9 1.4.1 Summary of Foundation Concepts and Paradigms.. 36 3.11.1 Summary of Foundation Concepts and Paradigms.. 57 4.6.1 Summary of Foundation Concepts and Paradigms.. 72 5.11.1 Summary
Trang 1A Comprehensive Treatment
Trang 2A Comprehensive
Treatment
Michael C Newman William H Clements
CRC Press
Taylor & Francis Group Boca Raton London New York CRC Press is an imprint of the
Taylor Si Francis Group, an informa business
Trang 3CRC Press
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Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data
Newman, Michael C
Ecotoxicology: a comprehensive treatment / Michael C Newman and William H Clements,
p.; cm
"A CRC title."
Includes bibliographical references and index
ISBN 978-0-8493-3357-6 (alk paper)
1 Toxicology—Environmental aspects I Clements, William H (William Henry), 1954- II Title
[DNLM: 1 Environmental Exposure—adverse effects 2 Environmental Pollutants—toxicity 3
Ecosystem 4 Population Dynamics WA 671 E196 2008]
Trang 4To Peg, Ben, and Ian (MCN)
To Diana for her endless support over the years (WHC)
Trang 5Do that which will render thee worthy of happiness
Critique of Pure Reason, I Kant 1781
Trang 6Preface xxv
Authors xxvii
I Hierarchical Ecotoxicology 1
Chapter 1 The Hierarchical Science of Ecotoxicology 3
1.1 An Overarching Context of Hierarchical Ecotoxicology 3
1.1.1 General 3
1.1.2 The Modified Janus Context 4
1.2 Reductionism versus Holism Debate 6
1.2.1 Reductionism versus Holism as a False Dichotomy 6
1.2.2 Microexplanation, Holism, and Macroexplanation 6
1.2.3 A Closer Look at Macroexplanation 7
1.3 Requirements in the Science of Ecotoxicology 8
1.3.1 General 8
1.3.2 Strongest Possible Inference 8
1.4 Summary 9
1.4.1 Summary of Foundation Concepts and Paradigms 9
References 10
II Organismal Ecotoxicology 11
Chapter 2 The Organismal Ecotoxicology Context 13
2.1 Overview 13
2.2 Organismal Ecotoxicology Defined 14
2.2.1 What Is Organismal Ecotoxicology? 14
2.3 The Value of Organismal Ecotoxicology Vantage 18
2.3.1 Tractability and Discreteness 18
2.3.2 Inferring Effects to or Exposure of Organisms with Suborganismal Metrics 18
2.3.3 Extrapolating among Individuals: Species, Size, Sex, and Other Key Qualities 19
2.3.4 Inferring Population Effects from Organismal Effects 19
2.3.5 Inferring Community Effects from Organismal Effects 20
2.3.6 Inferring Potential for Trophic Transfer from Bioaccumulation 21
2.4 Summary 21
References 21
Chapter 3 Biochemistry of Toxicants 23
3.1 Overview 23
3.2 DNA Modification 25
Trang 73.3 Detoxification of Organic Compounds 25
3.3.1 Phase I Reactions 26
3.3.2 Phase II (Conjugative) Reactions 27
3.4 Metal Detoxification, Regulation, and Sequestration 28
3.5 Stress Proteins and Proteotoxicity 30
3.6 Oxidative Stress 31
3.7 Enzyme Dysfunction 32
3.8 Heme Biosynthesis Inhibition 32
3.9 Oxidative Phosphorylation Inhibition 35
3.10 Narcosis 35
3.11 Summary 36
3.11.1 Summary of Foundation Concepts and Paradigms 36
References 37
Chapter 4 Cells and Tissues 43
4.1 Overview 43
4.2 Cytotoxicity 43
4.2.1 Necrosis and Apoptosis 43
4.2.2 Types of Necrosis 44
4.2.3 Inflammation and Other Responses 47
4.3 Genotoxicity 50
4.3.1 Somatic and Genetic Risk 50
4.3.2 DNA Damage 52
4.3.3 Chromatids and Chromosomes 52
4.4 Cancer 53
4.4.1 Carcinogenesis 53
4.4.2 Cancer Latency 54
4.4.3 Threshold and Nonthreshold Models 55
4.5 Sequestration and Accumulation 55
4.5.1 Toxicants or Products of Toxicants 55
4.5.2 Cellular Materials as Evidence of Toxicant Damage 56
4.6 Summary 57
4.6.1 Summary of Foundation Concepts and Paradigms 57
References 57
Chapter 5 Organs and Organ Systems 63
5.1 Overview 63
5.2 General Integument 63
5.3 Organs Associated with Gas Exchange 65
5.3.1 Air Breathing 65
5.3.2 Water Breathing 66
5.4 Circulatory System 66
5.5 Digestive System 67
5.6 Liver and Analogous Organs of Invertebrates 68
5.7 Excretory Organs 69
5.8 Immune System 69
5.9 Endocrine System 70
5.10 Nervous, Sensory, and Motor-Related Organs and Systems 72
5.11 Summary 72
5.11.1 Summary of Foundation Concepts and Paradigms 72
References 73
Trang 8Chapter 6 Physiology 81
6.1 Overview 81
6.2 Ionic and Osmotic Regulation 82
6.3 Acid–Base Regulation 83
6.4 Respiration and General Metabolism 84
6.5 Bioenergetics 87
6.6 Plant-Related Processes 89
6.7 Summary 90
6.7.1 Summary of Foundation Concepts and Paradigms 90
References 91
Chapter 7 Bioaccumulation 95
7.1 Overview 95
7.2 Uptake 95
7.2.1 Cellular Mechanisms 95
7.2.2 Routes of Entry into Organisms 99
7.2.3 Factors Modifying Uptake 101
7.3 Biotransformation 104
7.4 Elimination 105
7.4.1 Hepatobiliary 106
7.4.2 Renal 106
7.4.3 Branchial 106
7.4.4 Other Elimination Mechanisms 107
7.5 Summary 107
7.5.1 Summary of Foundation Concepts and Paradigms 107
References 108
Chapter 8 Models of Bioaccumulation and Bioavailability 115
8.1 Overview 115
8.2 Bioaccumulation 115
8.2.1 Underlying Mechanisms 116
8.2.2 Assumptions of Models and Methods of Fitting Data 116
8.2.3 Rate Constant-Based Models 118
8.2.4 Clearance Volume-Based Models 122
8.2.5 Fugacity-Based Models 123
8.2.6 Physiologically Based Pharmacokinetic Models 125
8.2.7 Statistical Moments Formulations 125
8.3 Bioavailability 127
8.3.1 Conceptual Foundation: Concentration→Exposure→Realized Dose →Effect 127
8.3.2 Types and Estimation of Bioavailability 128
8.4 Summary 131
8.4.1 Summary of Foundation Concepts and Paradigms 131
References 132
Chapter 9 Lethal Effects 135
9.1 Overview 135
9.1.1 Distinct Dynamics Arising from Underlaying Mechanisms and Modes of Action 136
9.1.2 Lethality Differences among Individuals 140
9.1.2.1 Individual Effective Dose Hypothesis 141
9.1.2.2 Probabilistic Hypothesis 142
Trang 99.1.3 Spontaneous and Threshold Responses 144
9.1.4 Hormesis 144
9.1.5 Toxicant Interactions 145
9.2 Quantifying Lethality 146
9.2.1 General 146
9.2.2 Dose or Concentration–Response Models Quantifying Lethality 146
9.2.3 Time–Response Models Quantifying Lethality 150
9.3 Lethality Prediction 154
9.3.1 Organic Compounds and the QSAR Approach 154
9.3.2 Metals and the QICAR Approach 156
9.4 Summary 157
9.4.1 Summary of Foundation Concepts and Paradigms 157
References 158
Chapter 10 Sublethal Effects 163
10.1 Overview 163
10.2 General Categories of Effects 166
10.2.1 Development and Growth 166
10.2.2 Reproduction 167
10.2.3 Behavior 167
10.2.4 Physiology 168
10.3 Quantifying Sublethal Effects 168
10.3.1 Hypothesis Testing and Point Estimation 169
10.3.1.1 Basic Concepts and Assumptions of Hypothesis Tests 175
10.3.1.2 Basic Concepts and Assumptions of Point Estimation Methods 179
10.4 Summary 179
10.4.1 Summary of Foundation Concepts and Paradigms 180
References 180
Chapter 11 Conclusion 189
11.1 General 189
11.2 Some Particularly Key Concepts 189
11.3 Concluding Remarks 191
III Population Ecotoxicology 193
Chapter 12 The Population Ecotoxicology Context 195
12.1 Population Ecotoxicology Defined 195
12.1.1 What Is a Population? 195
12.1.2 Definition of Population Ecotoxicology 196
12.2 The Need for Population Ecotoxicology 196
12.2.1 General 196
12.2.2 Scientific Merit 197
12.2.3 Practical Merit 199
12.3 Inferences within and between Biological Levels 203
12.3.1 Inferring Population Effects from Qualities of Individuals 204
12.3.2 Inferring Individual Effects from Qualities of Populations 204
12.3.3 Inferring Community Effects from Qualities of Populations 205
12.4 Summary 208
12.4.1 Summary of Foundation Concepts and Paradigms 208
References 208
Trang 10Chapter 13 Epidemiology: The Study of Disease in Populations 215
13.1 Foundation Concepts and Metrics in Epidemiology 215
13.1.1 Foundation Concepts 215
13.1.2 Foundation Metrics 218
13.1.3 Foundation Models Describing Disease in Populations 224
13.1.3.1 Accelerated Failure Time and Proportional Hazard Models 224
13.1.3.2 Binary Logistic Regression Model 227
13.2 Disease Association and Causation 228
13.2.1 Hill’s Nine Aspects of Disease Association 228
13.2.2 Strength of Evidence Hierarchy 232
13.3 Infectious Disease and Toxicant-Exposed Populations 235
13.4 Differences in Sensitivity within and among Populations 236
13.5 Summary 237
13.5.1 Summary of Foundation Concepts and Paradigms 237
References 238
Chapter 14 Toxicants and Simple Population Models 241
14.1 Toxicants Effects on Population Size and Dynamics 241
14.1.1 The Population-Based Paradigm for Ecological Risk 241
14.1.2 Evidence of the Need for the Population-Based Paradigm for Risk 242
14.2 Fundamentals of Population Dynamics 243
14.2.1 General 243
14.2.2 Projection Based on Phenomenological Models: Continuous Growth 244
14.2.3 Projection Based on Phenomenological Models: Discrete Growth 246
14.2.4 Sustainable Harvest and Time to Recovery 247
14.3 Population Stability 250
14.4 Spatial Distributions of Individuals in Populations 253
14.4.1 Describing Distributions: Clumped, Random, and Uniform 253
14.4.2 Metapopulations 254
14.4.2.1 Metapopulation Dynamics 254
14.4.2.2 Consequences to Exposed Populations 256
14.5 Summary 258
14.5.1 Summary of Foundation Concepts and Paradigms 258
References 259
Chapter 15 Toxicants and Population Demographics 263
15.1 Demography: Adding Individual Heterogeneity to Population Models 263
15.1.1 Structured Populations 263
15.1.2 Basic Life Tables 264
15.1.2.1 Survival Schedules 264
15.1.2.2 Mortality–Natality Tables 266
15.2 Matrix Forms of Demographic Models 270
15.2.1 Basics of Matrix Calculations 270
15.2.2 The Leslie Age-Structured Matrix Approach 272
15.2.3 The Lefkovitch Stage-Structured Matrix Approach 274
15.2.4 Stochastic Models 276
15.3 Summary 277
15.3.1 Summary of Foundation Concepts and Paradigms 277
References 278
Trang 11Chapter 16 Phenogenetics of Exposed Populations 281
16.1 Overview 281
16.1.1 The Phenotype Vantage 281
16.1.2 An Extreme Case Example 281
16.2 Toxicants and the Principle of Allocation (Concept of Strategy) 284
16.2.1 Phenotypic Plasticity and Norms of Reaction 286
16.2.2 Toxicants and Aging 289
16.2.2.1 Stress-Based Theories of Aging 290
16.2.2.2 Disposable Soma and Related Theories of Aging 290
16.2.3 Optimizing Fitness: Balancing Somatic Growth, Longevity, and Reproduction 291
16.3 Developmental Stability in Populations 294
16.4 Summary 297
16.4.1 Summary of Foundation Concepts and Paradigms 299
References 300
Chapter 17 Population Genetics: Damage and Stochastic Dynamics of the Germ Line 305
17.1 Overview 305
17.2 Direct Damage to the Germ Line 306
17.2.1 Genotoxicity 306
17.2.2 Repair of Genotoxic Damage 307
17.2.3 Mutation Rates and Accumulation 309
17.3 Indirect Change to the Germ Line 311
17.3.1 Stochastic Processes 311
17.3.2 Hardy–Weinberg Expectations 313
17.3.3 Genetic Drift 314
17.3.3.1 Effective Population Size 314
17.3.3.2 Genetic Bottlenecks 316
17.3.3.3 Balancing Drift and Mutation 317
17.3.4 Population Structure 317
17.3.4.1 The Wahlund Effect 317
17.3.4.2 Isolated and Semi-Isolated Subpopulations 320
17.3.5 Multiple Locus Heterozygosity and Individual Fitness 324
17.4 Genetic Diversity and Evolutionary Potential 326
17.5 Summary 326
17.5.1 Summary of Foundation Concepts and Paradigms 326
References 327
Chapter 18 Population Genetics: Natural Selection 331
18.1 Overview of Natural Selection 331
18.1.1 General 331
18.1.2 Viability Selection 334
18.1.3 Selection Components Associated with Reproduction 337
18.2 Estimating Differential Fitness and Natural Selection 340
18.2.1 Fitness, Relative Fitness, and Selection Coefficients 340
18.2.2 Heritability 343
18.3 Ecotoxicology’s Tradition of Tolerance 345
18.4 Summary 347
18.4.1 Summary of Foundation Concepts and Paradigms 347
References 348
Trang 12Chapter 19 Conclusion 353
19.1 Overview 353
19.2 Some Particularly Key Concepts 353
19.2.1 Epidemiology 353
19.2.2 Simple Models of Population Dynamics 354
19.2.3 Metapopulation Dynamics 354
19.2.4 The Demographic Approach 354
19.2.5 Phenogenetics Theory 355
19.2.6 Population Genetics: Stochastic Processes 355
19.2.7 Population Genetics: Natural Selection 356
19.3 Concluding Remarks 356
References 356
IV Community Ecotoxicology 359
Chapter 20 Introduction to Community Ecotoxicology 361
20.1 Definitions—Community Ecology and Ecotoxicology 361
20.1.1 Community Ecology 361
20.1.2 Community Ecotoxicology 362
20.2 Historical Perspective of Community Ecology and Ecotoxicology 362
20.2.1 Holism and Reductionism in Community Ecology and Ecotoxicology 363
20.2.2 Trophic Interactions in Community Ecology and Ecotoxicology 366
20.2.3 Importance of Experiments in Community Ecology and Ecotoxicology 366
20.3 Are Communities More Than the Sum of Individual Populations? 367
20.3.1 The Need to Understand Indirect Effects of Contaminants 367
20.4 Communities within the Hierarchy of Biological Organization 370
20.5 Contemporary Topics in Community Ecotoxicology 372
20.5.1 The Need for an Improved Understanding of Basic Community Ecology 372
20.5.2 Development and Application of Improved Biomonitoring Techniques 372
20.5.3 Application of Contemporary Food Web Theory to Ecotoxicology 373
20.5.4 The Need for Improved Experimental Approaches 374
20.5.5 Influence of Global Atmospheric Stressors on Community Responses to Contaminants 374
20.6 Summary 375
20.6.1 Summary of Foundation Concepts and Paradigms 375
References 376
Chapter 21 Biotic and Abiotic Factors That Regulate Communities 379
21.1 Characterizing Community Structure and Organization 379
21.1.1 Colonization and Community Structure 381
21.1.2 Definitions of Species Diversity 381
21.2 Changes in Species Diversity and Composition along Environmental Gradients 382
21.2.1 Global Patterns of Species Diversity 383
21.2.2 Species–Area Relationships 385
21.2.3 Assumptions about Equilibrium Communities 387
21.3 The Role of Keystone Species in Community Regulation 388
21.3.1 Identifying Keystone Species 389
21.4 The Role of Species Interactions in Community Ecology and Ecotoxicology 391
21.4.1 Definitions 391
21.4.2 Experimental Designs for Studying Species Interactions 392
Trang 1321.4.3 The Influence of Contaminants on Predator–Prey Interactions 393
21.4.4 The Influence of Contaminants on Competitive Interactions 397
21.5 Environmental Factors and Species Interactions 399
21.5.1 Environmental Stress Gradients 400
21.6 Summary 401
21.6.1 Summary of Foundation Concepts and Paradigms 402
References 403
Chapter 22 Biomonitoring and the Responses of Communities to Contaminants 409
22.1 Biomonitoring and Biological Integrity 409
22.2 Conventional Approaches 410
22.2.1 Indicator Species Concept 410
22.3 Biomonitoring and Community-Level Assessments 411
22.3.1 Species Abundance Models 411
22.3.2 The Use of Species Richness and Diversity to Characterize Communities 415
22.3.2.1 Species Richness 415
22.3.2.2 Species Diversity 417
22.3.2.3 Species Evenness 418
22.3.2.4 Limitations of Species Richness and Diversity Measures 418
22.3.3 Biotic Indices 420
22.4 Development and Application of Rapid Bioassessment Protocols 423
22.4.1 Application of Qualitative Sampling Techniques 425
22.4.2 Subsampling and Fixed-Count Sample Processing 425
22.4.3 Pooling Samples 426
22.4.4 Relaxed Taxonomic Resolution 427
22.4.5 The Application of Species Traits in Biomonitoring 429
22.5 Regional Reference Conditions 430
22.6 Integrated Assessments of Biological Integrity 431
22.7 Limitations of Biomonitoring 432
22.7.1 Summary 434
22.7.1.1 Summary of Foundation Concepts and Paradigms 434
References 435
Chapter 23 Experimental Approaches in Community Ecology and Ecotoxicology 439
23.1 Experimental Approaches in Basic Community Ecology 439
23.1.1 The Transition from Descriptive to Experimental Ecology 439
23.1.2 Manipulative Experiments in Rocky Intertidal Communities 442
23.1.3 Manipulative Studies in More Complex Communities 442
23.1.4 Types of Experiments in Basic Community Ecology 443
23.2 Experimental Approaches in Community Ecotoxicology 444
23.3 Microcosms and Mesocosms 445
23.3.1 Background and Definitions 445
23.3.2 Design Considerations in Microcosm and Mesocosm Studies 447
23.3.2.1 Source of Organisms in Microcosm Experiments 447
23.3.2.2 Spatiotemporal Scale of Microcosm and Mesocosm Experiments 448
23.3.2.3 The Influence of Seasonal Variation on Community Responses 450
23.3.3 Statistical Analyses of Microcosm and Mesocosm Experiments 450
23.3.4 General Applications of Microcosms and Mesocosms 451
23.3.4.1 The Use of Mesocosms for Pesticide Registration 452
23.3.4.2 Development of Concentration–Response Relationships 452
Trang 1423.3.4.3 Investigation of Stressor Interactions 453
23.3.4.4 Influence of Environmental and Ecological Factors on Community Responses 454
23.3.4.5 Species Interactions 455
23.3.4.6 Applications in Terrestrial Systems 455
23.3.5 Summary 457
23.4 Whole Ecosystem Manipulations 457
23.4.1 Examples of Ecosystem Manipulations: Aquatic Communities 458
23.4.1.1 Experimental Lakes Area (ELA) 458
23.4.1.2 Coweeta Hydrologic Laboratory 459
23.4.1.3 Summary 459
23.4.2 Examples of Ecosystem Manipulations: Avian and Mammalian Communities 460
23.4.3 Limitations of Whole Ecosystem Experiments 462
23.5 What Is the Appropriate Experimental Approach for Community Ecotoxicology? 464
23.5.1 Questions of Spatiotemporal Scale 464
23.5.2 Integrating Descriptive and Experimental Approaches 464
23.6 Summary 465
23.6.1 Summary of Foundation Concepts and Paradigms 466
References 467
Chapter 24 Application of Multimetric and Multivariate Approaches in Community Ecotoxicology 473
24.1 Introduction 473
24.1.1 Comparison of Multimetric and Multivariate Approaches 474
24.2 Multimetric Indices 475
24.2.1 Multimetric Approaches for Terrestrial Communities 477
24.2.2 Limitations of Multimetric Approaches 478
24.3 Multivariate Approaches 479
24.3.1 Similarity Indices 479
24.3.2 Ordination 481
24.3.3 Discriminant and Cluster Analysis 486
24.3.4 Application of Multivariate Methods to Laboratory Data 488
24.3.5 Taxonomic Aggregation in Multivariate Analyses 490
24.4 Summary 491
24.4.1 Summary of Foundation Concepts and Paradigms 491
References 492
Chapter 25 Disturbance Ecology and the Responses of Communities to Contaminants 497
25.1 The Importance of Disturbance in Structuring Communities 497
25.1.1 Disturbance and Equilibrium Communities 498
25.1.2 Resistance and Resilience Stability 499
25.1.3 Pulse and Press Disturbances 500
25.2 Community Stability and Species Diversity 502
25.3 Relationship between Natural and Anthropogenic Disturbance 504
25.3.1 The Ecosystem Distress Syndrome 505
25.3.2 The Intermediate Disturbance Hypothesis 506
25.3.3 Subsidy–Stress Gradients 508
25.4 Contemporary Hypotheses to Explain Community Responses to Anthropogenic Disturbance 509
25.4.1 Pollution-Induced Community Tolerance 510
Trang 1525.5 Biotic and Abiotic Factors That Influence Community Recovery 512
25.5.1 Cross-Community Comparisons of Recovery 514
25.5.2 Importance of Long-Term Studies for Documenting Recovery 515
25.5.3 Community-Level Indicators of Recovery 515
25.5.4 Community Characteristics that Influence Rate of Recovery 519
25.6 Influence of Environmental Variability on Resistance and Resilience 521
25.7 Quantifying the Effects of Compound Perturbations 523
25.7.1 Sensitivity of Communities to Novel Stressors 523
25.8 Summary 526
25.8.1 Summary of Foundation Concepts and Paradigms 526
References 528
Chapter 26 Community Responses to Global and Atmospheric Stressors 533
26.1 Introduction 533
26.2 CO2and Climate Change 534
26.2.1 Facts and Evidence 535
26.2.2 Carbon Cycles and Sinks 537
26.2.3 The Mismatch between Climate Models and Ecological Studies 539
26.2.4 Paleoecological Studies of CO2and Climate Change 540
26.2.5 Effects of Climate Change on Terrestrial Vegetation 541
26.2.6 Ecological Responses to CO2Enrichment 543
26.2.7 Effects of Climate Change on Terrestrial Animal Communities 544
26.2.8 Effects of Climate Change on Freshwater Communities 546
26.2.9 Effects of Climate Change on Marine Communities 549
26.2.10 Conclusions 551
26.3 Stratospheric Ozone Depletion 552
26.3.1 Methodological Approaches for Manipulating UVR 554
26.3.2 The Effects of UVR on Marine and Freshwater Plankton 554
26.3.2.1 Direct and Indirect Effects of UV-B Radiation 555
26.3.3 Responses of Benthic Communities 556
26.3.4 Responses of Terrestrial Plant Communities 557
26.3.5 Biotic and Abiotic Factors That Influence UV-B Effects on Communities 558
26.3.5.1 Dissolved Organic Materials 558
26.3.5.2 Location 559
26.3.5.3 Interspecific and Intraspecific Differences in UV-B Tolerance 560
26.3.5.4 Interactions with Other Stressors 561
26.4 Acid Deposition 562
26.4.1 Descriptive Studies of Acid Deposition Effects in Aquatic Communities 562
26.4.2 Episodic Acidification 564
26.4.3 Experimental Studies of Acid Deposition Effects in Aquatic Communities 565
26.4.4 Recovery of Aquatic Ecosystems from Acidification 566
26.4.5 Effects of Acid Deposition on Forest Communities 567
26.4.6 Indirect Effects of Acidification on Terrestrial Wildlife 569
26.5 Interactions among Global Atmospheric Stressors 569
26.6 Summary 571
26.6.1 Summary of Foundation Concepts and Paradigms 572
References 574
Trang 16Chapter 27 Effects of Contaminants on Trophic Structure and Food Webs 581
27.1 Introduction 581
27.2 Basic Principles of Food Web Ecology 582
27.2.1 Historical Perspective of Food Web Ecology 582
27.2.2 Descriptive, Interactive, and Energetic Food Webs 583
27.2.3 Contemporary Questions in Food Web Ecology 584
27.2.4 Trophic Cascades 587
27.2.5 Limitations of Food Web Studies 590
27.2.6 Use of Radioactive and Stable Isotopes to Characterize Food Webs 592
27.3 Effects of Contaminants on Food Chains and Food Web Structure 592
27.3.1 Interspecific Differences in Contaminant Sensitivity 593
27.3.2 Indirect Effects of Contaminant Exposure on Feeding Habits 594
27.3.3 Alterations in Energy Flow and Trophic Structure 595
27.4 Summary 597
27.4.1 Summary of Foundation Concepts and Paradigms 597
References 598
Chapter 28 Conclusions 603
28.1 General 603
28.2 Some Particularly Key Concepts 603
28.2.1 Improvements in Experimental Techniques 603
28.2.2 Use of Multimetric and Multivariate Approaches to Assess Community-Level Responses 604
28.2.3 Disturbance Ecology and Community Ecotoxicology 604
28.2.4 An Improved Understanding of Trophic Interactions 605
28.2.5 Interactions between Contaminants and Global Atmospheric Stressors 606
28.3 Summary 607
28.3.1 Summary of Foundation Concepts and Paradigms 607
References 608
V Ecosystem Ecotoxicology 611
Chapter 29 Introduction to Ecosystem Ecology and Ecotoxicology 613
29.1 Background and Definitions 613
29.1.1 The Spatial Boundaries of Ecosystems 614
29.1.2 Contrast of Energy Flow and Materials Cycling 614
29.1.3 Community Structure, Ecosystem Function and Stability 615
29.2 Ecosystem Ecology and Ecotoxicology: A Historical Context 615
29.2.1 Early Development of the Ecosystem Concept 616
29.2.2 Quantification of Energy Flow through Ecosystems 617
29.2.3 The International Biological Program and the Maturation of Ecosystem Science 618
29.3 Challenges to the Study of Whole Systems 619
29.3.1 Temporal Scale 619
29.4 The Role of Ecosystem Theory 621
29.4.1 Succession Theory and the Strategy of Ecosystem Development 621
29.4.2 Hierarchy Theory and the Holistic Perspective of Ecosystems 622
29.5 Recent Developments in Ecosystem Science 623
29.5.1 General Methodological Approaches 624
29.5.2 The Importance of Multidisciplinary Research in Ecosystem Ecology and Ecotoxicology 625