A history of the world from the 20th to the 21st century

Tai Lieu Chat Luong A HISTORY OF THE WORLD FROM THE 20th TO THE 21st CENTURY With the onset of decolonisation, the rise and fall of fascism and communism, the technological revolution and the rapidly increasing power of the US, the world since 1900 has witnessed global change on an immense scale Providing a comprehensive survey of the key events and personalities of this period throughout the world, A History of the World from the 20th to the 21st Century includes discussion of topics such as: • • • • • the conflict in Europe, 1900–19 the brutal world of the dictators, 1930s and 1940s the lost peace: the global impact of the Cold War independence in Asia and Africa the ‘war’ against terror This now acclaimed history of the world has been updated throughout to take account of recent historical research Bringing the story up to date, J A S Grenville includes a discussion of events such as 9/11, recent economic problems in Latin America, the second Gulf War and the enlargement of the European Union A fascinating and authoritative account of the world since 1900, A History of the World from the 20th to the 21st Century is essential reading for the general reader and student of world history alike J A S Grenville is Professor of Modern History, Emeritus, at the University of Birmingham He is a distinguished historian and is the author of a number of books, including Politics, Strategy and American Diplomacy (1969), Europe Reshaped, 1848–1878 (1999) and The Major International Treaties of the Twentieth Century (2000) ‘A sweeping synopsis for the history buff.’ Philadelphia Inquirer ‘Students of history are fortunate to have Grenville’s monumental history available.’ Ronald H Fritze, American Reference Books Annual ‘Follows a relatively new trend among historians to abandon their sometimes narrow parochialism in favour of “world history” This volume deals with more thematic issues like industrialization, the empowerment of women, the rise of environmental concerns and multinational corporations.’ Foreign Affairs ‘Magnificently detailed, brilliantly written An extraordinarily readable global history.’ Parade Magazine ‘This book by the masterful international relations historian, Grenville, already finds primacy of place in the reading lists of most university courses as the single definitive history of this century.’ The Journal of the United Service Institution of India A HISTORY OF THE WORLD FROM THE 20th TO THE 21st CENTURY J A S Grenville The first half of this work was originally published in an earlier form as A World History of the Twentieth Century Volume I: Western Dominance, 1900–45 by Fontana Press, 1980 Earlier editions of this work were published as The Collins History of the World in the Twentieth Century by HarperCollins, 1994, 1998, and in the USA and Canada as A History of the World in the 20th Century by the Belknap Press of Harvard University Press, 1994, 2000 This edition published 2005 by Routledge Park Square, Milton Park, Abingdon, Oxon OX14 4RN Simultaneously published in the USA and Canada by Routledge 270 Madison Ave, New York, NY 10016 Routledge is an imprint of the Taylor & Francis Group This edition published in the Taylor & Francis e-Library, 2005 “To purchase your own copy of this or any of Taylor & Francis or Routledge’s collection of thousands of eBooks please go to www.eBookstore.tandf.co.uk.” © 1980, 1994, 1998, 2000, 2005 J A S Grenville The right of J A S Grenville to be identified as the Author of this Work has been asserted by him in accordance with the Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988 All rights reserved No part of this book may be reprinted or reproduced or utilised in any form or by any electronic, mechanical, or other means, now known or hereafter invented, including photocopying and recording, or in any information storage or retrieval system, without permission in writing from the publishers British Library Cataloguing in Publication Data A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library Library of Congress Cataloging in Publication Data Grenville, J A S (John Ashley Soames), 1928– A history of the world from the twentieth to the twenty-first century/ J.A.S Grenville p cm Rev ed of: A history of the world in the twentieth century/J.A.S Grenville Enl ed Includes bibliographical references and index History, Modern – 20th century History, Modern – 21st century I Grenville, J A S (John Ashley Soames), 1928– History of the world in the twentieth century II Title D421.G647 2005 909.82–dc22 2004015939 ISBN 0-203-64176-0 Master e-book ISBN ISBN 0-203-67494-4 (Adobe eReader Format) ISBN 0–415–28954–8 (hbk) ISBN 0–415–28955–6 (pbk) CONTENTS List of figures List of maps Acknowledgements Preface Prologue: the world from the 20th to the 21st century viii ix x xi 10 11 12 13 14 I SOCIAL CHANGE AND NATIONAL RIVALRY IN EUROPE, 1900–14 Hereditary foes and uncertain allies The British Empire: premonition of decline The last decades of the multinational Russian and Habsburg Empires Over the brink: the five-week crisis, 28 June–1 August 1914 15 17 IV 33 15 16 41 17 54 18 II III BEYOND EUROPE: THE SHIFTING BALANCE OF GLOBAL POWER The emergence of the US as a world power China in disintegration, 1900–29 The emergence of Japan, 1900–29 63 65 73 80 THE GREAT WAR, REVOLUTION AND THE SEARCH FOR STABILITY 87 The Great War I: war without decision, 1914–16 89 War and revolution in the East, 1917 100 19 20 21 V 22 23 24 The Great War II: the end of war in the West, 1917–18 Peacemaking in an unstable world, 1918–23 Democracy on trial: Weimar Germany Britain, France and the US from war to peace Italy and the rise of fascism THE CONTINUING WORLD CRISIS, 1929–39 The Depression, 1929–39 Soviet Russia: ‘communism in transition’ The failure of parliamentary democracy in Germany and the rise of Hitler, 1920–34 The mounting conflict in eastern Asia, 1928–37 The crumbling peace, 1933–6 The Spanish Civil War and Europe, 1936–9 The outbreak of war in Europe, 1937–9 THE SECOND WORLD WAR Germany’s wars of conquest in Europe, 1939–41 The China War and the origins of the Pacific War, 1937–41 The ordeal of the Second World War 109 114 127 133 143 151 153 168 181 194 204 213 220 239 241 255 263 vi CONTENTS 25 The victory of the Allies, 1941–5 276 VI 26 POST-WAR EUROPE, 1945–7 Zero hour: the Allies and the Germans The Soviet Union: the price of victory and the expanding empire Britain and the world: a legacy too heavy to bear France: a veil over the past Italy: the enemy forgiven 307 27 28 29 30 309 43 44 45 319 328 338 345 XI 46 47 VII 31 32 THE UNITED STATES AND THE BEGINNING OF THE COLD WAR, 1945–8 The United States: a reluctant world power 1948: crisis in Europe – Prague and Berlin 351 48 353 49 369 50 VIII THE TRANSFORMATION OF ASIA, 1945–55 33 The struggle for independence: the Philippines, Malaya, Indonesia and Indo-China 34 India: from the Raj to independence, 1947 35 China: the end of civil war and the victory of the communists 36 1950: crisis in Asia – war in Korea IX 37 38 39 40 41 X 42 THE ENDING OF EUROPEAN DOMINANCE IN THE MIDDLE EAST, 1919–80 A profile of the Middle East The Middle East between two world wars, 1919–45 Britain, Israel and the Arabs, 1945–9 1956: crisis in the Middle East – Suez The struggle for predominance in the Middle East THE COLD WAR: SUPERPOWER CONFRONTATION, 1948–64 The rise of Khrushchev: the Soviet Union and the West Eastern Europe and the Soviet Union: the Polish challenge and the Hungarian Rising The fall of Khrushchev: the Soviet Union and the wider world The Eisenhower years: caution at home and containment abroad THE RECOVERY OF WESTERN EUROPE IN THE 1950s AND 1960s West Germany: economic growth and political stability The French Fourth Republic: economic growth and political instability The War of Algerian Independence: the Fifth Republic and the return of de Gaulle Britain: better times and retreat from empire The tribulations and successes of Italian democracy 477 481 486 501 503 514 524 535 547 377 XII 379 390 398 405 415 417 422 431 438 453 467 469 51 52 53 WHO WILL LIBERATE THE THIRD WORLD? 1954–68 America’s mission in the world: the Eisenhower and Kennedy years, 1954–63 On the brink of a nuclear holocaust: the Cuban missile crisis, October 1962 The limits of power: the US during the 1960s XIII TWO FACES OF ASIA: AFTER 1949 54 Turmoil, war and bloodshed in south-east Asia 55 The Vietnam War and after 56 Continuous revolution: Mao’s China 57 The last years of Mao and his heirs: the revolution changes course 58 Freedom and conflict in the Indian subcontinent: India, Pakistan and Bangladesh 59 The prosperous Pacific Rim I: Japan, Taiwan, Hong Kong, Singapore and South Korea 555 557 567 577 587 589 601 607 616 629 644 CONTENTS 60 The prosperous Pacific Rim II: Australia and New Zealand 69 664 70 XIV LATIN AMERICA AFTER 1945: PROBLEMS UNRESOLVED 61 The world of Latin America 62 Central America in revolution: Costa Rica, Nicaragua, Honduras, El Salvador, Guatemala, Panama and Mexico XV 63 64 65 66 AFRICA AFTER 1945: CONFLICT AND THE THREAT OF FAMINE The end of white rule in West Africa Freedom and conflict in Central and East Africa War and famine in the Horn of Africa Southern Africa: from white supremacy to democracy XVI THE UNITED STATES AND THE SOVIET BLOC AFTER 1963: THE GREAT TRANSFORMATION 67 The Soviet Union and the wider world, the Brezhnev years: crushing the Prague Spring and the failure of reform 68 The United States: from great aspirations to disillusion 679 681 706 719 721 738 748 754 777 779 789 The Soviet Union, crisis and reform: Gorbachev, Yeltsin and Putin The United States, global power: Reagan, Bush and Clinton XVII WESTERN EUROPE GATHERS STRENGTH: AFTER 1968 71 The German Federal Republic: reaching maturity 72 Contemporary Italy: progress despite politics 73 How to make Britain more prosperous: Conservative and Labour remedies 74 The revival of France 75 The European Community XVIII GLOBAL CHANGE: FROM THE 20th TO 21st CENTURY 76 The Iron Curtain disintegrates: the death of communism in Eastern Europe 77 Continuing turmoil and war in the Middle East 78 The wars of Yugoslavia: a requiem 79 The ‘war on terror’ 80 Into the new millennium: the twenty-first century Suggestions for further reading Index vii 797 814 829 831 843 849 864 874 885 887 903 918 927 944 958 976 FIGURES Nicholas II with his family French soldiers to arms, 1914 German soldiers, to Paris, 1914 Immigrants waiting in America Lenin addressing a small street gathering The Versailles conference Mussolini in heroic pose New Yorkers mill around Wall Street An unemployed German war veteran The Great Communicator President Franklin D Roosevelt Stalin at a collective farm in Tajikistan Prussian honour allied to new barbarism The fascist salute greets General Franco Militia coming to the aid of the Republic Viennese Jews scrub paving stones Hitler and Mussolini, 1938 Chamberlain waves the Anglo-German Agreement A war leader Winston Churchill, 1941 1940 A surprise visit Survivors of the Warsaw ghetto rising August 1945 The mushroom cloud over Nagasaki Lucky those who were killed outright African Americans served in the armed forces A warm welcome for a GI in Belfort The Potsdam Conference, 1945 Devastated Dresden Jews from a concentration camp Booty for the Russian meets resistance The reconstruction of western Europe 45 60 60 66 104 117 149 154 155 165 178 182 216 217 226 232 233 244 251 267 274 275 280 291 300 310 311 313 367 Ernest Bevin, Britain’s foreign secretary The allied airlift Gandhi and his followers June 1947 Lord Mountbatten Seoul, or what’s left of it, in 1950 US marines are caught by surprise David Ben Gurion proclaims the State of Israel Iran, February 1979 Two leaders Adenauer campaigning in Bamberg The ‘Special Relationship’ Martin Luther King The march on Washington The image that depicted humiliation Beijing demonstrators, 1989 Japanese emperor Hirohito Homeless children huddle together Nigerian civil war victims, 1967 Famine in Ethiopia, 1984 The realities of apartheid Johannesburg, South Africa Nelson Mandela A historic handshake on the White House lawn Yeltsin, 1991 No longer the ‘evil empire’ Students distribute underground literature The Gaza Strip The UN in a non-combatant role New York, World Trade Center Tony Blair, 1997 Rwandan genocide, 1994 368 373 392 395 410 410 436 465 484 506 545 579 580 605 623 645 684 734 744 766 771 772 795 807 819 832 910 922 928 933 945 MAPS The British, French and German world empires, c.1900 Europe in 1914 The Americas China and Japan in Asia, 1900 The western front, 1914 Treaty of Brest-Litovsk, March 1918 Peace settlements, 1919–23 The Middle East, 1926 The Spanish Civil War, 1936 The expansion of Germany, January 1935–October 1939 Japan’s war in Asia, 1937–45 War in the Pacific, 1943–5 The German invasion of Russia, 1941–2 Defeat of Italy and Germany, July 1943– May 1945 58 71 78 90 107 119 125 219 228 257 272 281 290 The occupation zones of Germany and Austria, 1945 Europe after 1945 The Middle East, 1960–2 Israel and the Arab states after 1967 South-east Asia, 1960 India, Pakistan, Bangladesh and Sri Lanka, 1972 Asia, 1991 The emergence of independence in Africa, 1970 The Russian Federation and new states of the former Soviet Union, 1992 Germany, 1945–90 Europe, 1993 The break-up of Yugoslavia, 1991–5 The partition of Bosnia, 1995 297 302 454 460 591 636 660 723 809 838 888 899 923 INDEX 493–500; and ‘missile gap’ 495; avoidance of war 490; and Vietnam 496–497, 558–560; opposes use of atomic bomb 497; Middle East policy 455, 498; main achievement 500; and Cuba 559 Eisenhower Doctrine 455 Eisner, Kurt 116 El Alamein 279 El Salvador 707, 709–710 terror and death squads 710; population 707; economy 710; civil war 710 ELAS (Greek resistance group) 336 Enabling Law (Germany, 1933) 190 Endara, Guillermo 714 Entebbe 904 EOKA (Cypriot separatist group) 538 Erdogan, Recep Tayyip 883, 953 Erhard, Ludwig 317, 507, 512–513; prime minister 542, 543 Eritrea 748–750 Eshkol, Levi 456, 458 Estonia 121, 293, 320; independence movement 801, 802, 821; and European Union 952 Ethiopia (formerly Abyssinia, q.v.) 744; famine 744, 748–750 Euratom 521 European Coal and Steel Community (ECSC) 508, 520; Treaty (1951) 508 European Defence Community (EDC) 509, 519, 521 European Economic Area 876 European Economic Community (Common Market) 521–523, 545; formation 523; French leadership 576; British attempts to join 538, 545–546; Britain joins 852 European Free Trade Area 672 European Free Trade Association (EFTA) 544, 876–877 European Monetary System (EMS) 876 European Monetary Union (EMU) 863, 881, 884 European Movement 518, 521 European Union 883–885, 952–953 Evans, Gareth 672 Exchange Rate Mechanism (ERM) 859, 860, 876 Fabius, Laurent 868 Faisal II of Iraq 423, 424, 439 Falkenhayn, General Erich von 99 Falkland Islands 697 Fanfani, Amantore 552 Farouk I of Egypt 424, 441 fascism 144–150 Faubus, Orval 489 Fawzi, Mahmoud 448 Figueres, José 707 Finland 121; and Second World War 253–254; and EFTA 876; and EU 877; First World War 7, 17, 89; casualties 89, 91, 99; submarine warfare 92–93, 112; atrocities 93; aims 97–98; American intervention 110–111 FitzGerald, Garret 851 Fiume 144, 146 Flandin, Pierre 212 Foch, Marshal Ferdinand 113, 137 Fontainbleau summit (1984) 875 Ford, Gerald 605, 793 Ford, Henry 141 Fourteen Points (Wilson) 112, 114 Fox, Vincente 948 France colonial and foreign relations 26 pre-1914 alliance with Russia and alignment with Britain 26; colonial policy 385–389, 425–426, 524–534, 725, 726–729; and German threat 26; and First World War 89, 95, 97, 98, 99, 111, 112–113; and peace negotiations 108, 114–115, 117–120, 123–126; reconciliation with Germany 131, 137; and ‘German problem’ 137; alliances with Poland and Czechoslovakia 138; defensive military strategy 222–223; opposition to German rearmament 206; offer of ‘Eastern Locarno 131; pact with the Soviet Union 212; closer alignment with Britain 212; non-intervention in Spanish civil war 218; failing 981 alliance with Britain 230; and approach of war 221, 232, 233–234, 237–239 Second World War defeat 243, 245–252, 269, 275, 279; occupation 279; resistance 338, 270; casualties 275; Middle East mandate 425–427; provisional government 339–340 post-war on Control Commission 507–508; and occupied Germany 313–315, 343–344, 518; treaty of alliance with Britain 335, 371; and NATO 374, 532; and Algeria 524–526; and empire 726–729; and Vietnam 385–389, 496; and Middle East 425–426, 458; and Suez 446–452; and ECSC 508; reconciliation with West Germany 508–511, 518; and European movement 518; rejection of EDC 519; and ECSC 520; and EEC 530–531 politics and social conditions ‘Belle Epoque’ 22; conservatism 22; population 23; industrialisation 23; administration 23–24; anticlericalism 24, political groupings 25, 514; domestic recovery after First World War 139; split of socialism 140; Popular Front 158; industrial legislation 159 provisional government 338–341; Vichy 289, 338, 330; and Jews 871; post Second World War problems 340–341, 515; trials of collaborators 339–40; new constitution 342; Fourth Republic 342, 514–523; political instability 342; economic recovery 342–343, 516–517, 530; elitist establishment 516; end of Fourth Republic 523, 527; Fifth Republic constitution 529; May 1968 982 INDEX crisis 532–533; economic problems 864, 866–867, 868–873, 951; political malaise 869–870; liberal reforms 866; nationalisation 867; racism 870; neofascism 868; and Maastricht Treaty 871 Francis Ferdinand, Archduke 54 Francis Joseph, Emperor 50, 92 Franco, General Francisco 216–218, 879 Franco-Soviet Pact (1934) 212 Frank, Hans 265 Fraser, Malcolm 670–671 Frei, Eduardo 690 Frelimo 774 French Community 727 French Guiana 728 Frick, Wilhelm 190 Friedman, Milton 693 Fuchs, Klaus 300, 413 Fujimoro, Alberto 688 Fulbright, James William 585 Gabon 729 Gaddafi, Colonel Muammar 752–753, 904, 942–943 Gaidar, Yegor 807, 810 Gaitán, Jorge Eliécer 686 Gaitskell, Hugh 451, 543 Galen, Bishop Count 269 Gallegos, Rómulo 703 Gallieni, General Joseph 91 Gallipoli 96 Galtieri, General Leopoldo 696–697 Gambia 539 Gamelin, General Maurice 236, 242 Gandhi, Indira 640–641 Gandhi, Mahatma 135; and Indian independence 392, 395–397; civil disobedience 286, 763, 393; death of 396 Gandhi, Rajiv 641 Gandhi, Sanjay 640 Gang of Four (China) 617, 619 Gapon, Father Georgei 43 García, Alán 688 Gasperi, Alcide de 347, 348, 548, 550–551 Gaza Strip 444, 457, 458–459, 905, 907, 916 Gdan´sk 780, 890 Geldof, Bob 744 Gemayel, Bashir 908, 909 General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade (GATT) 332, 823, 877 General Strike (1926) 136 Geneva Conferences: (1933) 207; (1954) 388–389, 473, 557, 558, 603; (1955) 499; (1960) 499; (1961) 565 Genscher, Hans-Dietrich 835, 901 George V 161 George II of Greece 336 Georgia 803, 806 German Democratic Republic (East Germany, GDR) 503, 511; and Berlin Wall 511, 900; uprisings 495, 900–901; improved relations with West Germany 833–834, 901; economy, 900–901; unification 839, 901–902 German Federal Republic (West Germany, FRG) 503; constitution (Basic Law) 504–505; in NATO 509; and Russia 511; road to parliamentary democracy 504–505; separation of Berlin 505; elections 506, 510–511, 513; path to sovereignty 507–508; and EEC 513; rearmament 509–510; reconciliation with France 508, 511; restitution 512; economic growth 507, 510, 512; Grand Coalition 513, 831; improved relations with East Germany 833–834, 839; unification 839; student unrest 831–832; and East-West détente 833–834, 835; economic problems 834, 835–836, 841, 842 Germany (1900–1914) approach to First World War 17, 21–22, 95; industrial power 18–20; social and political divisions 18; aim at world-wide power 2; military planning 7, 21; foreign policy 20, 21; and colonies 725 First World War (1914–18) 57–59, 89–98, 108, 109–113 peace terms imposed on 120 Weimar Republic 115, 127–132 danger of communist revolution 115–116, 128; redrawn frontiers 118; population 118; restrictions on army and navy 118; reparations 120, 130, 142; democracy 127; militant left 128; constitution 129; right-wing plot against government 130; hyperinflation 130; and Versailles Treaty 131; concessions from Allies 132; admittance to League 132; inter-war years 127–132; economy 130–131, 154–156; unemployment 162–163; pact with Russia 133; failure of democracy 181–184, 188–189; rise of Nazism 184–189; end of Weimar Republic 189 Third Reich (1933–45) anti-Semitism and racial theories 204, 222–226; creation of totalitarian state 191–193; treaty with Vatican 191; use of terror 190; economic recovery 193; aim at world dominance 204; rearmament 204, 206; approach to Second World War 220–239; defiance of Versailles 206; withdrawal from League 207; nonaggression pact with Poland 207; threat to Austria 227; Saar return 210; conscription 210; naval programme 210; remilitarisation of Rhineland 212; and Spanish Civil War 218, 219; pogroms 225; annexation of Austria and 227; Czechoslovakia 230–232; treaty with the Soviet Union 235, 253, 254; threat to Poland 235 Second World War invasion of Poland and outbreak of war 234–238 ‘euthanasia’ policy 269; Germany and the war 253, 264, 265–271; Declaration of war on US 277; invasion of Russia 279; pact with Japan and Italy 260; mass bombings of 274; mass murders 264, 265–270; INDEX resistance 270; atomic research 277; ‘unconditional surrender’ 287; V-I and V-2 offensive 277; Morgenthau Plan 312; surrender 298 post-war 301, 309, 372–373 division 363; war casualties 275; Allied treatment of 311, 312, 337, 372; refugees 310–311; economic policies 313; war criminals 314; re-education 315; political process 316–318; see also German Federal Republic Ghana (formerly Gold Coast q.v.) 731–732 Gheorghiu-Dej, Gheorge 895, 896 Giap, General Vo Nguyen 387 Gibraltar 247, 879 Giolitti, Giovanni 28, 30, 145–146 Giscard d’Estaing, Valéry 530, 865–867 Gladio, 844–845 Glubb Pasha 445 Goa 638 Goebbels, Joseph 191, 210, 222, 280–281, 298 Goh Chok Tong 657 Golan Heights 459, 916 Gold Coast (now Ghana, q.v.) 730–731 Goldwater, Barry 582 Gómez, Juan Vicente 703 Gompers, Samuel 68 Gomulka, Wladyslaw 320, 369, 478–479 González, Felipe 880 Gorbachev, Mikhail 264, 788, 808–810, 889; reforms 797–806; foreign policy 622, 797, 804; economic policies 801, 805; state and party structures 798–806; opposition to 801; nuclear missile agreement 801; fall from power 806, 808; and German unification 264, 265, 901–902 Gore, Al 825–827 Göring, Hermann 190, 222, 232, 246, 298 Gort, Lord 246, 249 Gorton, John 669 Gottwald, Klement 326, 370–371 Goulart, Joa¯ o 700 Government of India Act (1935) 393 Gowan, Yakubu 733–734 Gracey, General Douglas 387 Gramm, Phil 816 Great War – see First World War Greece: and Balkan wars 46–47; and First World War 94; Turkish defeat of 124; and Second World War 252; civil war 291, 336, 365; British and American support for 336, 365; communist threat to 365; rivalry with Turkey 878; military rule 878; and EC 877, 879; and Cyprus 537–538 ‘green revolution’ 633 Greenpeace 677 Greenwood, Arthur 247 Grenada 713, 856 Grey, Sir Edward 57 Grivas, Georgios 538 Groener, General Wilhelm 128 Gromyko, Andrei 569 Grósz, Károly 893 Guadalcanal 286 Guarantee, Treaty of (1919) 118, 124–125 Guatemala 492–493, 707–708; repression 709; ‘disappearances’ 709; population 707 Guernica 219 Guevara, Che 493 Guillaume, Günter 833 Guinea 728 Gulag Archipelago 320–321 Gulf War (first) 903–916 Gulf War (second) 924–934 Gusmáo, José 596 Habibie, B J 596 Habsburg Empire 47; closing decades of 48; see also AustriaHungary Hacha, Emil 232 Haddad, Saad 905 Haganah 433, 435–437 Hague Congress (1948) 518, 521 Haig, Alexander 697 Haig, Douglas 98, 111 Haile, Selassie 252, 748–750 Haiti 949 Haldane, Richard, Viscount 38 Halder, General Franz 231 Halifax, Lord 227, 229, 247–249 Hallstein Doctine 834 Hamaguchi Osaki 199 983 Hamas 911, 916, 936–937 Hammarskjöld, Dag 740 Hansson, Per Albin 163 Hardie, Keir 35 Harding, Warren G 140 Harriman, Averell 299 Hart, Robert 74 Hashimoto, Ryutaro 655 Hatoyama, Ichiro 648 Hatta, Mohammed 383 Hauptmann, Gerhart 191 Hausa-Fulani people 733 Havel, Václav 894–895 Hawke, Robert 671 Hay–Pauncefote Treaty (1901) 70 Haya de la Torre, Victor Raúl 687 Hayek, Friedrich von 694 Hayoto Ikeda 648, 650 Heath, Edward 852–853 Heidegger, Martin 191 Helsinki Agreement (1975) 779, 785 Henderson, Nevile 236–237 Henlein, Konrad 231 Herter, Christian 499 Hertzog, General James 764 Heseltine, Michael 858 Hess, Rudolf 222 Heuss, Theodor 373 Heydrich, Reinhard 267 Himmler, Heinrich 192, 222, 265, 283, 298 Hindenburg, Field-Marshal Paul von 89, 92, 112, 115; President 128, 181, 184, 189; appoints Hitler chancellor 188; death 192 Hirohito, Emperor of Japan 85, 359, 362 Hiroshima 274, 304 Hiss, Alger 413 Hitler, Adolf 131, 156, 186–193; ideology of race 204, 226, 280–281; and Vatican 191; reduction of unemployment 193; chancellor 188; rise to power 186–189; obsession with Lebensraum 226; anti-Semitism 222–225; establishes totalitarian regime 191–193; murder of SA leaders 192; as Führer 188; aim of world domination 204; and rearmament 204, 206; foreign policy 204–207, 212; deceptive speeches 205; pact with Poland 207; relations with Mussolini 208; Western attitude to 984 INDEX 207–210, 220–223, 227–230; return of Saar 210; repudiation of Versailles and Locarno 212; remilitarisation of Rhineland 212; support of Franco 217; share of blame for war 220, 221; takes over army 227; annexes Austria 227; plan to attack Czechoslovakia 230; Munich triumph 231; invasion of Czechoslovakia 232; outbreak of war 234–239; early successes 241–242, 243–250; ‘peace’ proposals 242, 249; failure to invade Britain 251; declares war on America 253; war with Russia 254, 264, 265, 280, 283–284; suicide 298 Hizbollah 941 Hlinka, Father 231 Ho Chi-minh 385–388, 558–559, 602, 603 Hoare, Sir Samuel 211 Hobson, J A 100 Hodge, General John 406 Hoffman, Paul 367, 486 Holbrooke, Richard 923 Holland, Sidney George 675 Holocaust 265–270 Holt, Harold 669 Holyoake, Keith 675–676 Home Rule Bill (1912) 40 Honduras 492, 707, 708 Honecker, Erich 900–901 Hong Kong 74, 628, 656–657 Hoover, Herbert 140, 164, 169 Hoover, J Edgar 578 Hopkins, Harry 166–167, 299 Horthy, Admiral Miklós 289, 324 Hossbach, Colonel Friedrich 226 Hötzendorf, Conrad von 56 Houphouët-Boigny, Félix 727–728 House, Colonel Edward M 110 House Committee on UnAmerican Activities 404, 413–414, 488 Howard, John 673 Howard, Michael 952 Howe, Sir Geoffrey 858 Hoxha, Enver 898 Hoyos, Count 56 Hu Jintao 627 Hu Yaobang 619, 622 Hua Guofeng 619 Huerta, General Victoriano 715 Hugenberg, Alfred 183–184, 188 Hughes, Charles Evans 141 Huk guerrillas 381 Hull, Cordell 260 Humphrey, George 487 Humphrey, Hubert 585 Hungary 47, 49, 92; part of Habsburg Empire 47–50; nationalities 49; Magyar administration 50; as separate state 252; and Second World War 254, 289; post-war frontier 321, 322; communist rule 324–325; rising 479–480, 497–498, 780; Soviet suppression 325; and economy 893–894; and NATO 892; and European Union 894, 952 Hurtado, Miguel de la Madrid 716 Husák, Gustáv 894 Hussein, King of Jordan 439, 445, 455, 457, 459, 910, 942 Hussein, Saddam 821, 911, 912–916, 930–935 Ibn Saud, King Abdul Aziz 432 Ibrahim, Anwar 947 Iceland 374 Ickes, Harold 166 Idris, King of Libya 752 Ikeda, Hayato 648, 649 Iliescu, Ion 897 Imperial Economic Conference (Ottawa, 1932) 162 Inchon 411 India: migrations from 10; as British dependency 390, 391–396; independence 396–399; religious differences 390–391; racial prejudice 391; civil disobedience 392; and Second World War 296, 393; partition 396–397; and Kashmir 397, 631, 637, 641; as democratic and secular republic 629, 638–643; and China 632; conflict with Pakistan 631–632, 637, 638, 641; non-alignment in Cold War 632; princes 638; language issue 638–639; political divisions 641, 643, 947; and Russia 632; birth control 640; population 642; and economy 639, 642 Indian Independence League 285 Indian National Congress 392, 393 Indo-China 259, 260, 261, 343; and French empire 385–387; French defeat 388–389; independence 389, 557–558, 601 Indonesia 273, 383–385, 593–597 INF Treaty (1987) 819, 835 Inkatha Freedom Party 769, 770, 771 International Brigades 180, 219 International Monetary Fund (IMF) 331–332, 728, 745, 761 intifada 910, 917 Iqbal, Mohammed 938 Iran 364, 418, 425, 492, 938, 939–940; and Second World War 425; oil 364; Kurds in 418; overthrow of Shah 463–465; modernisation 463; Western support 492; revolution 463–466; Islamic Republic 911, 913, 940; American hostages 466, 796, 911; war with Iraq 913–916 Iran-Contra affair 820, 912 Iraq 124, 279, 418, 423; Kurds in 424, 911, 915; Shias, 915–916; and Gulf War 911–916; and Second World War 424; coup 424, 439; and Arab-Israeli war 435–437; break with West 455; and Baghdad Pact 455; joins Jordanian-Egyptian pact 460; war with Iran 911–913; and UN 930–931; second Iraq war (2003) 933–935; postwar 934–935 Ireland 135 Irgun Zwai Leumi 433, 435–437 Irish Republican Army (IRA) 135, 851, 852 Ironsi, Aguiyi 733 Islamic Jihad 916 Israel 420, 453; creation of 434–437; terrorism 433–434; conflict with Arabs 444, 456; raids on Jordan 444; and Suez crisis 446–452; post-war development 455–458; immigrants to 455–456; population growth 456; as a democracy 457; invasion of Lebanon 905; and Six-Day War 457–459; and Yom Kippur War 461–462; and Palestinian question 935–937; peace INDEX negotiations with Egypt 462, 906–907; air strike against Iraq’s nuclear facility 908; and Gulf War 911; and PLO 908–911, 917 Italy 27–28, 29; and First World War 96, 99, 112, 123; parliamentary system 28; emigration from 28; industrialisation 29; population 29; pre-1914 political life 31; war with Turkey 32; imperialism 31, 211–212; dissatisfaction with Versailles 123; rise of fascism 143; parliamentary ‘reform’ 148–149; totalitarian regime 150; and Catholic Church 149–150, 347, 550, 552, 843; and corporate state 150; invasion of Abyssinia 211–212, 223; and Spanish Civil War 217; Pact of Steel with Germany 234; as possible mediator in Second World War 247; enters war 250, 258; pact with Germany and Japan 260; protection of Jews 269; war casualties 275; surrender 288, 290; peace settlement 346, 348–349; post-war problems 345–349; communists in 547–549; anti-fascist coalition 547; reconstruction 348–349; loss of colonies 349; and NATO 374, 497, 549; democracy in 547–550, 846; and EEC 553, 846, 876; American aid 549; foreign policy 550; political conflict 550–552; reforms 551, 847; economy 552–553, 845; unrest 843; terrorism 844, 846; corruption 844–848; and ERM 846; and monetary union 847 Ito Hirobumi 81 Ivory Coast 727 Izetbegovic, Alija 920 Izvolski, Alexander 47 Jackson Jesse 820 Jakesˇ, Milos 690, 691 Japan: alliance with Britain 6, 195; growing power 12; war with Russia 43, 82–83, 195; demands on China 83–84, 96, 258; and Manchuria 84, 195, 197, 199–200; opening to West 80–82, 258; emergence as world power 81–82; government system 81–82; position of Emperor 83; Meiji Restoration 80–81; war with China 1, 81–82, 198–200, 202–203, 255–262; and First World War 83–84, 124; Taisho era 84; post-war unrest 84; naval limitation 84, 141–142, 195, 196; predominance over China 195, 255; withdrawal from Siberia and China 200; political disintegration 198–199; coprosperity sphere 258, 261, 271–273; leaves League 202; army revolt 199; pacts with Germany and Italy 258; attitude to America 258–262; countdown to war 261–262; attack on Pearl Harbor 262; Pacific War 271–274; atomic bombing of 304; surrender 305; American occupation 359–362, 644; constitutional reforms 360; in Malaya and Indonesia 381, 383; in Vietnam 386; and Korea 361, 406; bureaucracy 644; financial institutions 645; student protest 646; rehabilitation 647; peace treaty 647; relationship with America 647–648, 655–656; foreign policy 648, 651, 652, 656; economy 361, 645–646, 649–650, 654; corruption 651, 652–653; politics 645, 650–651, 653, 654, 946 Jarrow hunger marchers 160 Jaruzelski, General 781, 890–891 Jewish National Home 109, 427, 428, 429 Jiang Quing 612–613, 619 Jiang Zemin 627 Jiménez, Carlos Pérez 704 Jinnah, Muhammad Ali 394, 395–396, 630 Jintao Hu 946 Joffre, General Joseph 89, 98 John XXIII, Pope 552 John Paul I, Pope 683 John Paul II, Pope 685, 728, 780, 889, 957 Johnson, Lyndon B 560, 562, 577; and Vietnam 583–586; and civil rights 578, 581; Great Society programme 582–583, 789, 792 985 Jordan 439, 942; Israeli raids on 444, 447; Egyptian pressure on 446, 457; defensive alliance with Britain against Israel 448; and Six-Day War 457–459 Joseph, Sir keith 854 Jospin, Lionel 871–872 Juan Carlos I of Spain 879 Jung, Kim Dae 662 Jutland, battle of (1916) 112 Kabila, Laurent 741 Kádár, János 479–480, 893 Kadet party, Russia Kaganovich, I M 472 Kaifu, Toshiki 652–653 Kamenev, Lev 170 Kampuchea (formerly Cambodia, q.v.) 599–600 Kanemaru, Shin 653 Kapp, Wolfgang 130 Karadzˇic´, Radovan 920 Karamanlis, Constantine 878 Karamanlis, Costas 879 Karzai, Hamid 930, 948 Kasavubu, Joseph 739 Kashmir 397, 631, 637, 638, 641, 947 Kassem, General Abdel 455 Katanga 739–740 Katyn 264, 284 Kaunda, Kenneth 756, 757 Keating, Paul 672 Kemal Ataturk 124, 420–421 Kennan, George 362, 363–364 Kennedy, Edward 693 Kennedy, John F 561; electoral theme 560; domestic policies 561; and civil rights 560, 579–580; and threat of communism 561; and Vietnam 562–564; and Bay of Pigs disaster 564–565; meeting with Khrushchev 483; and missile crisis 567–574; assassination 577; Alliance for Progress 565, 681, 690, 706 Kennedy, Robert 569, 570, 572, 580; assassination 585 Kent State University 791 Kenya 539, 745–747 Kenyatta, Jomo 746–747 Kerensky, Alexander 105, 108, 112, 121 Kerr, Sir John 670 Keynes, John Maynard 120, 160, 164, 333 986 INDEX Khan, Ayub, 633 Khan, Reza 425 Khasbulatov, Ruslan 810 Khatami, Muhammad 939 Khmer Rouge 589, 600, 589, 590 Khomeini, Ayatollah 421, 463, 465–466, 911, 912, 913 Khrushchev, Nikita: criticism of Stalin 179, 320; arms deal with Nasser 445; economic policies 472–473, 474; internal power struggle 472, 475, 575; foreign travels 475; ‘secret speech’ 476; foreign policy 475, 476, 478–480, 483–485, 561, 568–573; fall of 481; dismantling of terror regime 481; decentralisation 482; and Cuba crisis 484, 568–573; and German question 499–500, 565; and U-2 incident 499; and Third World 566; support for ‘national liberation’ struggles 561, 583; meeting with Kennedy 483; breach with Mao 618 Kibaki, Mwai 747 Kiesinger, Kurt Georg 513 Kikuyu 746 Kim Dae-Jung 659, 662 Kim Il Sung 406, 408, 658, 659 Kim, Jong Il (dear leader) 661, 662 Kim Young 661, 662 King, Mackenzie 375 King, Martin Luther 490, 579–581 Kinnock, Neil 859, 860 Kirchener, Néstar 949 Kirov, Sergei 176 Kishi, Nobusuke 651 Kissinger, Henry 585; working for Arab-Israeli peace 461–462, 793, 905; and Vietnam 605; détente with China and Soviet 618–619, 792; as national security 792; secretary of state 793; and ‘shuttle diplomacy’ 793, 905; and Chile 690–691 Kitchener, Lord 91 Klaus, Vaclav 691 Knowland, William 487 Kohl, Helmut 835–839, 841, 901, 902 Koizumi, Junishiro 655–656, 946 Kolchak, Admiral Aleksandr Vasilievich 122 Konoe, Prince Fumimaro 255, 258, 261 Korea 405; American and Russian occupation 406; partition 407; idea of reunification 659; see also North Korea; South Korea Korean War 408–413, 491 Kornilov, General Lavr G 105 Kosovo 863 Kosygin, Alexei 632, 784 Krenz, Egon 901 Krim, Belkachem 525 ‘Kristallnacht’ 225 Kronstadt 106; mutiny (1921) 170 Krupp, Alfried 309 Kryuchkov, Vladimir 806 Krzaklewski, Marian 892–893 Kubitschek, Juscelino 700–701 Kuomintang (Chinese Nationalist Party) 75–77 Kurds 418, 421, 915 Kuron´, Jacek 780 Kursk 289 Kuwait 462; Iraqi invasion 821; and Gulf War 821, 913–916 Kwasniewski, Aleksander 892 Kyi, Aung Suu 593 Kyoto Treaty 929, 948 Laden, Osama bin 929, 930 Lambsdorff, Count Otto 836 Lamont, Norman 859 Lancaster House Conference (1979) 758 Land Apportionment Act (1931) 754 Landsbergis, Vytautas 806 Lange, David 677 Lansdale, General Edward 568 Lansing, Robert 110 Laos 491, 557, 558–559, 563; population 600 Lateran Accords 149 Lattre de Tassigny, General Jean de 388 Latvia 121, 293, 320; independence movement 801, 802, 804, 821; and European Union 952 Lausanne Treaty (1923) 124, 421 Laval, Pierre 208, 211, 339 Law, Andrew Bonar 134 Lawson, Nigel 857 Le Duc Tho 790 Le Pen, Jean-Marie 868, 869 League of Nations 110; establishment of 124; American repudiation of 124–125; German admission to 132; Italian defiance of 150; Russia joins 179; failure with Manchuria 195, 202; Japan leaves 202; Germany leaves 207; and sanctions 207; and Africa 211 Lebanon 279, 419; France and 426; and Second World War 426; and Arab-Israeli war 435–437; civil war 439, 904, 905; Israeli invasion 905, 908; American intervention 498, 818; terrorism 904 Lebrun, Albert 157 Lee Kuan Yew 567, 597, 657–658 Lee Teng-hui 628, 656 Lend-lease 252, 278, 328 Lenin, V I 100–103, 105, 108, 121; return from exile 106; and October Revolution 106; and peace with Germans 108; use of terror 169; pressure of peasants 169; insistence on one-party state 170; New Economic Policy 170; his treatment 171 Leningrad siege of (1941–44) 282 Leo XIII, Pope 30 Leopold, King of the Belgians 250 Lesotho 764 Lewinsky, Monica 825 Lewis, John L 354 Leyte Gulf, battle of (1944) 303 Li Peng 622, 623 Liberation theology 683–684 Liberia 735–737 Libya 278, 420, 942; oil 752–753; independence 749; as Arab welfare state 753; support for terrorists 753; American attack on 749 Lichtenstein 876 Lidice 271 Liebknecht, Karl 116, 128 Ligachev, Yegor 800, 802, 803 Lin Biao 611, 617 Lithuania 121, 293, 320; independence movement 801, 802, 804, 821; and European Union 952 Little Rock 489 Litvinov, Maxim 179 Liu Shaoqui 608, 609, 611, 613, 614 INDEX Lloyd, Selwyn 447, 448 Lloyd George, David 4; and First World War 91, 112; and peace 114, 117, 120, 134, 160; and Ireland 134–135 Locarno Treaties (1925) 131, 138–139; repudiated by Hitler 210 Lodge, Henry Cabot 69, 604 Lon Nol 599 London, Treaty of (1915) 96 London Conference: (1948) 369; (1954) 543; (1956) 447 London Foreign Ministers’ Conference (1947) 369; (1954) 543 Long March 77–78, 200 Lübke, Heinrich 317 Ludendorff, General Erich von 89, 92, 112–113, 114, 187 Lueger, Karl 49 Lugard, Frederick 729 Lumumba, Patrice 739–740 Lusitania, s.s 93 Lüttwitz, General Wather Freiherr von 130 Luxembourg 246; in Benelux 371; in NATO 374; in EC 521 Luxembourg Compromise (1966) 874 Luxemburg, Rosa 116, 128 Lytton, Lord 202 Maastricht Treaty (1992) 877 MacArthur, General Douglas 285, 303, 380, 387; occupation of Japan 359–362; and Korean War 409–411 McCarthy, Eugene 585 McCarthy, Joseph 413–414, 404, 488 MacDonald, Ramsay 160, 161, 209, 211 Macedonia 925 Machel, Samora 774 Maclean, Donald 413 McMahon, William 669 Macmillan, Harold 446, 451–452; housing success 537; as prime minister 537, 543–546; and decolonisation 539–540, 546, 756; ‘never had it so good’ 542; as world statesman 574–575; ‘wind of change’ 539, 756; illness and resignation 546 McNamara, Robert 562, 563, 568, 574, 583 MAD (mutual assured destruction) 574, 783, 795 Maginot line 206, 245 Mahan, Captain A T 713 Mahathir Mohamad 598, 947 Maier, Reinhold 317 Maizière, Lothar de 902 Major, John 858, 859–861 Makarios, Archbishop 539 Malan, Daniel F 764 Malawi 539, 760–761 Malaya 285, 380–383, 594; after independence 383, 539, 597–598; Japanese attack on 285 Malaysia 597–598, 947 Malcolm X 581 Malenkov, Georgi 472–473 Maleter, Pal 480 Mali 729 Malta 248, 450; and European Union 952 Malthus, Thomas 11 Manchuria 195, 197, 199–200; Japanese occupation 84, 195, 197, 199–200, 273; Russian predominance 304, 402–403; Red Army leaves 358 Mandela, Nelson 766, 767, 769–771 Mann, Thomas 191 Manning, Preston 828 Mao Zedong 77, 358, 398, 607, 616; rebuilding of communist movement 399–401, 608; victory in civil war 401–404; transformation of China 401–402; relationship with Russia 402–403, 609, 612; expulsion of Western capitalists 404; claim to Taiwan 610; and Korean War 404, 411, 600; assault on offshore islands 498; use of terror 607, 608, 614–615; redistribution of land 608; collectivisation 609; Great Leap Forward 610; Little Red Book 611; breach with Khrushchev 612; Cultural Revolution 612–613; last years of autocrat 617; attempt to curb army 613; change in foreign policy 618–619 Maoris 674–675 Marchais, Georges 867 Marco Polo Bridge 256 Marne, battle of (1914) 91 987 Marshall, General George 357, 362, 365–368 Marshall Aid 337, 348, 367–368, 520 Martin, Paul 948 Martinez, Tomás Borge 712 Masaryk, Jan 326, 370 Massu, General Jacques 526 Masurian Lakes, battle of (1914) 89 Matsu 398, 492 Matsuoka, Yosuke 196, 255–256, 258–259 Matteotti, Giacomo 148 Mau Mau 539, 746–747 Maudling, Reginald 546 Mauritania 728 Mauroy Pierre 867 May the Fourth Movement 398–399 Mazowiecki, Tadeusz 891, 892 Mbeki, Thabo 772, 949 Mboya, Tom 746 Mecˇiar, Vladimír 894, 895 Medellin 682, 683 Meech Lake Accord (1987) 827 Megawati, Sukarnoputri 596 Meiji Restoration (1868) 80 Meir, Golda 448, 456, 905 Mella, Fernando Collor de 701 Mellon, Andrew 140 Memel 234 Menderes, Adnan 882 Mendes-France, Pierre 524, 525 Menem, Carlos Saul 698 Mengistu, Haile 749 Menzies, Robert 669 Mercosur 702 Mers-el-Kebir 251 Mesopotamia 96 Messina Conference (1955) 521 Messmer, Pierre 865 Mexico 948; population 685; revolution and after 719–720, 948; and NAFTA 823 Michael, King of Romania 323 Midway Island 296 Mihailovic, Draza 270 Miki, Takeo 651 Mikoyan, Anastas 472, 569 Mikolajczyk, Stanislav 322 Millerand, Alexandre 139 Milosˇevic´, Slobodan 899, 920–921, 923, 924, 925–926 missile crisis (Cuba, 1962) 567–574 Mitsotakis, Konstantinos 878 988 INDEX Mitterand, Franỗois 525, 865, 867870 Mizazawa, Kiichi 653 Mladic, Ratko 923 Mobutu, Sese Seko 739–740 Modrow, Hans 901 Mogadishu 751 Moi, Daniel arap 747 Mola, General Emilio 216, 217 Moldavia 321, 349 Mollet, Guy 447 Molotov, V M 254, 298, 356, 367 Moltke, General Helmuth von 56 Mongolia 180, 253 Monnet, Jean 342–343, 508, 515 Monnet Plan 343, 515–516 Montagu, Edwin 392 Montagu-Chelmsford report (1918) 392 Monte Bello Island 537 Montenegro 46–47, 919 Montgomery, General Bernard 279, 291 Morales, Villeda 708 Morgenthau, Henry 260, 292 Morgenthau Plan 312 Morley-Minto reforms (1909) 292 Moro, Aldo 844 Morocco: French and German rivalry over 26–27; AngloFrench agreement 26; Spanish army defeats 217; independence 515, 524 Morrison, Herbert 329, 330 Mosley, Oswald 160 Mossadeq, Mohammed 440, 462 Mountbatten, Lord 303, 329, 395–396, 629 Moyne, Lord 335 Mozambique 774 MPLA (Popular Movement for Liberation) 773 Mubarak, Hosni 908, 916, 942 Mugabe, Robert 755, 758–760, 950 Muhammad, Elijah 581 Muhammad Ali 581 Mujibur Rahman, Sheikh 633, 634 Mukden 199 Muldoon, Robert 676 Mulroney, Brian 827 Munich Conference (1938) 180, 232; Olympics murder (1972) 904 Museveni, Yoweri 742–743 Musharraf, General Pervez 637, 947 Muslim Brotherhood 441, 443 Mussolini, Benito 145–50, 345; march on Rome 147; creation of totalitarian state 150; reduction of power of Church 149; invasion of Abyssinia 211–212; and Four-Power Treaty 206; relations with Hitler 208, 211, 227; and Austria 208–209; support for Franco 217; at Munich 232; reluctance to go to war 235; as possible mediator 247–248; enters war 250; antiJewish legislation 269; overthrow and death 288 Muzorewa, Bishop Abel 757, 758 Mwinyi, Ali Hassan 745 Myanmar (formerly Burma, q.v.) 594, 948 NAFTA (North American Free Trade Agreement) 948 Nagasaki 304 Nagorno-Karabakh 803 Nagumo Admiral Osami 261 Nagy, Imre 480, 893 Nakasone, Yasuhiro 652 Namibia 772, 773–774 Nanking 256 Nassau Agreement (1962) 538, 575 Nasser, Gamal Abdel 440–441; rise to power 441; and Suez 442–446; 455; Western appeasement of 441; bid for Pan-Arab leadership 457; arms deal with Russia 445; changed Western attitude to 445–446; and Six-Day War 457–459; death 459 National Association for the Advancement of Coloured People 489 Native Land Acts (South Africa, 1913, 1936) 764 NATO (North Atlantic Treaty Organisation): founding of 371, 374, 375, 490, 518; military forces 486, 490, 511; as defensive alliance 497, 498, 499; West German membership 543, 499; French pressure for changes 532; nuclear structure 538; Italian membership 548, 549, 550; ‘dual track’ decision 835; changing functions 951; Turkish membership 442, 882, 883; Polish membership 892; Czech membership 892; Hungary membership 892; and Yugoslavia 921–924 Nazi–Soviet Pact (1939) 235, 242, 253 Ne Win, General 589, 592–593 Negrin, Dr Juan 218 Neguib, General Mohammed 441 Nehru, Jawaharlal 391, 394, 395, 631–640; as first prime minister of India 396–397, 638–640; non-alignment policy 632; and Kashmir 631–632; language issue 638; socialist vision 639, 642 Nenni, Pietro 347, 548, 552 Netanyahu, Binyamin 916 Netherlands 246, 371; Jews in 269; in Benelux 371; in NATO 374; and Indonesia 383–385; and oil market 417; in EC 521 Netherlands East Indies – see Dutch East Indies Neurath, Konstantin von 227 Neutrality Laws, American 252 New Deal (USA) 164–167 New Forum (East Germany) 901–902 New Guinea 594, 667 New Zealand 258, 673–678; votes for women 673; and Vietnam war 601; American protection of 676; precursor of welfare state 673; and social welfare 675; and Maoris 674–675; economy 674, 676; turn away from welfare state 677–678 Ngo Dinh Diem 389, 557–558, 562, 603, 604 Ngo Dinh Nhu 558, 562 Nguyen Van Thieu 791 Nicaragua 707, 710–713, 819; civil war 712; population 707; as Marxist state 712–713 Nicholas II, Tsar of Russia 42, 44, 46; and First World War 56, 57, 97, 103; abdication 105; murder 121 Niemöller, Martin 225 Niger 728 Niger Company 725 Nigeria 729–733; civil war 733, 950 Night of the Long Knives (Germany 1934) 192 INDEX Nimitz, Admiral Chester 303 Nine-Power Treaty (1922) 195 Nivelle, General Robert Georges 111 Nixon, Richard 461, 560, 573, 783, 789–793; and Vietnam 790–792; China policy 618–619, 791; dollar devaluation 651; and Chile 690; global strategy 791; Watergate 791, 792–793; resignation 793 Nkomo, Joshua 755, 756, 758, 759 Nkrumah, Kwame 722, 731 Nkumbula, Henry 756 Nobusuke, Kishi 651 Nomura, Admiral Kichisaburo 260, 261 Noriega, General Manuel 714, 821 North, Oliver 820 North American Free Trade Agreement (NAFTA) 823, 948 North Korea 406, 408, 658, 659, 661; and nuclear bomb 661, 947 North Vietnam 601–606 Northern Ireland 134–135, 140, 851, 955 Northern Rhodesia (now Zambia) 539, 756–757 Norway: in Second World War 243–244, 245; in NATO 374; in EFTA 876; rejects EU 877 Nuclear spread 576 Nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty (1970) 574, 791 Nuclear Test Ban Treaty (1963) 574 Nuclear spread of weapons 954 Nujoma, Sam 773–774 Nuremberg laws 224 Nuremberg trials (1945–6) 314 Nuries-Said 432, 439 Nyasaland (now Malawi) 755 Nyerere, Julius 744–745 OAU (Organisation of African Unity) 722, 742 Obasanjo, Abacha 735 Obasanjo, Olusegum 950 Obote, Milton 742 Obucho, Keizo 655 Ochab, Edward 478 October Manifesto (1905) 44 Odinga, Oginga 746–747 Oil, Middle East 417, 425, 462, 464 Ojukwu, Odumegwu 733–734 Okinawa 303, 648 Ollenhauer, Erich 510 Olympic Games: (1936) 212 OPEC (Organisation of Petroleum Exporting Countries) 716 Operation Ajax 492 Operation Barbarossa 254 Operation Gladio 549 Operation Mongoose 568, 569 Operation Musketeer 447, 448 Operation Rolling Thunder 602 Operation Sea Lion 251 Operation Torch 279, 288 Opium Wars 74 Oradour-sur-Glane 271 Orbán, Victor 894 Organisation of American States 575 Organisation for European Economic Co-operation (OECC) 368, 520 Ormsby-Gore, David 571 Ortega, Daniel 712–713 Ortega, Humberto 712–713 Osirak reactor 908 Oslo Agreement 916 Oswald, Lee Harvey 577 Ottawa Agreement (1932) 162, 332 Ottoman Empire 5, 7, 32, 38, 93; dissolution 109, 123, 124 Ouku, Robert 747 Owen, Lord David 919 Owens, Jesse 212 Özal, Turgut 882 Pact of Steel (1939) 235 Pahlevi, Reza, Shah of Iran 440, 463–465, 911–912 Pakistan 394, 629; creation of 395–397; and Kashmir 397, 631, 632, 637, 638, 641; authoritarian military rule 629, 947; division of 630; constitution 631–634; American aid 631, 947; conflict with India 631–632, 637, 638, 641, 948; economy 632; political conflict corruption 633–634, 947; East Pakistan and Bangladesh 634; military coup 634; and Russia 632; nuclear weapons 635; and political development 636–637 Paléologue, Maurice 57 989 Palestine 124, 421, 423; as Jewish National Home 123; Jewish immigration to 266, 426–430; and terrorism 335; British mandate 426–430; Zionist and 427; Arab hostility 428–430; and Second World War 278; partition 434; British withdrawal 335, 434 Palestine Liberation Organisation (PLO) 458, 904, 905, 908–909, 916, 917, 935–937 Pallocci, Antonio 703 Pan Am Flight 103 753, 904 Panama 713 Panama Canal 713, 821 Panama Canal Treaty (1977) 714 Panay, USS 256 Panmunjon 490 Papagos, Field-Marshal Alexander 878 Papandreou, Andreas 878, 879 Papandreou, George 878 Papen, Franz von 188, 189, 190, 192 Papua New Guinea 670 Paraguay 682 Paris Agreements (1954) 510 Paris Peace Conference (1919) 77, 114–132 Paris summit (1960) 499 Park Chung Hee 659 Parks, Rosa 490 Pasˇic´, Nikola 54 Passchendaele 111 Pasternak, Boris 482 Patel, Sardar 638 Pathet Lao 559 Pauker, Anna 323 Paulus, Field-Marshal Friedrick von 283 Pavlov, Valentin 806 Pearl Harbor 262 Pearson, Lester B 376 Peel Report (1937) 430 Pen, Jean-Marie le 868, 870, 872 Penkovsky, Oleg 570 Peres, Shimon 910 Pérez de Cuellar, Javier 710 Perkins, Frances 167 Perón, Evita 696 Perón Juan 696 Perot, Ross 822 Pershing, General John 111 Perishing missiles 818 Persia (now Iran, q.v.) 279, 422, 424–425 990 INDEX Peru 682, 686–688 Pétain, Marshal 99, 111, 246; and Vichy 289, 338–339 Pfimlin, Pierre 526 Philby, Kim 413 Philippines 275, 285, 947; independent republic 380; Japanese capture of 380; Japanese defeat 380; American control 380; Huk activities 380–381; alliance with America 381, 589, 647 Phoumi Nosavan, General 559 Pieck, Wilhelm 316 Pineau, Franỗois 447 Pinochet Ugarte, Augusto 692694 Pius XI, Pope 150 Pius XII, Pope 149–150 Pleven, René 509, 519 Pleven Plan 519, 543 Podgorny, Nicolai 784 Poincaré, Raymond 91, 138, 140, 156–157; support for Russia 57 Poindexter, John M 820 Pol Pot 599–600 Poland: gains from Versailles 118, 123; population 118; independence 122; war with Russia 133; treaties with France and Germany 138; nonaggression pacts with Germany 207; British and French guarantees 233; approach to war 234–239; German invasion 239; alliance with Britain; Russian invasion 242; defeat in Second World War 241–242; under German and Russian occupation 265–266, 284; massacre of Jews 266–270 unsuccessful rising 289 question of future 271, 284, 285, 293–296; communistdominated government 321, 322–323, 477; expulsion of Germans 310; road to socialism 323, 477; Catholic Church in 323, 477; reforms 478; purge of Stalinists 479; industrial union 780, 781; treaty with West Germany 833; resistance to communism 780–781; and economic and political change 892; and NATO 892; and European Union 893, 952 ‘Polish corridor’ 118 Polish-German Treaty (1970) 833 Pompidou, Georges 529, 533, 864–865 Popieluszko, Father Jerzy 891 Popov, Gavriil 804 Popular Front for the Liberation of Palestine 904 Portsmouth, Peace of (1995) 69 Portugal 374; decolonisation 772–773; and EEC 877, 881; transition to democracy 891–882 Potsdam Conference (1945) 298–303 POUM (Partido Obrero de Unificación Marxista) 218 Powell, Colin 928, 929, 932 Powell, Enoch 541 Pozsgay, Imre 893–894 ‘Prague Spring’ (1968) 780 Princip, Gavrilo 55 Prodi, Romano 847–848 Profumo, John 546 Prohibition 141, 166 Public Works Administration (America) 166 Pugo, Boris 806 Punjab 630, 634, 641 Putin, Vladimir 812–813, 951 Quayle, Dan 820 Quebec 532, 827–828 Quebec Conference (1944) 292 Quemoy 398, 492 Rabin, General Yizhak 457, 905, 911, 916 Raffarin, Jean-Pierre 872–873 Rafsanjani, Hojatoleslam 913 Rahman, Abdul 597 Rajk, Laszla 483 Rákosi, Mátyás 324, 481 Rapallo Treaty (1922) 133, 168 Rasputin, Grigori 103 Rassemblement du Peuple Franỗais (RPF) 342 Rath, Ernst vom 224 Rathenau, Walter 92, 130 Rawlings, Jerry 732 Reagan, Ronald 814; nuclear missile agreement 819; economic policies 815–817; popularity 814, 817; foreign policy 817–820; attitude to communism 817; and arms control 817, 818, 819; and Irangate 820 Reconstruction Finance Corporation 164 Recruit scandal (1988), Japan 652 Red Brigades 844 Red Guards 613, 614, 616–617, 621 Reichstag Fire 190 reparations: after First World War 120, 130, 131, 137, 138, 142, 153, 157, 188; after Second World War 300–301, 312–313 Reuter, Ernst 373 Reykjavik summit (1986) 801, 819 Reynaud, Paul 246 Reza Shah Pahlavi, Shah of Iran 425 Rhee, Syngman 406, 491, 659 Rhineland: Allied evacuation of 139; German remilitarisation 211, 212 Rhodes, Cecil 754 Rhodesia (now Zimbabwe, q.v.) 540, 754–759 Ribbentrop, Joachim 222, 227, 237 Ridgway, General Mathew 412 Rivera, Diego 715 Rivera, José Antonio de 215 Rivera, Primo de 214, 216 ‘Road Map’ (Palestine-Israel 2003) 936–937 Robertson, General Sir William 98 Robles, Gil 215 Rocard, Michel 867 Rogers, William 790 Roh, M Hyun 946 Roh, Tae Woo 659, 662, 663 Röhm, Ernst 192 Rokossowski, Marshal Konstanty 477 Roman, Petre 897 Romania: and Balkan wars 46–47; and First World War 92, 96; guarantees March 1939 233; and Second World War 242, 254, 280, 291; post-war frontiers 321; communist rule 322, 323, 324, 895–896; Western support 896; revolution (1989) 890, 895, 896–897and post revolution 897–898 Rome, Fascist march on (1922) 147 Rome, Treaty of (1957) 523, 874 Romero, Archbishop Oscar 684–685, 710 Rommel, Erwin 279 INDEX Roosevelt, Franklin D 164–170; New Deal 164–167; establishes diplomatic relations with Russia 179; and Japan 197, 255–262; and aid to Britain 252; ‘Quarantine’ speech 258; economic sanctions 258, 260; Pacific policy 285; favours assault on France 288; at Teheran 284; pro-Chinese 286; and ‘unconditional surrender’ 287; attitude to De Gaulle 289; and post-war frontiers 293–295; hopes for United Nations 292; and Lend-Lease 252; at Yalta 285, 292–293; and Germans 314; death of 296; postwar vision 356 Roosevelt, Theodore 68–70, 714 Rostow, Walt 562, 563 Rotterdam 246 Rua, Fernando 698 Rudman, Walter 816 Ruhr 118, 130; French occupation of 130, 138; French attempt to detach from 343; Germany 343, 518; international control of 526 Rumsfeld, Donald 928 Runciman, Lord 231 Rushdie, Salmon 913 Rusk, Dean 562, 563, 567, 574 Russia Empire and First World War (1900–1918) and Asia 46–47; alliance with France 26; and First World War 57–59, 89, 92, 95–9, 100–108; communist revolution 101–108, 120–122; defeat by Japan 46; policy in Balkans 42, 46, 97; population 41; antiSemitism 44; peasantry 45–46; unrest and repression 43; October Manifesto (1905) 44; Duma 44–45, 104; provisional government 121; outbreak of civil war 122 Soviet Union (1918–1941) war with Poland 133; state planning 175–176; Western famine relief 169; war communism 169; supremacy of party 169; peasantry 170–171; terror 178; New Economic Policy 174–175; purges 178–179; industrial transformation 175–176; collectivisation 174–177; foreign policy 179–180; distorted views of West 179; joins League 179; non-aggression treaties 179; pact with Germany 180; and Spanish Civil War 218; Anglo-French negotiations with 233; invasion of Poland 242; as German ally 253–254 Second World War (1941–1945) German invasion of and war 254, 279–283, 284–285, 297–298; alliance with Britian 284; Japanese attitude to 260; mass murder 284; territorial ambitions 284–285; declares war on Japan 305; and post-war frontiers 291–295, 319–326, 362; and peace treaty with Japan 647; and United Nations 298–299; 357 Postwar relations with rest of the world (1945-) 775–777 Iron Curtain 298, 334; atomic research 363; and occupied Germany 315–316, 363, 371, 472–475; and Cold War 367, 371, 469–470, 491–495, 795–796; and reparations 300, 363; expanding empire 319–327, 343, 363, 471; and China 363, 365, 403, 484, 566, 782; and Middle East 431, 434, 451, 455, 475, 781–782, 903; Eastern Europe 321–327, 471, 477–483, 779–781, 890–899; and Berlin crisis 373–374, 473, 483; withdrawal from Control Council 371; and Korea 406, 411–412; refusal to attend Security Council meetings 409; and West Germany 511, 781, 900–901; and Warsaw Pact 780; repression of Hungarian rising 479–480, 780; and Cuba 484, 991 567–573, 782; and East Germany 495, 781, 902; as Asian peacemaker 632; invasion of Afghanistan 781, 818; and Africa 749; new détente with America 818–819; nuclear missile agreement 783, 817; arms control 817 political, economic and social developments (1945–) post-war rebuilding the country 319–321, 470; terror and coercion 788; post-Stalin collective leadership 472–473; release of political prisoners 481, 808; economy 784–788, 810, 811; final phases of authoritarian rule 779–780; reforms 784; Jews 788; state and party structures 810–812, 949, 951; break up of Union 808; Commonwealth of Independent States 808 Russian Federation 813 Russo-Japanese War (1904–5) 43, 82 Rwanda 741, 743; and massacres 743–744 Rykov, Aleksei 170, 172, 176 Ryzhkov, Nikolai 805 Saarland 520; returns to Germany (1935) 210; rejoins West Germany (1957) 509 Sacco, Nicola 141 Sadat, Anwar 461, 906, 907–908, 938 Sagawa scandal (1988), Japan 353 St Laurent, Louis 376 St Valentine’s Day massacre (1929) 141 Sakharov, Andrei 803 Salan, General Raoul 526 Salandra, Antonio 96 Salazar, António de Oliviera 881 Salinas de Gortari, Carlos 716, 717 Salisbury, Robert Cecil, third Marquess of 6, 391 Salonika 94 SALT I 783 SALT II 795, 817 Samuel Commission (1925) 136 Sanchez, Arias 708, 712, 713 992 INDEX San Francisco Conference (1945) 298, 357 Sanders, Liman von 47 Sandino, Augusto Cesar 711 Sanjurjo, General José 216 Saragat, Giuseppe 347, 548 Sarajevo 54, 921 Sarcozy, Nicholas 873 Sarney, José 701 Saro-Wiwa, Ken 735 Sato Eisaku 651 Saudi Arabia 123, 444, 453, 938, 941–942 Savage, Michael Joseph 438, 675 Savimbi, Dr Jonas 773 Saw Maung, General 593 Sazonov, Sergei 47, 57, 97 Scali, John 571 Scargill, Arthur 855 Schacht, Hjalmar 156, 193 Scheidemann, Philipp 116 Schleicher, Genral Kurt von 189, 192 Schleyer, Hans Martin 835 Schlieffen, Count Alfred von 21 Schlieffen Plan 21, 59, 61, 89 Schmidt, Helmut 834–835 Schneider, General René 690 Schröder, Gerhard 841–842, 931, 951 Schumacher, Kurt 316–317, 506, 509–510 Schuman, Robert 518 Schuman Plan 511, 520 Schuschnigg, Kurt 227 Schultz, George, 818 Schuster, Robert 895 Schwarzkopf, General Norman 914 Second World War: approach to 232–238; outbreak of 238; early German conquests 242, 244; collapse of France 245–251; submarine warfare 245, 278; mass bombing 246, 247, 251, 263; Mediterranean campaign 252, 278–279, 288–289; Russian campaign 277, 279–283, 297–298; Pacific War 285, 287, 303–305; atomic bomb 274, 300, 304; casualties 263, 264, 274–275; ‘unconditional surrender’ policy 287; Anglo-American invasion of France 289; pilotless bombs 301; final stages 289–291, 297; postwar plans 315–316; reparations 312, 313; refugees 309–310; trials of war criminals 314 Seekt, General Hans von 131, 132 Seme, Pixly Ka Izaka 765 Sendero Luminoso (Shining Path) 688 Senegal 728 Senghor Léopold 728 September 11, 2001, New York terror attack 927 Serbia: and Balkan wars 46–47; and First World War 57; and break-up of Yugoslavia 918–926 Sétif 525 Sèvres, Treaty of (1920) 123, 421 Sèvres talks (1956) 449 Shamir, Yitzhak 910–911 Sharansky, Anatoly 797 Sharit, Nawaz 636 Sharm al-Sheikh 458 Sharon, General Ariel 457, 909, 917, 936–937 Sharpeville massacre (1960) 766 Shastri, Lal Bahadur 640 Shatalin, Stanislav 805 Shatt al-Arab 912 Shevardnadze, Eduard 789, 800 Shidehara, Kijuro 84–85, 100 Shipley, Jenny 678 Shui-bian, Chen 656 Sierra Leone 539, 730 Sihanouk, Prince 599 Sikorski, General Wladyslaw 284 Silva, Cavaỗo 881 Silva, Luis Inàcio Lula da 949 Simitis, Costas 879 Simon, Sir John 210 Sinclair, Keith 675 Singh, Manmohan 948 Singapore 285, 382, 657–658; independence 539; population 594; democracy 657–658 Singh, Vishwanath Pratap 641 Single European Act (1987) 875 Sinn Féin 135 Sinyavsky, Andrei 785 Sithole, Ndabaningi 755, 756, 757 Slovakia 230, 232, 254; and European Union 952 Slovenia 919; and European Union 952 Smith, Ian 540, 756–758, 759 Smith, John 862 Smuts, Jan 764 Snowden, Philip 160 Soares, Mário 881 Solidarity 891 Solzhenitsyn, Alexander 482 Somalia 749, 750–751 Somme battles (1916) 98 Somaza Garcia, General Anastasio 711 Somaza Garcia, Anastasio jr 711 Somoza Garcia, Luis 711 Sorge, Richard 282 Souphanouwong, Prince 559 South Africa 539, 540, 546, 773, 949, 762–773; apartheid 764–765, 767–769; reforms and end of apartheid 770–781 South-East Asian Collective Defence Treaty 497, 559, 583, 595, 599, 631, 647, 676 South Korea 405, 406, 407, 491, 658–663, 946–947 South Vietnam 557–559, 562, 601–606 Southern Rhodesia (now Zimbabwe, q.v.) 539, 754–760 Souvanna Phouma, Prince 559 Soviet Union – see Russia Soviet-German Treaty (1970) 833 Soweto 767–768 Spaak, Paul-Henri 371, 521 Spain: fascism in 213; internal strife 213–219; constitutional conflict 214; second Republic 215; Popular Front 216; army coup 216–217; and EEC 877, 879; constitutional changes 879–880; and monetary union 880 Spanish Civil War 213–219 Spanish–American War (1898) 4, 69–70 Spartacists 116, 128 Speer, Albert 263, 298 Sputnik 495 Srebrenika 921 Sri Lanka 590, 641 Stalin, Josef 105, 121, 163, 171, 253; purges 172, 177–179; state planning 153; Lenin’s criticism of 171; as Lenin’s heir 171; advancement of personal power 171–173; elimination of rivals 171–172; and industrialisation 175; policy of terror 177–178; collectivisation 176; elimination of kulaks 176; foreign policy 179–180; pact with Hitler 180, 235; as Hitler’s military ally 253; unprepared for 254; German invasion 271; and Warsaw rising 289; appeal for ‘second front’ INDEX 283, 288; insistence on 1941 frontiers 284; and Poland 284–285, 293–294; demands in Eastern Europe 291; at Yalta 285, 292–293, 295; and Eastern Europe 470; terms for entering Pacific War 295; at Potsdam 299; distrust of West 299, 469; orders research on atomic bomb 299; and re-education of Germans in Soviet zone 315, 316; and setting-up of German political parties 316; and rebuilding of post-war Russia 319–324, 471; return of terror and coercion 319–320, 471; economic plans 320; fear of nationalism 321; expansion over new territories 321–327; and Cold War 319, 369, 469; and China 412; and Korea 411, 412; death, 320, 471; Khrushchev’s denunciation of 179, 320 Stalingrad 283 ‘Star Wars’ (US Strategic Defence Initiative) 819 Stasi (security police) 840, 900 Stavisky scandal (1934) 157 Steel, David 853 Stern Gang 433 Stevenson, Adlai 486, 487, 571 Stilwell, General Joseph Stimson, Henry 202 Stoiber, Edmund 841 Stolypin, Peter 44, 46 Strasser, Gregor 189 Strasser, Otto 188 Strauss, Franz Joseph 510, 832, 836 Streicher, Julius 188 Stresa Conference (1935) 210 Stresemann, Gustav 131, 138, 183, 185, 204–205 Stroessner, General Alfredo 682 Suárez, Adolfo 880 Suchoka, Hanna 892 Sudan 420, 443, 751–752, 944, 950 Suez Canal 432, 458; crisis (1956) 446–452 Suharto, General 596, 597, 598 Sukarno, Achmad 273, 383–384, 597–598 Sukarnoputri, Megawati 947 Sun Yat-sen 75–77 Sunningdale agreement (1973) 851 Suppression of Communism Act (South Africa, 1950) 765 Suslov, Mikhail 480 Suu Kyi, Aung San 593 Suzman, Helen 763 Suzuki, Admiral 304 SWAPO (South-West Africa People’s Organisation) 773–774 Swaziland 764 Sweden 163–164, 876; and EU 877 Switzerland 876 Sykes–Picot agreement (1916) 109 Syria 423, 439, 453; Six-Day War 457–459, 941; Kurds in 421; France and 425–426; and Second World War 426; and Arab-Israeli war 435–437, 458; military coup 439; and Yom Kippur War 461; and Lebanon 909; and Gulf War 913 Taft, Robert 354, 486, 487 Taft, William Howard 68 Taft-Hartley Act (America, 1947) 355 Tagore, Rabindranath 391 Taiping Rebellion 74 Taisho, Emperor of Japan 84 Taiwan (Formosa) 656, 945; Chiang Kai-shek on 398, 407; and China 407, 618, 627–628; and USA 497, 618, 656 Takeshita, Noboru 652 Taliban 929–930, 947 Tamil Tigers 590 Tanaka, Kakuei 651–652 Tanganyika (now Tanzania) 539, 744–745 Tannenberg, battle of (1914) 89 Tanzania 539, 744 Tardieu, André 761 Tashkent Conference (1966) 632 Taylor, Charles 737 Taylor, General Maxwell 562, 563 Teheran Conference (1943) 284 Tennessee Valley Authority (TVA) 166 terrorism 904 Test Ban Treaty (1963) 574 Tet offensive (Vietnam) 584 Thailand 594, 598–599 Thatcher, Margaret 758, 854–859; and Europe 852, 856, 857, 875, 876; and Falklands 697, 855; policies 854, 855; and Gulf War 914; and Hong Kong 657, 856 993 Thorez, Maurice 158, 339 Tiananmen Square protest 621–623 Tibet 632 Tientsin 258 Timis¸oara 896 Tirpitz, Admiral Alfred von 21, 56 Tisza, Count 56 Tito, Marshall 270, 325 Tagliatti, Palmiro 346, 347, 548, 552 Togo 728 Tojo, General Hideki 261 Tokes, Pastor Laszlo 896 Tokyo earthquake 84 Toledo, Alejaudro 688 Tomsky, Mikhail 172, 176 Tong, Goh Chok 657 Tonkin, Gulf of 583 Torrijos, General Omar 714 Touré, Sékou 728 Transjordan 427, 432, 435–437 Transylvania 96, 897 Trentino 96 Trieste 96 Tripartite Declaration (1950) 443, 445, 452 Tripartite Pact (1940) 260 Tripolitania 752 Trotsky, Leon 170, 172; and Revolution 103, 122 Trudeau, Pierre 827 Truman, Harry S 298, 354–356; seeks Soviet-American understanding 298, 328; Potsdam 299; and use of atomic bomb 299, 305; and Jewish immigration 335; and civil rights 353, 354; and economy 354, 355, 356; strong line towards Russia and communism 337, 372, 413; and United Nations 357; and China 357–359, 407; and aid to Greece 366; commitment to Europe 372, 549; and Cold War 374–375; and Korean War 407–408, 412–413; and McCarthyism 413–414; and Palestine 335, 434 Truman Doctrine 337, 362, 366 Tschombe, Moise 739–740 Tsushima, battle of (1905) 43 Tubman, William 736 Tudjman, Franjo 919 Tunisia 279 Turabi, Hasgan 752 994 INDEX Turkey 46–47, 364, 418, 420, 442; war with Italy 46–47; Armenian atrocities 93; and First World War 93, 96, 99, 109; revolt against peace terms 123, 124; Russian threats to 364–365; modernisation 420; Kurds in 882; rivalry with Greece 537–538, 882, 883; and Cyprus 882; and Baghdad Pact 444; American missiles in 571, 572, 573; and NATO 882, 883; and EC 877, 882, 952–953 Tutu, Archbishop Desmond 772 Twin Towers, New York terror 927, 944 Tzu-hsi, Dowager Empress of China 74 U-2 incidents (1962) 499 U Nu 592–593 U Thant 592 Uganda 539, 741, 742–743 Ukraine 122, 264, 320, 321 Ulbricht, Walter 316, 511, 900 Ulster 40, 134–135, 851–852 Ultra 277 Union Treaty (Russia, 1991) 808 Unita (Angola) 773 United Fruit Company 492, 686 United Kingdom – see Britain United Nations 292, 593, 600, 933; origin of 298–299; Charter 299, 357; and Palestine 434; Russian intransigence 357; and Iran 364; and Korea 407, 409; and Israel 434, 453–454; and Arab-Israeli war 434–437 and Suez 448, 451; and Kashmir 631; and Resolution 459, 461; and Vietnam 557; and Kampuchea 600; and Africa 739–740, 743–744, 751, 773; and Cyprus 874; and Yugoslav conflict 919–920; resolutions on Iraq and Israel 917; and Gulf War 913–916; and second Iraq war 931–932; reforms 933, 953 United Nations Relief and Rehabilitation Administration (UNRRA) 319, 348, 355 United States of America foreign relations emergence as world power 4, 65–72; imperialism 69–70, 195; special relationship with China 72, 195, 196; and Pacific 70–72, 197, 272–275, 285–287, 303–305 First World War 94–95, 110 and peace treaty 114, 116–126; repudiates Treaty of Guarantee and League of Nations 118, 124–125 inter-war years 140–142; disarmament 141; ‘America first’ 142, 929; reparations 138, 142, 155, 164, 184, 188; establishes diplomatic relations with the Soviet Union (1933) 179; Open Door policy 195; approach of war with Japan 256–262 Second World War 252–253, 262–263, 273–274, 279, 284–305; Lend-Lease 252, 278, 355–356, 332–333; aid to Russia 261; casualties 275; atomic research 277, 299, 304; black servicemen 280; post war frontiers 284–285, 291–292, 293, 295, 548; and United Nations Charter 298–299, 301, 357; and occupied Germany 312–313, 363, 372–373; withdrawal of armed forces from Europe 356; Berlin blockade 371–374 and economic reconstruction 520; as world’s banker 355, 366–367; and United Nations 357; occupation of Japan 359–362, 647; and China 356, 357–359, 491–492, 538, 618–619; aim to combat communism in Asia 380–381, 388, 494, 496, 500, 557–560, 562–563, 647 confrontation with the Soviet Union 362–368, 373–374, 567–576; economic aid to Europe 366–368; and future of Germany 371–376; reappraisal of policies (1947) 374; and NATO 374, 543; relationship with Canada 375, 823; decolonisation 380, 381; and Vietnam 388–389, 557–559, 583–586, 601–606, 791–792; and Korea 406–414, 491, 928; and Middle East 364, 443–452, 455, 457–459, 461, 825–826, 928, 929–936; and Latin America 565, 690–691, 706, 707, 709, 710–711, 713–714, 818, 826 and nuclear deterrent 469–470, 494, 495, 537, 576, 795, 818–819, 826, 929; end of détente with the Soviet Union 484; and Cuba 559, 564–565; and Cuban missile crisis 567–578; and West Germany 511, 520, 543; aid to Western Europe 520, 548; continued alliance with Britain 537, 545, 574–575; and Third World 557–560, 561, 562; new policy on China 618–619, 654, 791; aid to Pakistan 635; and Japanese rehabilitation 647; and Vietnam 583–586, 601–606; and climate change 929; Kyoto Treaty 929; new détente with the Soviet Union 783, 818–819; nuclear missile agreement 783, 795, 801, 818, 835; arms control 818–819; and Haiti 822; and Yugoslavia 824; and North Korea 928; and war on terror 927–930 US politics and social conditions 68–69 population growth 65; immigration policies 10, 65–67, 85, 141; ethnic minorities 66, 353; social tensions 67; Prohibition 141, 166; inter-war years 164–167; and depression 164; New Deal 164–170, 354; welfare policies 166, 582–583, 565, 929; and economic reconstruction 331–332, 353–355; civil rights 488–490, 578–582, 584; ‘red scare’ 413–414; social reform 561, INDEX 582–583, 789; black protest 488–490, 578–582; anti-poverty programmes 582–583, 789; anti-drug campaign 681; economy 789, 794, 795, 815–817, 820–821, 824 United States of Europe, idea of 519 Uno, Sousuke 652 Uruguay 698–699 US-Japanese Mutual Security Treaty (1960) 647, 651 V-I and V-2 weapons 277, 289, 301 Vajpayee, Atal Behari 643, 948 Vance, Cyrus 795, 919 Vandenberg, Arthur 365, 375 Vanzetti, Bartolomeo 141 Vargas, Getúlio 699–700 Venezia Giulia 348 Venezuela 703–705, 949 Verdun 99 Versailles Conference 114, 117–126 Versailles Treaty (1919) 117–126, 142, 204, 206 Verwoerd, Dr Henrik 764, 766 Victor Emmanuel III of Italy 31, 147, 346 Vietcong 558, 562, 584, 603, 604 Vietminh 558, 560, 604, 605 Vietnam: division of 557, 558; one-party communist rule 606; population 600 Vietnam war 583–586, 601–606 Villa, Pancho 715 Viviani, René 97 Vlasov, General Andrei 283 Vogel, Hans-Jochen 836 Voroshilov, Marshal 472 Vorster, B J 764 Vucovar 919 Wa∏e¸sa, Lech 780, 891–892 Wall Street crash (1929) 153 Wallace, Henry 140 Walls, Peter 759 Walters, Sir Alan 876 Wannsee Conference (1942) 267 Warsaw: 1943 ghetto rising 268; 1944 Polish rising 271, 289 Warsaw Pact 477, 479, 480, 779, 797, 887 Washington Conference (1921–2) 84–85, 141–142, 195, 196 Watergate scandal (1974) 792–793 Wavell, Field-Marshal Lord 252, 394–395 Weimar Constitution 129 Weizmann, Chaim 109, 433, 456 Wen Ziabao 627 West Bank 457, 459, 905, 907, 909, 916, 936–937; and West Bank wall 936 West Berlin 371–374, 513, 566 West European Defence Community, idea of 509 West European Union 509 West Germany – see German Federal Republic West Irian 385 West Pakistan 634 Western New Guinea 595 Westmoreland, General William 584 Weygand General Maxime 246 White Rose 270 Whitewater 825 Whitlam, Gough 670, 672 Wilhelm II, Kaiser 20, 21; and First World War 56, 92; abdication 115, 127 Wilson, Charles E 487 Wilson, Harold 540, 757, 850–852, 853 Wilson, Woodrow: and First World War 94–95, 110–111; Fourteen Points 112, 114; and peace conference 114–118; and League of Nations 124–126; and Mexico 715 Witte, Sergei 42, 44 Wolwowitz, Paul 928 World Bank 332, 445, 745 World Trade Centre destruction 927 World Trade Organisation 332, 823, 877, 944, 945 Wyszynski, Cardinal Stefan 477 Xian 201 Yahya Khan 631 Yalta Conference (1944) 285, 292–293, 320 Yamagata Aritomu 81 Yamamoto, Admiral 262, 286 Yanayev, Gennadi 806 Yazov, Dimitri 806, 807 Yeltsin, Boris 800, 802, 803–806, 807, 810–812; and August 995 1991 coup 806–807; and breakup of Soviet Union 807–808; and Yugoslavia 922, 925; and NATO 955 Yemen 454 Yom Kippur War (1973) 908 Yoruba people 734 Yoshida, Shigera 361–362, 646–649 Young Plan 184, 188 Young Turks 52 Ypres 91 Yuan Shikai 76 Yudhoyono, Susilo Bambang 596, 947 Yugoslavia 122–123, 475; in Second World War 254, 270, 291; communist control 325–326, 474; post-war gains 348; break from Russian control 475; break-up and conflict 918–926 Yussin, Ahmed 937 Zaghlul, Sa’ad 423 Zaire (formerly Congo, q.v.) 739–741 Zambia 539 Zanzibar (now Tanzania q.v.) 744–745 Zapata, Emiliano 715 Zapatero, José Luis Rodriguez 880 Zemin, Jiang 946 Zhang Xueliang (the Young Marshal) 201 Zhao Ziyang 619, 622, 623 Zhdanov, Andrei 369 Zhelev, Zheliu 898 Zhivkov, Todor 898 Zhou Enlai 78, 388, 411, 614, 617 Zhu Rongji 627 Zhukov, Marshal Georgi 180, 282, 289 Zia-ul-Haq, General 630, 634–635 Zimbabwe (former Rhodesia q.v.) 741, 759–760, 949 Zimbabwe African National Union (ZANU) 756–758, 949 Zimbabwe African People’s Union (ZAPU) 756–758 Zimmermann telegram (1917) 110 Zinoviev, Grigori 170, 172 Zog, King of Albania 470