also plagiarism 12 Department of Physics and Astronomy 4‐11‐2019 Avoiding plagiarism • Train yourself to search for information within your scientific domain Try to inquire about the structure of your faculty library, about how your catalogue works, about useful databases etc • Write down the author, journal, page, date of publication, URL, date of consultation etc when you are researching The text you copy literally should be put between quotation marks • Before you start writing, you should make a scheme in which you try to develop your own structure and ideas Write down your source references in your scheme as well Afterwards, you can transform your scheme into your own text, written in your personal writing style Add your references immediately to the text • Make sure that the texts that you copied or translated are represented as quotes (with correct reference) • If you use your own words to describe another person’s ideas or conclusions (paraphrased), you should add a correct reference • Do not hesitate to submit interim versions and to ask your teaching staff or librarian for help Source: https://www.kuleuven.be/english/education/plagiarism/prevention, consulted 29 October 2019 13 Department of Physics and Astronomy Authorship • All authors who delivered a significant contribution should be mentioned • All mentioned authors should have delivered a significant contribution • Mutual agreement between authors Significant contribution = “doing the work”, design, substantial lab work, interpretation, writing the paper, other substantial technical contributions, … Guidelines of the journal Traditions of the research field Never change the order of the authors in your CV, … 14 Department of Physics and Astronomy 4‐11‐2019 Authorship: who is an author, who is not ? Authorship should be restricted to individuals who: 1) made a substantial intellectual contribution to conception and design; AND/OR collection of data; AND/OR analysis and interpretation of data; 2) substantially contribute to the drafting of the manuscript and/or substantially critically revise its content 3) approve the final version of the manuscript to be published 4) agree to be accountable for all aspects of the work (i.e confidence in integrity of contributions of co-authors) Authors should meet conditions 1, 2, and [+ all those who meet criterion should have the opportunity to meet and 3] 15 https://www.kuleuven.be/english/research/integrity/practices/authorship#section-1 Department of Physics and Astronomy Authorship: Who is an author, who is not ? • Acquisition of funding, collection of data, or general supervision of the research group, alone, does not justify authorship • All persons designated as authors should qualify for authorship, and all those who qualify should be listed • Each author should have participated sufficiently in the work to take public responsibility for appropriate portions of the content Acknowledgment: specific (technical) contributions that don’t justify legitimate authorship, obtained funding, … 16 Department of Physics and Astronomy 4‐11‐2019 Reproducibility and repeatability of your research • Repeatability = the closeness of the agreement between the results of successive measurements of the same measure carried out under the same conditions of measurement (successive measurements are taken by a single person or instrument on the same item, under the same conditions, and in a short period of time) [Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Repeatability, consulted on 11 September 2018]  • Reproducibility = the closeness of the agreement between the results of measurements of the same measure carried out with the same methodology described in the corresponding scientific evidence (measurements are conducted on replicate specimens in different locations by different people) [Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reproducibility, consulted on 11 September 2018]  17 Department of Physics and Astronomy PART B: Scientific Misconduct Fabrication and Falsification Plagiarism and Copyright Infringement Questionable Research Practices 18 Department of Physics and Astronomy 4‐11‐2019 Misconduct The “big 3” in proposing research, conducting research, reporting or reviewing research … 19 in proposing, conducting, reporting, or reviewing research, … Department of Physics and Astronomy Fabrication: making up data or results and recording or reporting them Examples: • Completing a questionnaire for a fictitious subject that was never interviewed • Creating a data set for an experiment that was never actually conducted • Adding fictitious data to a real data set collected during an actual experiment for the purpose of providing additional statistical validity Example Social Psychology (2011): major fraud at Dutch Universities 20 Department of Physics and Astronomy 4‐11‐2019 Falsification: manipulating research material, equipment, processes, changing/omitting/suppressing data or results without scientific or statistical justification Examples: • Falsifying dates and experimental procedures in the notebook • Misrepresenting results from statistical analysis • Misrepresenting the methods of an experiment, e.g used model • Misrepresenting materials & methods of a research in a paper • Adding false or misleading statements in a manuscript or paper • Changing data to modify the variances in the data • Removing data points to render better correspondence with the model/hypothesis … Case: image fraud 2004; physics 2002 21 Department of Physics and Astronomy Examples: The temptation of image manipulation Figure 1. Gross manipulation of blots. (A) Example of  a band deleted from the original data (lane 3). (B)  Example of a band added to the original data (lane 3)  22 From: Rossner M, Yamada KM What’s in a picture? The temptation of image manipulation J Cell Biol 2004, 166, 11-15 Department of Physics and Astronomy 4‐11‐2019 Plagiarism: any identical or lightly-altered use of one’s own or someone else’s work without adequate reference to the source What? Ideas, text (including internet and translations), structures, images, plans, computer code, … Where? publications, thesis, grant applications, presentations, course assignments, … Self-plagiarism is also plagiarism https://www.toonpool.com/cartoons/Cartoon%20Plagiarism_183661 23 Department of Physics and Astronomy 24 Department of Physics and Astronomy 4‐11‐2019 Plagiarism is taken seriously !! Schools and Universities Publishers Employers 25 Department of Physics and Astronomy Plagiarism = any identical or lightly altered use of one’s own or someone else’s work (ideals, texts, structures, images, plans, etc.) without adequate reference to the source … including those obtained through (confidential) review of other’s research proposals and manuscripts Two components: appropriation Other people’s work, idea’s harm Author is not given proper credit Society is mislead 26 Department of Physics and Astronomy 4‐11‐2019 Plagiarism Examples: • Copying another person’s text (almost) literally without indicating that the text is a quote and/or without an adequate reference; • Paraphrasing another person’s ideas without an adequate reference; • Translating a text without an adequate reference; • Copying an image, scheme, graph, figure, audio or video fragment without an adequate reference; 27 Department of Physics and Astronomy Self-plagiarism: a special case of plagiarism in which an author will use segments of his/her own published material in a new publication without reference ‘Academic text recycling’ ‘Re-use of own work’ appropriation Other people’s work, idea’s harm Author is not given proper credit Society is mislead 28 Slide adapted with permission from Department of Physics and Astronomy 4‐11‐2019 Copyright is the exclusive right given to the creator of a creative work to reproduce the work, usually for a limited time The creative work may be in a literary, artistic or musical form Copyright does not cover ideas and information themselves, only the form or manner in which they are expressed [Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Copyright visited on 28 October 2019] Copyright owner: work’s creator, publisher, … Copyright infringement occurs when a copyrighted work is reproduced, distributed, performed, publicly displayed, or made into a derivative work without the permission of the copyright owner [Source: https://www.copyright.gov/help/faq/faq-definitions.html visited on 23 October 2019] 29 Copyright of scientific papers Department of Physics and Astronomy https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/pbassets/assets/15214117/2056-Copyrightpermissions-for-Author-Guidelines.pdf • Copyright of articles is in most cases held by the publisher -> seek permission to re-use or adapt figures and other material in your manuscripts • Open access journals often have different agreements on re-use of material -> check homepage of journal Require copyright permission: reproduced figures or adapted figures (adapting = changing the previously published form) Do not require copyright permission: redrawn figures, or figures created using data or results from other publications 30 Department of Physics and Astronomy 4‐11‐2019 Plagiarism vs copyright infringement Are the following actions of misconduct plagiarism and/or copyright infringement ? Citing someone else’s text without referring to the source Reproducing another author’s figure without asking permission, but correctly referring to the source Using someone else’s idea without adequately referring to the source and without asking permission Duplicating your own publication Citing your own text without referring to the source 31 plagiarism Copyright infringement if no prior consent NO plagiarism Copyright infringement plagiarism NO copyright infringement (there is no © for ideas) plagiarism NO copyright infringement because of consent plagiarism NO copyright infringement because of consent Department of Physics and Astronomy Questionable Research Practices QRPs Examples • Guest-, gift-, or ghost authorship • Duplicate publication and ‘salami slicing’ publication • Dropping observations or data points from analysis based on gut feeling that they were inaccurate • Inadequate record keeping related to research projects • Failure to disclose conflicts of interest 32 Department of Physics and Astronomy 4‐11‐2019 (Scientists admit) 2% falsification 33% QRPs Mainly in biomedical sciences 33 Department of Physics and Astronomy Survey within Industry and Universities in Belgium Self-reported misconduct Observed misconduct Copying words/data/ideals without credit (plagiarism) 4% 36% Inventing research data or cases (fabrication) 0% 4% Willfully distorting research results or data (falsification) 0% 12% Publishing again one’s previously published data 0% 9% Dropping data based on a gut feeling 15% 40% Gift authorship 40% 72% Inadequate record keeping or data management 27% 48% Univ (n = 617); Indus (n=100) 34 Godecharle S., Fieuws S., Nemery B., Dierickx K Scientists Still Behaving Badly? A Survey Within Industry and Universities Science and Engineering Ethics (2017) Department of Physics and Astronomy 4‐11‐2019 https://towardstransparency.vn/en/universities-in-vietnam-united-for-academic-integrity/ 35 Department of Physics and Astronomy