The age of revolution a history of the english speaking peoples, volume iii

Tai Lieu Chat Luong Table of Contents Title Page Copyright Page Acknowledgements Introduction PREFACE BOOK I - ENGLAND’S ADVANCE TO WORLD POWER CHAPTER ONE - WILLIAM OF ORANGE CHAPTER TWO - CONTINENTAL WAR CHAPTER THREE - THE SPANISH SUCCESSION CHAPTER FOUR - MARLBOROUGH: BLENHEIM AND RAMILLIES CHAPTER FIVE - OUDENARDE AND MALPLAQUET CHAPTER SIX - THE TREATY OF UTRECHT BOOK II - THE FIRST BRITISH EMPIRE CHAPTER SEVEN - THE HOUSE OF HANOVER CHAPTER EIGHT - SIR ROBERT WALPOLE CHAPTER NINE - THE AUSTRIAN SUCCESSION AND THE “FORTYFIVE” CHAPTER TEN - THE AMERICAN COLONIES CHAPTER ELEVEN - THE FIRST WORLD WAR CHAPTER TWELVE - THE QUARREL WITH AMERICA CHAPTER THIRTEEN - THE WAR OF INDEPENDENCE CHAPTER FOURTEEN - THE UNITED STATES CHAPTER FIFTEEN - THE INDIAN EMPIRE BOOK III - NAPOLEON CHAPTER SIXTEEN - THE YOUNGER PITT CHAPTER SEVENTEEN - THE AMERICAN CONSTITUTION CHAPTER EIGHTEEN - THE FRENCH REVOLUTION CHAPTER NINETEEN - FRANCE CONFRONTED CHAPTER TWENTY - TRAFALGAR CHAPTER TWENTY-ONE - THE EMPEROR OF THE FRENCH CHAPTER TWENTY-TWO - THE PENINSULAR WAR AND THE FALL OF NAPOLEON CHAPTER TWENTY-THREE - WASHINGTON, ADAMS, AND JEFFERSON CHAPTER TWENTY-FOUR - THE WAR OF 1812 CHAPTER TWENTY-FIVE - ELBA AND WATERLOO ENDNOTES INDEX SUGGESTED READING Copyright © 1957 by The Right Honourable Sir Winston Churchill, K.G O.M C.H M.P This edition published by Barnes & Noble, Inc., by arrangement with Dodd, Mead & Company, Inc Introduction and Suggested Reading © 2005 by Barnes & Noble, Inc This 2005 edition published by Barnes & Noble, Inc All rights reserved No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted, in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording, or otherwise, without prior written permission from the publisher Maps by James Macdonald ISBN-13: 978-0-7607-6859-4 ISBN-10: 0-7607-6859-5 eISBN : 978-1-41142861-4 Printed and bound in the United States of America 3 5 7 9 10 8 6 4 2 ACKNOWLEDGMENTS I DESIRE TO RECORD MY THANKS AGAIN TO MR F W DEAKIN AND Mr G M Young for their assistance before the Second World War in the preparation of this work; to Dr J H Plumb of Christ’s College, Cambridge, Mr Steven Watson of Christ Church, Oxford, Professor Asa Briggs of Leeds University, Professor Frank Freidel, now of Stanford University, California, who have scrutinised the text in the light of subsequent advances in historical knowledge; and to Mr Alan Hodge, Mr Denis Kelly, and Mr C C Wood I have also to thank many others who have kindly read these pages and commented upon them In the opening chapters of this volume I have, with the permission of Messrs George G Harrap and Co Ltd., followed the character of my Marlborough: His Life and Times (1933-38), summarising where necessary, but also using phraseology and making quotations INTRODUCTION WINSTON S CHURCHILL’S A HISTORY OF THE ENGLISH-SPEAKING PEOPLES (4 vols., 1956-8) is the literary masterwork of the twentieth century’s greatest historical figure Before the collection reached the press, Churchill’s stature as a writer was secure He received the Nobel Prize in Literature in 1953, the same year he was knighted by Queen Elizabeth II In the Nobel presentation speech, a member of the Swedish Academy wrestled with the problem of finding parallels to Churchill’s combined talents in writing and statecraft Reaching for distant, and astonishingly lofty comparisons, author Sigfrid Siwertz thought of Churchill as “a Caesar who also has the gift of Cicero’s pen.” Maybe Churchill would have been pleased to be associated with the mere mortals that populate this book, The Age of Revolution, volume three of A History of the EnglishSpeaking Peoples Beginning with Marlborough’s victory at Blenheim in 1704 and ending with Wellington’s defeat of Napoleon at Waterloo in 1815, Churchill recounts Britain’s rise to world leadership over the course of the eighteenth century In this volume Churchill provides an excellent illustration of his unique literary voice, together with an introduction to his thoughts on the forces that shape human affairs To read it is to savor something truly rare in literary history, a great book on a great subject written by a great man The contours of Winston Leonard Spencer Churchill’s early life suggest that he was destined for greatness His childhood years were set against the backdrop of centuries of public service in the Churchill line, as with his distant kin, John Churchill, first Duke of Marlborough, the very soldier-statesman who dominates the opening chapters of this book Winston Churchill was born November 30, 1874, to Lord Randolph Churchill and his American wife, Jennie Jerome His parents thus personified a transatlantic connection that later shaped Churchill’s perspective on world events But education came hard for Churchill, who struggled at his preparatory schools, including prestigious Harrow, before proceeding to the Royal Military Academy at Sandhurst A military career followed, though Churchill combined his tours of duty with writing; his service in Cuba, India, South Africa, Sudan, and elsewhere resulted in newspaper articles for the Morning Post and Daily Telegraph, as well as books like The Story of the Malakand Field Force (1898), The River War (1899), and Savrola (1900) Churchill entered the House of Commons in 1900 and several years later aligned with the Liberal Party In 1908, he met and married Clementine Hozier, who eventually bore him four daughters and a son Churchill acquired his first important post when he became first lord of the Admiralty in 1912 in order to hasten naval preparations for the anticipated Great War, only to be fired for advocating the disastrous Dardanelles campaign of 1915 This began a long period of estrangement from national politics, with occasional party switching and short stints in cabinet-level positions During this period he began work on A History of the English-Speaking Peoples, and published The World Crisis and the Aftermath (5 vols., 1923-31) in which he narrated the events of the Great War and assessed the postwar international situation Because of this work, and his consistent voice for preparedness in light of the rising fascist movement in Europe, Churchill once again became first lord of the Admiralty (1939) and rose to Prime Minster the next year Yet, Churchill’s unflinching leadership of the Allied coalition during World War II could not help the Conservative Party stave off electoral defeat in 1945 Churchill returned as Prime Minster in 1951, a position he held until poor health drove him from office in 1955 He died on January 24, 1965, and his gravesite is located at St Martin’s Church in Bladon near his ancestral home and birth-place of Blenheim Palace, Oxfordshire Given his background, Churchill warmed quite easily to the subject matter of The Age of Revolution It is a book of imperial ambitions and epic battles, broadminded heroes and self-interested fools Churchill met the challenge of these grand themes with true literary craft, occasionally rewarding the careful reader with the sublime For example, he described the aftermath of Marlborough’s greatest victory as a time when Englishmen “yielded themselves to transports of joy.” Churchill’s talent assiduously matched language with its intended purpose William of Orange possessed not mere courage, but a “dauntless heart,” and William Pitt called “into life and action the depressed and languid spirit of England.” Here Pitt doesn’t merely inspire, he releases wellsprings of English virtue that few men could ever summon As a writer, then, Churchill embodied the English ideal of subordinating form to function Churchill was mindful of the destructive forces that threatened civilization in his own lifetime—nationalism, industrialism, and fascism It was his unshaken belief that the character of individual statesmen inoculated the nation against the dangerous effects of improper policy in the face of these challenges This voice pervades Age of Revolution Churchill’s intent is captured in his reference to an inscription on William Pitt’s statue in London: “The means by which Providence raises a nation to greatness are the virtues infused into great men.” Thus we have Marlborough’s “serene, practical and adaptive” character providing the antidote to the spirit of party vexing the court of William and Mary, which was aggravated by the vacillation of the Dutch, the treachery of the Pretender, and of course the “perfidity” of Louis XIV The figures change throughout the narrative, but Churchill’s voice remains steady It is tempting to attribute Churchill’s authorial voice to his advantaged upbringing Alexis de Tocqueville remarked that “historians of aristocratic ages, looking at the world’s theater, first see a few leading actors in control of the whole play.” Put simply, history’s plot is driven by the actions and preoccupations of her great men The chief historians of England before Churchill’s time possessed this vision Churchill admired the work of Thomas Babington Macaulay, the gentleman-scholar who also wrote a multi-volume history, The History of England from the Accession of James the Second (5 vols., 1849-61) Actually, Churchill shared much in common with Macaulay, including privileged birth, tenure in the colonial service, election to Parliament, cabinet posts, and of course a passion for the history of the British Isles One of Churchill’s biographers noted that as a schoolboy, he impressed his Harrow headmaster by reciting one thousand two hundred lines of Macaulay’s Lays of Ancient Rome (1842) In keeping with this tradition of seeing great men behind the great events of history, the so-called “Great Man” theory appears on every page of The Age of Revolution To Churchill, success in the Seven Year’s War “depended on the energies of this one man,” William Pitt; without him, Canada would still be French To the east, Robert Clive was “the man who would reverse his country’s fortunes and found the rule of the British in India.” Military history and foreign affairs dominate Churchill’s account, and the generals and diplomats who carved out an empire for Britain supply the cast of characters Occasionally the narrative mentions other items of importance, pausing to assess the political effects of the South Sea Bubble, and casually mentioning the litany of heroes that populate the English cultural pantheon—Swift, Pope, Defoe, Newton The Industrial Revolution gets its own paragraph, nothing more None of these themes can divert the author’s attention from the story of great men who steered England to the brink of global domination in the early nineteenth century It is even more tempting to attribute Churchill’s voice to his own experiences as a statesman during a time of great calamity for his people He began History of the English-Speaking Peoples in 1932 as a way to produce much-needed income He agreed to a contract worth twenty thousand pounds sterling and a five-year deadline, but events intervened He continued to work part-time on the project in 1940 and 1941, despite the many demands on his time, though he set it aside after the war to complete his voluminous memoir of World War II When opportunity arose to finish it, he was keen to revisit his earlier perspectives in light of the world-changing events during his tenure in office The subject matter of the series, and The Age of Revolution in particular, suddenly took on new meaning As such, Churchill saved his worst condemnations for spineless commanders like Rooke and Ormonde and for trimming ministers like Hawley, rather than known evils like Louis XIV or Napoleon In the eighteenth century, Churchill saw a faint echo of his own, more contemporary difficulties in rousing a sleepy nation to meet the grave threats gathering in Europe He lamented the “weakness and improvidence” in England’s leadership that followed the Treaty of Ryswick (1697), just as he castigated the English upper classes who “seemed to take as much interest in prizefighting and fox-hunting as in the world crisis” created by the French Revolution Churchill’s moral calculus weighed the selfishness and treachery of one’s own kind as heavier than the predictable malevolence of England’s historic rivals Churchill benefited from the advice of professional historians in the creation of A History of the English-Speaking Peoples, but this series was very much a product of his own thinking and his own labours By the end of his life, Churchill witnessed the advent of Social History among the academic historians These writers were more apt to invest causal agency in broad, impersonal forces than in the genius of particular men and women Christopher Hill, Keith Wrightson, John Brewer, Linda Colley, and others drew attention to class formation, urbanization, consumerism, and other sociological and economic phenomena, and along the way, they soft-pedaled political, military, and diplomatic themes When the academy demanded renewed attention to politics, scholars responded with books on political culture, or political ideology, as in the work of Geoffrey Holmes, W A Speck, and J C D Clark In The Age of Revolution, there are hints of the changes that would eventually remake the world, and ultimately shape the consciousness of these postwar historians Churchill traces the progress of freedom and equality through the American and French Revolutions in this volume, leading up to a climax in which liberty itself is imperiled by bloodthirsty Jacobins and would-be dictators As the book closes, revolutionary nationalism is in the air, and Churchill dreads the coming of mass movements that will seek to undermine the gift of stability and peace that Castlereagh and Wellington brought to Europe Socialism, communism, syndicalism, fascism, and the like came to dominate European politics, and prompted historians after Churchill’s time to interpret history’s plot as driven by underlying structures and forces Again, Tocqueville anticipated the degree to which historians of democratic societies—the kind of society England had become over Churchill’s lifetime— Ross, General Robert Rossbach, Battle of Rousseau Royal Society Royal Sovereign, H.M.S “Rule, Britannia,” Russell, Admiral Edward (Earl of Orford), friend of Marlborough and Godolphin; in touch with James II,at La Hogue Russia, ally of France; ally of Britain; defeated by Napoleon; Napoleon’s campaign in; acquires part of Poland; in Holy Alliance Ryswick, Treaty of S Saarlouis Sacheverell, Dr St Christopher St Eustatius St Helena St John, Henry—see Bolingbroke, Viscount St Lawrence, Gulf of; French islands in St Lawrence, River St Lucia St Pierre St Venant St Vincent Saint-Germain Saintes, Battle off the “Saints, the,” Salamanca, Battle of Sandwich, John Montagu, fourth Earl of Sandys, Samuel Saratoga Sardinia; Kingdom of Savannah; occupation of Savoy Savoy, Victor Amadeus II, Duke of, at Toulon; to strike into Southern France; Louis meets claims of; gains of, at Utrecht Saxe, Marshal Saxony Scandinavia, submits to Napoleon Scarborough, H.M.S Scarpe, River, bridges over Scheldt, River, French gain command of; Marlborough’s army crosses; Marlborough and Eugene seize line of; Eugene’s men driven into; Holland gains forts at mouth of; navigation of, below Antwerp, declared open Schellenberg Scillies, Shovell wrecked on Scotland, union of, with England ; Jacobite risings in ; conditions in Highlands of; repression of Jacobitism in; support for Pitt in Scott, Sir Walter Scottish refugees in America Seco, Rio Secret Service, under Marlborough ; fund Sedition Act (U S.) Senate (U S.) Senegal Sensée, River Septennial Act Serapis, H.M.S Seringapatam Settlement, Act of (1701) Seven Years War, Highland troops in; outbreak and early mismanagement of; repercussions in India Seymour, Sir Edward Shannon, H.M.S Shays, Captain Daniel Sheerness Shelburne, William Petty, Earl Hater Marquis of Lansdowne), on Pelham brothers; in office ; hostility to ; brings end to war; mentioned Sheridan, Richard Brinsley Sheriffmuir, Battle of Shovell, Sir Cloudesley Shrewsbury, Charles Talbot, Duke of, serves William II, 9; in correspondence with James; opposes dismissal of Marlborough; Harley and ; and accession of George I, Sicily, succession to; Savoy gains ; French threat to Silesia Singapore Sinking Fund, of Walpole; of Pitt Skye Slangenberg, General Slaves, French monopoly in; English trade in, to South America in American colonies; Wilberforce seeks to abolish trade in-13; abolition of trade in Smith, Adam; The Wealth of Nations of Smith, Sir Sydney Solms, Count Somers, Lord Somerset, Charles Seymour, sixth Duke of Somo Sierra, Battle of Soult, Marshal, in Spain -91; in Portugal; at Toulouse; rejoins Napoleon ; at Waterloo-29; mentioned South America, French monopoly of slave trade of; English trade with; English right to trade slaves in; plan to gain foothold in South Carolina, British in; reconquest of; civil war in ; treatment of Loyalists in South Sea Company; failure of 97â99; quarrel of, with Spain Spain, question of succession to throne of; repudiates partition of Empire ; virtual union of Crowns of France and; Gibraltar lost to; Allied successes in; Allied reverses in ; Marlborough plans fresh campaign in; resurgence of national spirit in; concessions of, at Utrecht; England at war with (1739) ; French alliance with (1761); Chatham seeks war with; appeasement of, in Peace of Paris; sends gunpowder to America; in War of Independence; demands compensation in North America; Florida owned by ; in alliance with Republican France; submits to Napoleon; Napoleon annexes; revolts against Napoleon ; French armies in ; English Army in ; guerrilla warfare in; Wellingtonâs victories in Spanish Empire, partition of ; in alliance with France Spanish Navy, English ships searched by; combines with French (1805) Spanish Succession, War of, conditions leading to; opposing forces in; discussion of terms for ending; reopening of; effect on American colonies Speech, freedom of Spithead, mutiny at Stair, John Dalrymple, second Earl of Stamp Act (1765) Stanhope: James Stanhope, Earl State Rights, doctrine of Staten Island States-General Steinkirk, Battle of Stollhofen, Lines of Stony Point Strasbourg Stuart, Charles Edward (Young Pretender) Stuart, James, Prince of Wales (Chevalier of St George, Old Pretender); Louis recognises as King; Anne and; at Oudenarde; France promises to expel; and death of Anne; Bolingbroke and ; and â"Fifteen", Stuttgart Sunderland, Robert Spencer, second Earl of; in office; dismissed Supreme Court Surajah Dowlah Sweden, in Seven Years War; in alliance against Napoleon Syon House Syria T Tagus, River Taille Talavera, Battle of Tallard, Marshal Talleyrand-Périgord, Charles Maurice de, Foreign Secretary ; intrigues against Napoleon ; at Congress of Vienna; formula of legitimacy of Taviers Tea, duty on; destruction of cargoes of, in Boston Tecumseh Teignmouth Tennessee “Terror, the,” Test Acts Texas Thames, Battle of the Thann, Battle of Thurlow: Edward Thurlow, first Baron Ticonderoga, Abercromby advances from; Amherst takes; Americans fall back on; Burgoyne’s advance on Tilsit, Treaty of Tippecanoe, Battle of Tipu Sultan Tirlemont Tobago Tollemache, Thomas Tone, Wolfe Torcy, Marquis de Tories, division among, on accession of William and Mary ; in power under William ; policy of disarmament and economy of; Marlborough and; prepared for war; in power under Anne; anti-war policy of; Occasional Conformity Bill of ; change in leadership of; out of office under Anne; and accession of George I, 87, 92; Jacobitism of; hope for revival of; in the shades ; and George III, American; support Pitt Toronto Torres Vedras; Lines of Toulon, expedition against; Boscawen defeats squadron from; Napoleon takes from Royalists; blockade of Toulouse Tournai Tourville, Admiral Townshend, Charles, second Viscount, resignation of; dismissal of; and taxation of colonies; imposes duties on colonial imports; mentioned Trade and Plantations, Board of Trade, Board of, reconstruction of Trafalgar, Battle of Training Act Trarbach Treason Act Treasury, Pitt’s reforms of Trenton, Battle of Treves Trichinopoly Trieste Turgot, A R J Turin Turkey Tyrconnel, Duchess of U Ulm; Battle of Ulster Union, Act of; Scottish dissatisfaction at; with Ireland “United Empire Loyalists” United Irishmen United States of America, refugees from, in Canada; treaty granting independence to; frontiers of ; unpaid debts to British merchants; political organisation of; conflicting interests in; internal disorder in ; Constitution of; problems of Western expansion of; first elections in; Government takes over public debts in; beginnings of political parties in; capital of; Protectionist policy of; Revolution of ; British interference with shipping of; reactions to French Revolution in; French interference with; traditional foreign policy of; impressment of seamen of; party spirit in; on brink of war with France; growth of; commerce of; purchases Louisiana ; prohibition of trade with Britain; at war with Britain ; causes of war; invasion of Canada by; frigates of; blockade of coast of; risk of secession in ; peace terms United States, the Utrecht, Treaty of V Valencia Valladolid Valley Forge Valmy, Battle of Vanguard, H.M.S Varennes Vendôme, Marshal, at Calcinato; Marlborough holds; at Oudenarde Vendémiaire, cannonade of 13th Venetian Republic passes to Austria Venloo Vermont Vernon, Admiral Edward Versailles, States-General meet at; nobles compelled to live at Court at; King recalled from Versailles, Treaty of Victor, Marshal Victory, H.M.S Vienna, French threat to; Napoleon enters; Marie Louise in Vienna, Congress of, personalities of; terms arrived at ; disagreement at ; and escape of Napoleon ; settlement at, compared with that of Vigo Bay Villars, Marshal, at Saarlouis ; defeats Margrave ; upholds Louis; at Malplaquet; -Ne Plus "Ultra" Lines of; successes of (1712) Villeneuve, Admiral, Nelson pursues ; at Trafalgar Villeroy, Marshal Vimeiro, Battle of Vimy Ridge Virginia, agitation for revolt in; Cornwallis in; speculation in, on Western lands; opposition to Constitution in ; opposes financial policy Vitoria, Battle of Vitry Voltaire W Wade, General Wagram, Battle of Walcheren, expedition to Waldeck, Prince of Wales, Jacobites in Walmer, Pitt at; Wellington at Walpole, Horace, on capture of Martinique Walpole, Sir Robert (Earl of Orford), opposes Bill to limit peerages; attacks South Sea Company; financial policy of ; career of; head of Government; policy of; opposition to ; Excise scheme of; “Prime Minister,”; fall of; Johnson on ; more than Minister; mentioned “War Hawks,” Warrants, illegality of general Washington, George, buys frontier tracts; in command ; defends New York; near defeat; success at Trenton; defeated at Brandy wine; at Monmouth Court House; keeps Army in existence ; in Hudson valley; marches to Yorktown; on early unrest; first President ; proclamation of neutrality of; sends envoy to London; Farewell Address of; death of ; mentioned Washington, D C.; British in Waterloo, Field of; Battle of Wavre Webb, General Wellesley: Richard Colley Wellesley, first Marquess Wellington: Arthur Wellesley, first Duke of, in India; on Pitt; use of infantry by ; in Peninsular War ; victories of ; frees Portugal; enters France; and peace with America; Army of, in 1815,Waterloo campaign of ; at Waterloo; and restoration of Bourbons; and Treaty of Paris Wesley, John West Indies, English colonies in ; sugar from; American trade with; capture of French; British acquisitions in; France and Spain retain islands in ; sugar monopoly of; Rodney’s victories in ; expeditions to; French fleets’ rendezvous in; Nelson in; mentioned West Point Westphalia, Jerome Bonaparte King of Wharton: Thomas Wharton, Marquess of Whigs, and accession of William and Mary; William’s attitude to; reorganisation of finances under; attitude of, to war with France ; out of power under Anne; blamed for reverses; demand share of public office; Anne’s dislike of; Marlborough and ; in power under Anne; impeach Sacheverell; dismissed by Anne; control Lords; and Protestant Succession; in power under Georges ; establish control of Parliamentary machine; shaken by South Sea Bubble ; in Opposition to Walpole; Chatham weakens monopoly of; reaction against monopoly of; George III reconciled with; Burke attempts organisation of ; American; political corruption under; support Pitt; and French Revolution ; brief return to office White Plains; Battle of Wilberforce, William Wilkes, John William III, King of England, character of; his enmity against France; as English king ; favours the Dutch ; accession of; in Ireland; campaign of, in Flanders (1692-6) ; rift between Marlborough and; English counsellors of, and James; at Steinkirk; reconciled to Anne; recovers Namur; and the political parties; contemplates abdication; reconciled to Marlborough ; supports partition of Spanish Empire; recognises Philip V,seeks allies against France; declares war; dissolves Parliament; death of Windham, William Wolfe, General James; at Dettingen; at Quebec Wordsworth, William Wratislaw, Imperial Ambassador Wynendael, Château of Wyvill, Christopher Y Yorktown, surrender of Young, Arthur Ypres Z Zealous, H.M.S SUGGESTED READING ALDRITT, KEITH Churchill the Writer: His Life as a Man of Letters London: Hutchinson, 1992 ASHLEY, MAURICE Churchill as Historian New York: Scribner, 1968 CHURCHILL, WINSTON Lord Randolph Churchill London: Library of Imperial History, 1974 ——— Marlborough: His Life and Times, vols Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2002 ——— The Second World War, 6 vols Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 1985-86 ——— The World Crisis and the Aftermath, vols London: Odhams Press, 1923-31 CLARK, GEORGE NORMAN Later Stuarts, 1660-1714 New York: Oxford University Press, 1956 GILBERT, MARTIN Churchill: A Life New York: Holt, 1991 ——— In Search of Churchill: A Historian’s Journey Hoboken, NJ: John Wiley, 1997 JENKINS, ROY Churchill: A Biography New York: Farrar, Straus & Giroux, 2001 KEEGAN, JOHN Winston Churchill New York: Viking Books, 2002 LUKACS, JOHN Churchill, Visionary, Statesman, Historian New Haven: Yale University Press, 2002 MACAULAY, THOMAS BABINGTON The History of England Harmondsworth: Penguin Books, 1979 MANCHESTER, WILLIAM The Last Lion: Winston Spencer Churchill, 2 vols Boston: Little Brown, 1983-88 MULLER, JAMES W Churchill as Peacemaker Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2002 ROSKILL, STEPHEN Churchill and the Admirals London: Pen and Sword, 1977 SCHAMA, SIMON A History of Britian, Volume 2: The Wars of the British, 1603-1776 New York: Hyperion, 2001 SOAMES, MARY Winston Churchill: His Life as a Painter: A Memoir by His Daughter Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 1990 TREVELYAN, GEORGE MACAULEY A Shortened History of England Harmondsworth: Penguin Books, 1987 WILLIAMS, BASIL Whig Supremacy, 1714-1760 Ed C H Stuart New York: Oxford University Press, 1962