Product Design for the Environment A Life Cycle Approach © 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC A CRC title, part of the Taylor & Francis imprint, a member of the Taylor & Francis Group, the academic division of T&F Informa plc. Product Design for the Environment A Life Cycle Approach Fabio Giudice Guido La Rosa Antonino Risitano Boca Raton London New York © 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC Published in 2006 by CRC Press Taylor & Francis Group 6000 Broken Sound Parkway NW, Suite 300 Boca Raton, FL 33487-2742 © 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC CRC Press is an imprint of Taylor & Francis Group No claim to original U.S. Government works Printed in the United States of America on acid-free paper 10987654321 International Standard Book Number-10: 0-8493-2722-9 (Hardcover) International Standard Book Number-13: 978-0-8493-2722-3 (Hardcover) This book contains information obtained from authentic and highly regarded sources. Reprinted material is quoted with permission, and sources are indicated. A wide variety of references are listed. Reasonable efforts have been made to publish reliable data and information, but the author and the publisher cannot assume No part of this book may be reprinted, reproduced, transmitted, or utilized in any form by any electronic, mechanical, or other means, now known or hereafter invented, including photocopying, microfilming, and recording, or in any information storage or retrieval system, without written permission from the publishers. Danvers, MA 01923, 978-750-8400. CCC is a not-for-profit organization that provides licenses and registration for a variety of users. For organizations that have been granted a photocopy license by the CCC, a separate Trademark Notice: Product or corporate names may be trademarks or registered trademarks, and are used only for identification and explanation without intent to infringe. Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data Catalog record is available from the Library of Congress Visit the Taylor & Francis Web site at and the CRC Press Web site at Taylor & Francis Group is the Academic Division of Informa plc. 2722_Discl.fm Page 1 Tuesday, November 29, 2005 1:18 PM © 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC For permission to photocopy or use material electronically from this work, please access www.copyright.com system of payment has been arranged. responsibility for the validity of all materials or for the consequences of their use. http://www.taylorandfrancis.com (http://www.copyright.com/) or contact the Copyright Clearance Center, Inc. (CCC) 222 Rosewood Drive, http://www.crcpress.com The Tao works to use the excess, and gives to that which is depleted. The way of man is to take from the depleted, and give to those who already have an excess. La Via del Cielo toglie il sovrappiù e aggiunge ciò che manca. La Via degli uomini, al contrario, non è così: essi tolgono dove c ’ è mancanza per offrirlo dove c ’ è un sovrappiù. Tao Tê Ching VI-III BC Design, if it is to be ecologically responsible and socially responsive, must be revolutionary and radical in the truest sense. It must dedicate itself to nature’s principle of least effort [ . ] That means consuming less, using things longer, recycling materials, and probably not wasting paper printing books. La progettazione, se vuole essere ecologicamente responsabile e socialmente rispondente deve essere rivoluzionaria e radicale nel senso più vero. Deve votarsi al principio del minimo sforzo adottato dalla natura [ ] Ciò signifi ca consumare meno, usare più a lungo, riciclare i materiali, e probabilmente non sprecare carta stampando libri (come questo). Victor Papanek Design for the Real World XX AD 2722_C000_r02.indd v2722_C000_r02.indd v 12/1/2005 11:23:51 AM12/1/2005 11:23:51 AM © 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC Contents List of Figures xix List of Tables xxv Preface xxvii Acknowledgments xxxi Author Biographies xxxiii 1. From Sustainable Development to Design for Environment 1 1.1 Sustainable Development 1 1.1.1 Key Factors in Sustainable Development and the Role of Environmental Protection 2 1.1.2 Role of Science and Technology 4 1.2 Industrial Ecology 5 1.2.1 Scope and Evolution of the Ecological Metaphor 6 1.2.2 Defi nition of Industrial Ecology 8 1.2.3 Objectives and Approaches of Industrial Ecology 10 1.2.4 Typologies of Cycles in Nature and Translation into Industrial Ecosystems 10 1.2.5 Effi ciency of Industrial Ecosystems and Determining Factors 12 1.3 Design in the Context of the Environmental Question 13 1.4 Design for Environment 15 1.4.1 DFE: Defi nition and Approach 15 1.4.2 Approaches to Optimal Environmental Performance 17 1.4.3 Area of Intervention of DFE 19 1.4.4 Implementation of DFE and General Guidelines 20 1.4.5 Orientation of DFE Evolution 21 1.5 Concepts, Tools, and Approaches to the Environmental Question: Overview 22 1.6 Standards and Regulations Oriented toward Environmental Quality of Products 24 1.6.1 Environmental Standards and Product Certifi cation 25 2722_C000_r02.indd vii2722_C000_r02.indd vii 12/1/2005 11:23:51 AM12/1/2005 11:23:51 AM © 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC viii Contents Extension of Manufacturer Responsibility 26 1.6.2.1 The European Example 27 1.7 Summary 28 1.8 References 29 Part I—Life Cycle Approach Life Cycle Approach and the Product–System Concept and Modeling 2.1 Life Cycle Concept and Theory 37 2.1.1 Life Cycle Theory: General Concepts 37 2.1.2 Life Cycle Theory in the Management of Product Development 39 2.2 Life Cycle and the Product–System Concept 40 2.3 Product–System and Environmental Impact 43 2.3.1 Environmental Aspects of the Consumption of Energy Resources 46 2.3.2 Emission Phenomena and Environmental Effects 47 2.4 Life Cycle Modeling 48 2.4.1 Approach to Environmental Performance 49 2.4.2 Modeling by Elementary Function or Activity 49 2.4.3 Typologies of Activity Models 51 2.5 Product Life Cycle: Reference Model 52 2.5.1 Main Phases of the Life Cycle 52 2.5.1.1 Preproduction 53 2.5.1.2 Production 54 2.5.1.3 Distribution 55 2.5.1.4 Use 55 2.5.1.5 Retirement and Disposal 56 2.5.2 Flows of Material Resources and Recovery Levels 56 2.6 Summary 58 2.7 References 58 3. Life Cycle Design and Management 61 3.1 Life Cycle Approach in Product Design 61 3.1.1 Life Cycle Design 63 3.2 Life Cycle Design Oriented toward Environmental Performance of Products 65 3.2.1 Characteristics, Objectives, and Approach 67 2722_C000_r02.indd viii2722_C000_r02.indd viii 12/1/2005 11:23:51 AM12/1/2005 11:23:51 AM © 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC 1.6.2 2. 37 Contents ix 3.2.2 Guidelines for Design 70 3.2.3 Tools to Evaluate Environmental Performance of Products 71 3.2.4 Life Cycle Simulation 75 3.3 Life Cycle Management 76 3.4 Summary 77 3.5 References 78 4. Life Cycle Assessment 83 4.1 Environmental Analysis and Evaluation of the Life Cycle 83 4.1.1 Origins and Evolution 84 4.1.2 Introduction of Life Cycle Assessment and Concept Development 86 4.2 Premises, Properties, and Framework of Life Cycle Assessment 87 4.2.1 Defi nition of Life Cycle and Product–System 88 4.2.2 Methodological Framework of LCA 89 4.2.3 Phases of LCA in ISO Standards 92 4.2.3.1 ISO 14040: 1997—Principles and Framework 92 4.2.3.2 ISO 14041: 1998—Life Cycle Inventory (LCI) 94 4.2.3.3 ISO 14042: 2000—Life Cycle Impact Assessment (LCIA) 95 4.2.3.4 ISO 14043: 2000—Life Cycle Interpretation 95 4.3 Fields of Application and Limitations of Life Cycle Assessment 96 4.4 Overview of Practical Approaches and Tools for Life Cycle Assessment 97 4.4.1 Full LCA 98 4.4.2 Streamlined LCA 98 4.4.3 Alternative Approaches 101 4.4.3.1 Activity-based LCA 101 4.4.3.2 Input–Output LCA 101 4.4.4 Software Tools 102 4.5 Summary 103 4.6 References 104 5. Life Cycle Cost Analysis 111 5.1 Cost Analysis and the Life Cycle Approach 111 5.1.1 From Assessment of Production Costs to Economic Analysis of Life Cycle 113 2722_C000_r02.indd ix2722_C000_r02.indd ix 12/1/2005 11:23:51 AM12/1/2005 11:23:51 AM © 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC x Contents 5.2 Product Life Cycle Cost Analysis 114 5.2.1 Premises and Defi nition of LCCA 116 5.2.2 General Framework for LCCA 118 5.2.2.1 Preliminary Defi nitions 118 5.2.2.2 Cost Valuation 119 5.2.2.3 Results Analysis 119 5.2.2.4 Decision Making 120 5.2.3 Decomposition of Costs and Cost Breakdown Structure 120 5.2.4 Life Cycle Cost Models 121 5.2.5 Cost Estimating 122 5.3 Evolution of Models for Product Life Cycle Cost Analysis 125 5.3.1 Function Costing 126 5.3.2 Activity-based Costing 126 5.3.3 Feature-based Costing 127 5.4 Reference Standards and Codes of Practice 127 5.4.1 Standard IEC 60300–3-3: Life Cycle Costing 128 5.5 Summary 131 5.6 References 132 6. Integrated Economic–Environmental Analysis of the Life Cycle 135 6.1 Life Cycle Cost Analysis and Environmental Aspects 135 6.1.1 Scenario of LCCA Extended to Environmental Aspects 137 6.2 Environmental Costs and Environmental Accounting 139 6.2.1 Environmental Accounting 141 6.2.2 Typologies of Environmental Accounting 141 6.3 Integration between LCCA and LCA 142 6.3.1 Integrated Economic–Environmental Approach in Life Cycle Management 145 6.4 Other Approaches to Economic–Environmental Analysis: Eco-Cost Models 145 6.5 Summary 147 6.6 References 147 Part II—Methodological Statement 7. Product Design and Development Process 153 7.1 Product Design and Development 153 2722_C000_r02.indd x2722_C000_r02.indd x 12/1/2005 11:23:52 AM12/1/2005 11:23:52 AM © 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC Contents xi 7.1.1 Contexts and Perspectives of Product Development: General Overview 154 7.1.2 Summary of the Product Development Process 156 7.2 Product Design 158 7.2.1 Engineering Design 159 7.2.2 Organization and Decomposition in Product Design 160 7.2.2.1 Integration and Decomposition of Product Architecture 161 7.2.2.2 Integration and Decomposition of Design Process 162 7.2.3 Product Design Process 162 7.2.3.1 Typologies of Design Process Models 163 7.2.3.2 Reference Model 164 7.2.4 Product Design in the Context of the Product Development Process 167 7.2.4.1 Relation with the Development Process Planning Phase 167 7.2.4.2 Relation with the Postdesign Planning Phase 168 7.3 Methodological Evolution in Product Design 169 7.3.1 Concurrent Engineering 171 7.3.1.1 Characteristic Features of Concurrent Engineering 172 7.3.1.2 Concurrent Engineering and Life Cycle Approach 174 7.3.2 Design for X and Design-Centered Development Model 176 7.3.2.1 The Design for X System 177 7.3.2.2 Objective Properties and Design for X Tools 178 7.3.2.3 Choice of Design for X Tools and Their Use in the Design Process 179 7.3.2.4 Design for X and Design-Centered Model in Relation to Other Methodological Approaches 181 7.4 Summary 181 7.5 References 182 8. Integration of Environmental Aspects in Product Design 187 8.1 Orientation toward Environmental Aspects in the Design Process 187 8.1.1 Premises for the Integration of Environmental Requirements 188 2722_C000_r02.indd xi2722_C000_r02.indd xi 12/1/2005 11:23:52 AM12/1/2005 11:23:52 AM © 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC xii Contents 8.1.2 Interventions in the Product Development Process 190 8.2 Environmental Strategies for the Life Cycle Approach 191 8.2.1 Environmental Strategies in Product Design 193 8.2.2 Useful Life Extension Strategies 195 8.2.3 End-of-Life Strategies 196 8.2.4 Introduction of Environmental Strategies into the Design Process 197 8.3 Tools and Techniques for Environmental Requirements of the Life Cycle 201 8.3.1 Role of Design for X 201 8.3.2 DFX Tools for Environmental Strategies 202 8.4 Integration in Product Development: Proposed Framework 203 8.4.1 Tools and Techniques for Integrated Design: Overview 205 8.5 Toward an International Standard: The ISO/TR 14062 Technical Report 208 8.5.1 General Premises and Fundamental Concepts 209 8.5.2 Environmental Objectives and Design Strategies 210 8.5.3 Integration of Environmental Aspects in the Design Process 210 8.6 Summary 211 8.7 References 212 9. Life Cycle Environmental Strategies and Considerations for Product Design 217 9.1 Strategies for Improving Resources Exploitation and Determinant Factors 217 9.1.1 Infl uence of External Factors and Product Durability 219 9.1.2 Identifi cation of Optimal Strategies 220 9.1.3 Use Process Modeling 223 9.2 Strategies for Extension of Useful Life and Design Considerations 224 9.2.1 Design for Serviceability 226 9.2.1.1 Main Aspects of Serviceability 226 9.2.1.2 Parameters of Constructional System Reliability 227 9.2.2 Quantitative Evaluation of Serviceability Properties 227 2722_C000_r02.indd xii2722_C000_r02.indd xii 12/1/2005 11:23:52 AM12/1/2005 11:23:52 AM © 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC [...]... of Tables Table 3 .1 Table 4 .1 Table 4.2 Table 4.3 Table 5 .1 Table 5.2 Table 6 .1 Table 8 .1 Table 8.2 Table 9 .1 Table 9.2 Table 10 .1 Table 11 .1 Table 11 .2 Table 11 .3 Table 11 .4 Table 11 .5 Table 11 .6 Table 12 .1 Table 12 .2 Table 12 .3 Table 14 .1 Table 14 .2 Table 14 .3 Guidelines for Life Cycle Design LCA methodological frameworks prior to ISO standards ISO international standards and technical reports for. .. Figure 10 .17 Figure 10 .18 Figure 10 .19 Figure 11 .1 Figure 11 .2 Figure 11 .3 Figure 11 .4 Figure 11 .5 Figure 11 .6 Figure 11 .7 Figure 11 .8 Figure 11 .9 Figure 11 .10 Figure 11 .11 Figure 11 .12 Figure 11 .13 Goodman–Smith diagram Amplitude of total strain—cycles of life Hysteresis loop Damage curve according to Miner Representation of Marco–Starkey damage law Rotation hypothesis: H–L loading sequence Rotation... xvii 12 /1/ 2005 11 :23:52 AM xviii 16 Contents Methodological Framework and Analysis Models for Simulation of the Product Life Cycle 16 .1 Simulation and the Life Cycle Approach 16 .2 Approach to the Problem and Methodological Framework 16 .3 Product Model and Analysis Tools 16 .3 .1 Model of System Behavior 16 .3.2 Evaluation of Performance Decay 16 .3.2 .1 Duration Index 16 .3.2.2 Dynamic Criticality Factor 16 .3.2.3... Impact of Use: Evaluation of Life Cycle Indicators and Analysis of Results 12 .9 Acknowledgments 12 .10 Summary 12 .11 References 13 Design for Disassembly and Distribution of Disassembly Depth 13 .1 Design for Disassembly and Disassembly Level 13 .1. 1 Design Approaches to Ease of Disassembly 13 .1. 1 .1 Metrics for Design 13 .1. 1.2 Orientations of the Design Intervention 13 .1. 2 Optimal Disassembly Level 13 .2... Criticality and Potentiality of the Conventional System 11 .2.3.2 Redesign of Product 11 .2.4 Verification Tools 11 .3 Optimal Life Cycle Strategy Evaluation Tool 11 .3 .1 Determinant Factors for Strategies 11 .3.2 Implementation of Matrices for Analysis of Strategies 11 .4 Case Study: System Analysis and Redesign of a Household Refrigerator 11 .4 .1 Preliminary Analysis of System 11 .4.2 Analysis of Criticality and... Summary References 280 283 283 286 2 91 2 91 Part III—Methods, Tools, and Case Studies 11 12 Product Constructional System Definition Based on Optimal Life Cycle Strategies 11 .1 Aims and Approach 11 .2 Method and Tools for Analysis and Design 11 .2 .1 Product Constructional System and Design Choices 11 .2.2 Analysis and Decomposition of Product Architecture 11 .2.3 Investigation Typologies 11 .2.3 .1 Analysis... History 10 .2.2 Design for Fatigue 10 .2.3 Infinite Life Approach 10 .2.4 Design for Finite Life 10 .3 Damage 10 .3 .1 Mechanical Representation of Damage 10 .3 .1. 1 The Concept of Effective Stress 10 .3 .1. 2 Connection between Strain and Damage 10 .3.2 Cumulative Damage Fatigue and Theories of Lifespan Prediction 10 .3.2 .1 Phenomenological Approach 10 .3.2.2 Theories Based on Fracture Growth 10 .3.2.3 Energy Theories... xxix 12 /1/ 2005 11 :23:53 AM xxx Preface Chapter 1 introduces the concepts of Sustainable Development, Industrial Ecology, and Design for Environment as defined in the literature The life cycle theory and approach are presented and applied in Part I Life Cycle Approach (Chapters 2 through 6), defining the main techniques (Life Cycle Design and Management, Life Cycle Assessment) This part also considers the. .. 12 8 13 0 13 9 19 3 19 8 229 238 258 305 306 309 309 311 317 339 340 342 383 392 4 01 © 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC 2722_C000_r02.indd xxv 12 /1/ 2005 11 :23:53 AM xxvi Table 15 .1 Table 15 .2 Table 15 .3 Table 16 .1 List of Tables Data on the CFU architecture Data on the AES architecture Data on the CFU* architecture Performance evaluation and analysis of criticality: Design alternative I 420 4 21 425 449... Disassembly Depth Case Study: Electromechanical System 13 .7 .1 Evaluation of Disassembly Depth 13 .7.2 Analysis of the Design Solution 13 .7.3 Redesign and Optimization Summary References Optimal Disassembly Planning 14 .1 Disassembly Planning 14 .1. 1 General View of the State of the Art 14 .1. 2 Extension to Design of the Life Cycle 14 .1. 3 Application of Artificial Intelligence 14 .1. 4 Concluding Considerations . LCA 98 4.4.3 Alternative Approaches 10 1 4.4.3 .1 Activity-based LCA 10 1 4.4.3.2 Input–Output LCA 10 1 4.4.4 Software Tools 10 2 4.5 Summary 10 3 4.6 References 10 4 5. Life Cycle Cost Analysis 11 1 5 .1. Studies 11 . Product Constructional System Defi nition Based on Optimal Life Cycle Strategies 297 11 .1 Aims and Approach 297 11 .2 Method and Tools for Analysis and Design 298 11 .2 .1 Product Constructional. 11 1 5 .1 Cost Analysis and the Life Cycle Approach 11 1 5 .1. 1 From Assessment of Production Costs to Economic Analysis of Life Cycle 11 3 2722_C000_r02.indd ix2722_C000_r02.indd ix 12 /1/ 2005 11 :23:51