Impacts of Environmental Toxicants on Living Systems ENVIRONMENTAL TOXICOLOGY © 2001 by CRC Press LLC LEWIS PUBLISHERS Boca Raton London New York Washington, D.C. Impacts of Environmental Toxicants on Living Systems Ming-Ho Yu Huxley College of Environmental Studies Western Washington University Bellingham, Washington ENVIRONMENTAL TOXICOLOGY © 2001 by CRC Press LLC This book contains information obtained from authentic and highly regarded sources. Reprinted material is quoted with permission, and sources are indicated. A wide variety of references are listed. Reasonable efforts have been made to publish reliable data and information, but the author and the publisher cannot assume responsibility for the validity of all materials or for the consequences of their use. 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Trademark Notice: Product or corporate names may be trademarks or registered trademarks, and are used only for identification and explanation, without intent to infringe. © 2001 by CRC Press LLC Lewis Publishers is an imprint of CRC Press LLC No claim to original U.S. Government works International Standard Book Number 1-56670-474-X Library of Congress Card Number 00-030444 Printed in the United States of America1234567890 Printed on acid-free paper Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data Yu, Ming-Ho, 1928– Environmental toxicology : impacts of environmental toxicants on living systems / Ming-Ho Yu. p. cm. Includes bibliographical references and index. ISBN 1-56670-474-X (alk. paper) 1. Environmental toxicology. I. Title. RA1226.Y8 2000 571.9 ′ 5—dc21 00-030444 CIP LA4154/frame/FM Page 4 Wednesday, May 17, 2000 3:21 PM © 2001 by CRC Press LLC Preface This book is intended to provide fundamental knowledge concerning the toxi- cological effects of environmental chemicals on living systems. It emphasizes the chemical and biological characteristics of major pollutants found in our environment and their influence on living organisms, including animals, humans, and plants. The book consists of 15 chapters. The first chapter introduces the reader to the theme of the book. It begins with a definition of environmental toxicology and discusses the relationship between human activities and their impacts on the envi- ronment. This is followed by a brief history of environmental pollution and laws in the United States. The chapter ends with a discussion of the importance of environ- mental toxicology as a field of study. Chapter 2, “Environmental Change and Health,” presents an overview of our changing environment with statistics on the major causes of death in the United States from 1950. A possible link between our changing environment and the changing pattern of human diseases is considered. Examples are given to relate certain diseases to environmental toxicants. Chapter 3, “Occur- rence of Toxicants,” identifies certain ways in which the occurrence of environmental toxicants may be recognized. This is followed by a brief review of major environ- mental pollution episodes or disasters that have occurred in recent decades. Chapter 4, “Damage Process and Action of Toxicant,” discusses general ways in which environmental toxicants may cause deleterious effects on living organisms. The chapter includes processes involved in toxicant uptake, transport, storage, metab- olism, action, and, wherever applicable, excretion, highlighting several ways in which toxicants cause damage to plants, animals, and humans. Chapter 5, “Factors Affecting Xenobiotic Action,” discusses several factors that influence the toxicity of xenobiotics or environmental toxicants. Included in the discussion are physical and chemical characteristics of toxicants and their environmental, biological, and nutri- tional factors. The metabolism of environmental chemicals — biotransformation — is discussed in Chapter 6. The chapter introduces Phase I and II reactions and stresses the importance of biotransformation in living systems and the consequences of the process. Main topics covered include detoxification of xenobiotics, possible produc- tion of free radicals, and the action of cellular antioxidant defense systems, including endogenous antioxidants and free radical scavenging enzymes. In Chapter 7, “Defense Responses to Toxicants,” several major defense mechanisms available to the animal/human body for coping with environmental toxicants are discussed. Emphasis is placed on such mechanisms found in the respiratory tract, gastrointes- tinal tract, liver, kidneys, and membranes. A brief discussion of defense mechanisms manifested by some plant species is also included. Chapter 8, “Air Pollution — Inorganic Gases,” deals with the four gaseous air pollutants included in the “Criteria Air Pollutants” designated by the EPA, i.e., sulfur dioxide (SO 2 ), nitrogen dioxide (NO 2 ), ozone (O 3 ), and carbon monoxide (CO). Their sources, characteristics, and health and biochemical effects are discussed. A discussion of particulate matter, which is also one of the “Criteria Air Pollutants,” is presented in Chapter 9. Specific examples, including silica (SiO 2 ), beryllium (Be), and asbestos, are given with respect to their sources, characteristics, and toxic effects. LA4154/frame/FM Page 5 Wednesday, May 17, 2000 3:21 PM © 2001 by CRC Press LLC Although fluoride is not designated by the EPA as one of the “Criteria Air Pollutants,” it is nevertheless an important atmospheric pollutant. Moreover, in contrast to other air pollutants, fluoride can exist in gaseous and particulate forms, and it is a water- borne pollutant as well, afflicting a large number of people throughout the world. The importance of environmental fluoride is, therefore, examined in Chapter 10. Volatile organic compounds (VOCs), another group of pollutants belonging to the “Criteria Air Pollutants,” are discussed in Chapter 11. The properties and health effects of alkanes, alkenes, and aromatic hydrocarbons are reviewed in this chapter. Of the aromatic hydrocarbons, benzene, toluene, and the xylenes are discussed. Additionally, the sources, properties, health effects, and metabolism of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) are presented. Chapter 12, “Environmental Metals,” considers in some detail the sources, char- acteristics, and toxic effects of several metals and a metalloid. Included in the discussion are lead (Pb), cadmium (Cd), mercury (Hg), nickel (Ni), and arsenic (As). Chapter 13, “Pesticides and Related Materials,” describes the three groups of syn- thetic organic pesticides, including chlorinated hydrocarbons, organophosphates, and carbamates. The chapter also discusses the toxic effects of several related organic compounds, such as PCBs, PBBs, and dioxins. Current concern about the disruption of mammalian endocrine systems by these toxicants is also addressed. Chapter 14, “Mutagenic Pollutants,” deals with the types of mutation, common mutagens found in our environment, and their action. The induction of mutation by UV and ionizing radiations, and chemical mutagens is examined. Of the chemical mutagens, examples are given to show the influence of alkylation, intercalation, and the interaction of several metals on DNA. The last chapter, “Environmental Cancer,” examines various environmental toxicants in relation to carcinogenesis. It begins by stressing the importance of cancer in public health and discusses the known causes of cancer and the stages involved in carcinogenesis. Emphasis is placed on various types of chemical agents, such as free radicals, vinyl chloride, alkylating agents, and polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons that are capable of interacting with DNA. This volume is written primarily as an introductory textbook for upper level undergraduates and beginning graduate students majoring in environmental science, environmental toxicology, environmental health/public health, and related fields. It is assumed that the student taking environmental toxicology has had courses in organic chemistry and biochemistry. To assist students, review questions are included at the end of all chapters except Chapter 1. A glossary is also included. Much of the material contained in this volume was based on the lecture notes I used in teaching environmental toxicology and related courses for 27 years at Western Washington University. It is hoped that students, as well as professionals, interested in enhancing their knowledge of the impacts of environmental toxicants on living organisms will find this a useful source book. Ming-Ho Yu LA4154/frame/FM Page 6 Wednesday, May 17, 2000 3:21 PM © 2001 by CRC Press LLC About the Author Ming-Ho Yu is Professor Emeritus at Huxley College of Environmental Studies, Western Washington University in Bellingham, Washington, where he taught envi- ronmental toxicology and related courses from 1970 to 1997. Between 1969 and 1970, while a Visiting Assistant Professor, Dr. Yu assisted the first dean of Huxley College of Environmental Studies within Western Washington University in devel- oping the initial program of the college. Dr. Yu received his M.S. and Ph.D. degrees from Utah State University in Logan, Utah. He did his undergraduate work at the National Taiwan University in Taiwan and his postdoctoral work at Utah State University and the University of Alberta in Edmonton, Canada. While teaching at Western Washington University, Dr. Yu spent a year as a Visiting Professor at the Department of Public Health and Hygiene, Iwate Medical University, in Morioka, Japan. He also did research at the Institute of Whole Body Metabolism in Chiba, Japan. Dr. Yu served as Vice President and then President of the Interna- tional Society for Fluoride Research (ISFR) from 1986 to 1996, and organized and hosted the ISFR’s 22nd Conference in Bellingham, Washington, in 1998. He is a member of the American Association for the Advancement of Science, the American Chemical Society, the American Society for Nutritional Sciences, ISFR, the New York Academy of Sciences, and the Society of Environmental Tox- icology and Chemistry. Dr. Yu is Associate Editor of Fluoride, the official journal of ISFR. He co-edited Environmental Fluoride 1985, published in 1986 by Elsevier Science Publishers, and is co-author of Introduction to Environmental Toxicology , published by CRC Press/Lewis Publishers. LA4154/frame/FM Page 7 Wednesday, May 17, 2000 3:21 PM © 2001 by CRC Press LLC Acknowledgments I wish to express my sincere appreciation to my former graduate advisor and mentor Dr. G. W. Miller, Professor Emeritus at Utah State University, for introducing me to the study of environmental science, particularly environmental fluoride. His guidance was instrumental in pointing out the direction I have followed throughout my teaching and research career. In writing this book, I referred extensively to the notes and references I used while teaching environmental toxicology and related courses at Western Washington University from 1970 to 1997. I also want to thank my former students, who took those classes from me. Many of them made valuable suggestions on the course materials I used. Wherever appropriate, I incorporated their suggestions into my manuscript. My thanks are also due to Mr. Robert A. (Skip) DeWall, Jr., of Ann Arbor Press, and members of the editorial staff of CRC Press for their assistance and patience. I am thankful to my wife Ervena for her support and encouragement in the course of my endeavor. LA4154/frame/FM Page 9 Wednesday, May 17, 2000 3:21 PM © 2001 by CRC Press LLC Contents Chapter 1 Introduction 1 1.1 Study of Environmental Toxicology 1 1.2 Postwar Development and the Environment 1 1.3 Environmental Pollution and Law 2 1.4 Importance of Environmental Toxicology 4 1.5 References and Suggested Readings 5 Chapter 2 Environmental Change and Health 7 2.1 Our Changing Environment 7 2.2 Our Changing Disease Pattern 9 2.3 Examples of Environmental Diseases 9 2.3.1 Cancer 11 2.3.2 Birth Defects 12 2.3.3 Reproductive Damage 13 2.3.4 Respiratory Diseases 13 2.3.5 Heavy Metal-Induced Diseases 14 2.4 References and Suggested Readings 16 2.5 Review Questions 17 Chapter 3 Occurrence of Toxicants 19 3.1 Introduction 19 3.2 Visible Smoke or Smog 19 3.3 Offensive Odors 20 3.4 Agricultural Damage 20 3.5 Intoxication of Animals 21 3.6 Injuries to Humans 21 3.7 Acute and Chronic Effects 22 3.7.1 Acute Effects 22 3.7.1.1 Meuse Valley, Belgium, 1930 23 3.7.1.2 Donora, Pennsylvania, USA, 1948 23 3.7.1.3 Poza Rica, Mexico, 1950 23 3.7.1.4 London, England, 1952 23 3.7.1.5 New York, USA, 1953 23 3.7.1.6 Los Angeles, California, USA, 1954 24 3.7.1.7 New Orleans, Louisiana, USA, 1955 24 3.7.1.8 Worldwide Episode, 1962 24 3.7.1.9 Tokyo, Japan, 1970 25 3.7.1.10 Bhopal, India, 1984 25 3.7.1.11 Chernobyl, USSR, 1986 26 3.7.1.12 Oil Spill in Alaska’s Prince William Sound, 1989 27 3.7.2 Chronic Effects 27 3.8 References and Suggested Readings 28 3.9 Review Questions 28 LA4154/frame/FM Page 11 Wednesday, May 17, 2000 3:21 PM © 2001 by CRC Press LLC Chapter 4 Damage Process and Action of Toxicants 31 4.1 Introduction 31 4.2 Plants 31 4.2.1 Sources of Pollution 31 4.2.2 Pollutant Uptake 31 4.2.3 Transport 33 4.2.4 Plant Injury 33 4.3 Mammalian Organism 34 4.3.1 Exposure 34 4.3.2 Uptake 35 4.3.3 Transport 36 4.3.4 Storage 36 4.3.5 Metabolism 36 4.3.6 Excretion 37 4.4 Mechanism of Action 37 4.4.1 Disruption or Destruction of Cellular Structure 37 4.4.2 Chemical Combination with a Cell Constituent 38 4.4.3 Effect on Enzymes 38 4.4.4 Secondary Action as a Result of the Presence of a Pollutant 41 4.4.5 Free Radical-Mediated Reactions 42 4.4.6 Endocrine Disruption 43 4.5 References and Suggested Readings 45 4.6 Review Questions 45 Chapter 5 Factors Affecting Xenobiotic Action 47 5.1 Introduction 47 5.2 Physicochemical Properties 47 5.3 Dose/Concentration 47 5.4 Duration and Mode of Exposure 49 5.5 Environmental Factors 49 5.5.1 Temperature 49 5.5.2 pH 49 5.5.3 Humidity 50 5.6 Interaction 50 5.6.1 Synergism, Additive, and Potentiation 50 5.6.2 Antagonism 51 5.7 Biological Factors 51 5.7.1 Plants 51 5.7.2 Animals and Humans 52 5.7.2.1 Genetic Factors 52 5.7.2.2 Developmental Factors 52 5.7.2.3 Diseases 53 5.7.2.4 Behavioral Factors 53 5.7.2.5 Gender 53 5.8 Nutritional Factors 53 5.8.1 Fasting/Starvation 54 LA4154/frame/FM Page 12 Wednesday, May 17, 2000 3:21 PM © 2001 by CRC Press LLC 5.8.2 Proteins 54 5.8.3 Carbohydrates 56 5.8.4 Lipids 56 5.8.5 Vitamin A 57 5.8.6 Vitamin D 58 5.8.7 Vitamin E ( α -tocopherol) 58 5.8.8 Vitamin C 59 5.8.9 Minerals 61 5.9 References and Suggested Readings 62 5.10 Review Questions 64 Chapter 6 Metabolism of Environmental Chemicals 67 6.1 Introduction 67 6.2 Types of Biotransformation 67 6.3 Mechanism of Biotransformation 68 6.4 Consequence of Biotransformation 70 6.5 Factors Influencing Biotransformation 74 6.6 Characteristics of the Cytochrome P450s 75 6.6.1 Induction 75 6.6.2 Genetic Polymorphisms 76 6.7 References and Suggested Readings 76 6.8 Review Questions 77 Chapter 7 Defense Responses to Toxicants 79 7.1 Introduction 79 7.2 Responses of Humans/Animals 79 7.2.1 The Respiratory Tract 79 7.2.1.1 Nasopharynx 80 7.2.1.2 Tracheobronchial Areas 80 7.2.1.3 Alveoli 80 7.2.2 Gastrointestinal Tract 82 7.2.3 Membranes 83 7.2.4 Liver 84 7.2.5 Kidneys 85 7.3 Responses of Plants 86 7.4 References and Suggested Readings 87 7.5 Review Questions 87 Chapter 8 Air Pollution — Inorganic Gases 89 8.1 Introduction 89 8.2 Sulfur Dioxide 89 8.2.1 Sources of SO 2 89 8.2.2 Characteristics of SO 2 90 8.2.3 Effects on Plants 90 8.2.4 Effects on Animals 93 8.2.5 Effects on Humans 94 LA4154/frame/FM Page 13 Wednesday, May 17, 2000 3:21 PM © 2001 by CRC Press LLC [...]... 13 5 10 .8 References and Suggested Readings 13 5 10 .9 Review Questions 13 7 Chapter 11 Volatile Organic Compounds 13 9 11 .1 Introduction 13 9 11 .2 Sources .13 9 11 .3 Petroleum Hydrocarbons .14 0 11 .3 .1 Alkanes .14 0 11 .3 .1. 1 Properties and Use 14 0 11 .3 .1. 2 Health Effects 14 1 11 .3.2 Alkenes .14 2 11 .3.2 .1 Properties... and Use 14 2 11 .3.2.2 Health Effects 14 2 11 .3.3 The Aromatic Hydrocarbons 14 2 11 .3.3 .1 Benzene .14 3 11 .3.3.2 Toluene .14 4 11 .3.3.3 The Xylenes .14 4 11 .4 Polycyclic Aromatic Hydrocarbons 14 5 11 .4 .1 Introduction .14 5 11 .4.2 Sources 14 6 11 .4.3 Physical and Chemical Properties 14 6 11 .4.4 Transport 14 6 11 .4.5 Exposure... 14 6 11 .4.6 Metabolism .14 8 11 .5 References and Suggested Readings 14 9 11 .6 Review Questions 15 0 Chapter 12 Environmental Metals 15 1 12 .1 Introduction 15 1 © 20 01 by CRC Press LLC LA 415 4/frame/FM Page 16 Wednesday, May 17 , 2000 3: 21 PM 12 .2 Lead 15 2 12 .2 .1 Characteristics and Uses 15 2 12 .2.2 Sources of Exposure .15 2 12 .2.2 .1. .. 18 7 13 .2 .1 Chlorinated Hydrocarbons 18 8 13 .2 .1. 1 DDT 18 8 13 .2.2 Organophosphorus Compounds .19 1 13 .2.3 Carbamates .19 3 13 .3 Herbicides 19 4 13 .4 Polychlorinated Biphenyls (PCBs) 19 6 13 .4 .1 Introduction .19 6 13 .4.2 Properties 19 6 13 .4.3 Uses 19 7 13 .4.4 Environmental Contamination 19 7 13 .4.4 .1 Wildlife Exposure... Matter .11 1 9 .1 Introduction 11 1 9.2 Characteristics 11 1 9.3 Formation of Particulates 11 2 9.3 .1 Physical Processes 11 2 9.3.2 Chemical Processes 11 2 9.4 Toxicity 11 3 9.5 Silica 11 4 9.5 .1 Silicosis 11 4 9.5.2 Pathogenesis .11 4 9.6 Beryllium .11 5 9.6 .1 Sources of Exposure .11 5 9.6.2 Health... May 17 , 2000 3: 21 PM 12 .5.2 Sources of Environmental Pollution 17 4 12 .5.3 Health Effects 17 5 12 .6 Arsenic 17 6 12 .6 .1 Occurrence and Properties .17 6 12 .6.2 Uses 17 7 12 .6.3 Sources of Exposure .17 7 12 .6.3 .1 Natural Sources 17 7 12 .6.3.2 Anthropogenic Sources 17 7 12 .6.4 Exposure 17 8 12 .6.4 .1 Human Exposure .17 8 12 .6.4.2... 15 9 12 .3 .1 Characteristics and Uses 15 9 12 .3.2 Exposure 16 0 12 .3.2 .1 Airborne Cadmium 16 0 12 .3.2.2 Waterborne Cadmium 16 0 12 .3.2.3 Cadmium Pollution of Soils 16 0 12 .3.2.4 Cadmium in Food 16 1 12 .3.3 Metabolism .16 1 12 .3.4 Toxicity .16 2 12 .3.4 .1 Effects on Plants 16 2 12 .3.4.2 Effects on Animals 16 3 12 .3.4.3 Effects... Plants 12 7 10 .5 .1 Toxicological Effects 12 7 10 .5.2 Biochemical Effect 12 8 10 .6 Effects on Animals 13 0 10 .6 .1 Acute Effects 13 0 10 .6.2 Chronic Effects 13 1 10 .7 Effects on Humans 13 3 10 .7 .1 Daily Intake 13 3 10 .7.2 Absorption 13 3 10 .7.3 Acute Effects 13 3 10 .7.4 Chronic Effects 13 4 10 .7.5 Biochemical... 17 0 12 .4.5 Toxicity .17 0 12 .4.5 .1 Effects on Algae 17 0 12 .4.5.2 Effects on Plants 17 0 12 .4.5.3 Effects on Animals 17 1 12 .4.5.4 Effects on Human Health 17 1 12 .4.6 Biochemical Effect 17 3 12 .4.7 Mercury and Nutrition 17 3 12 .5 Nickel 17 4 12 .5 .1 Introduction .17 4 © 20 01 by CRC Press LLC LA 415 4/frame/FM Page 17 Wednesday,... .209 14 .1 Introduction 209 14 .2 Types of Mutation 210 14 .2 .1 Chromosomal Aberrations 210 14 .2.2 Gene Mutations 211 14 .3 Effect of Mutations 211 14 .4 Induction of Mutation 212 14 .4 .1 UV Light 212 14 .4.2 Ionizing Radiations 213 14 .4.3 Chemical Mutagens 214 14 .4.3 .1 Alkylating Agents 214 14 .4.3.2 Intercalating . Petroleum Hydrocarbons 14 0 11 .3 .1 Alkanes 14 0 11 .3 .1. 1 Properties and Use 14 0 11 .3 .1. 2 Health Effects 14 1 11 .3.2 Alkenes 14 2 11 .3.2 .1 Properties and Use 14 2 11 .3.2.2 Health Effects 14 2 11 .3.3 The Aromatic. Aromatic Hydrocarbons 14 2 11 .3.3 .1 Benzene 14 3 11 .3.3.2 Toluene 14 4 11 .3.3.3 The Xylenes 14 4 11 .4 Polycyclic Aromatic Hydrocarbons 14 5 11 .4 .1 Introduction 14 5 11 .4.2 Sources 14 6 11 .4.3 Physical and. Properties 14 6 11 .4.4 Transport 14 6 11 .4.5 Exposure 14 6 11 .4.6 Metabolism 14 8 11 .5 References and Suggested Readings 14 9 11 .6 Review Questions 15 0 Chapter 12 Environmental Metals 15 1 12 .1 Introduction