Fluid Boundaries Τηισ παγε ιντεντιοναλλψ λεφτ blank Fluid Boundaries Forming and Transforming Identity in Nepal William F Fisher c o l u m b i a u n i v e r s i t y p r e s s n e w y o r k columbia university press Publishers Since 1893 New York, Chichester, West Sussex Copyright ᭧ 2001 Columbia University Press All rights reserved Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data Fisher, William F., 1951– Fluid boundaries : forming and transforming identity in Nepal / William F Fisher p cm Includes bibliographic references and index ISBN 0–231–11086–3 (cloth) ISBN 0–231–11087–1 (paper) Thakali (Nepalese people)—Ethnic identity Thakali (Nepalese people)—Social life and customs Title DS493.9.T45 F57 2001 305.891Ј495—dc21 2001032461 A Columbia University Press books are printed on permanent and durable acid-free paper Printed in the United States of America c 10 p 10 You can’t step into the same river twice —Heraclitus, “Cratylus” Each time I remember Fragment 91 of Heraclitus: ‘You will not go down twice to the same river,’ I admire his dialectic still, because the facility with which we accept the first meaning (‘The river is different’) clandestinely imposes the second one (‘I am different’) and gives us the illusion of having invented it —Jorge Luis Borges, “New Refutation of Time,” Other Inquisitions Τηισ παγε ιντεντιοναλλψ λεφτ blank Contents List of Maps and Tables Preface xi xiii Acknowledgments xvii Introduction: Thakali Again for the Very First Time Meeting at the Crossroads Searching for Culture in the Past Imagining Thakali Borderlands Tourists in Their Own Land Reclaiming Culture 12 Agency/Action/Practice Fluid Boundaries 13 17 Drawing Lines: On Constructing and Contesting Boundaries The Terms of Boundary Disputes 23 22 viii Contents Thak Khola 24 The Term Thakali 26 Contesting Boundaries 27 Membership and Status, Groups and Categories 31 Among the Thaksatsae Thakali: Ties That Bind, Lines That Divide 35 Cutting Across Descent 37 Khuwale and Thak Khole 40 Summary: Criss-Crossing Boundaries 43 Forging Histories 44 Historical Narrative(s) 45 Thakali Narratives of the Past 47 Scholarship and the Reconstruction of the Past 51 The Formation of the Gurkhali State 55 The Effects of Nation Building 69 Post–Salt Monopoly Adaptations 72 Enter the Anthropologists, Surmising 75 Separation and Integration: Community and Contestation Moving On 77 77 Samaj 84 Integration and Solidarity/Competition and Cooperation 87 Dhikur: Rotating Credit 90 Politics 104 ix Contents Ritual Landscapes 107 Eclectic Ritual Pluralism 109 Ancestor Rituals: “We Don’t Have Any Gods” Mortuary Rites 113 117 Marriages: Khimi Tapne 120 Torongla 124 Subclan Rites: Khimi Ramden 125 Subclan Rites: Jho Khane 134 Lha Phewa and Thakali Clans 135 Migration and Descent Group Rituals 136 Codifying Culture 138 Codification and Contestation Forming a National Samaj 141 Institutionalizing Contestation A New Social Order 138 143 153 Codified Culture 156 Initial Responses to the Formation of the Thakali Sewa Samiti 158 The Integration of the Khuwale 159 Nationally Drawn Boundaries Locally Imposed 161 Ongoing Changes 163 Constructing Thakali 167 First Contacts, First Constructs 169 Works Cited 281 1984 “Making a Living in the Nepal Himalayas: The Case of the Thakalis of Mustang District.” Contributions to Nepalese Studies 12, no 1: 51–106 1988 “A History of the Thak Khola Valley, Nepal.” Kailash 14, nos 3–4: 167–211.“A History of the Thak Khola Valley, Nepal.” Kailash 14, nos 3–4: 167–211 1992 Lha Phewa: The Thakali Twelve-Year Festival Kathmandu: Ratna Pustak Bhandar 1998 The Thakali: A Himalayan Ethnography London: Serindia Publications Vinding, Michael and K B Bhattachan 1985 “An Annotated Bibliography of the Thakalis.” Contributions to Nepalese Studies 12: 51–105 Wagner, Roy 1981 The Invention of Culture Rev ed Chicago: University of Chicago Press Warren, Kay, ed 1993 The Violence Within: Cultural and Political Opposition in Divided Nations Boulder, Colo.: Westview Weber, Max [1916] 1958 The Religion of India: Sociology of Hinduism and Buddhism Trans H Garth and Don Martindale Glencoe: Free Williams, Brackette F 1989 “A Class Act: Anthropology and the Race to Nation Across Ethnic Terrain.” Annual Review of Anthropology 18: 401–44 Williams, Raymond 1977 Marxism and Literature Oxford: Oxford University Press Wolf, Eric 1956 “Aspects of Group Relations in a Complex Society: Mexico.” American Anthropologist 58: 1065–78 1982 Europe and the People Without History Berkeley: University of California Press Τηισ παγε ιντεντιοναλλψ λεφτ blank Index Action Committee of Various Religions, Languages, and Nationalities, 165 agency, 7, 13–17 agriculture, 69, 88 alcohol, proscriptions, 4, 73–74 amanat system, 57, 60–61, 62 ¯ ancestor rituals, 112–17, 202, 213 ancestors, 2, 128–29, 135 Annapurna range, 17–18, 23–24 anthropological research See scholarship aransi karansi, 30–31, 83 ¯ ¯ army service, 89–90, 239(nn18, 19) astu, 37 authority, 140–41, 144–45, 151, 156 Baglung district, 41–42, 75, 83, 93, 102, 216, 218; migration and, 68, 79; mining, 58–61; national association and, 143, 144, 152–53, 160 Bahadur, Bal, 108 Bahadur, Jang, 15 Bailey, F G., 190, 193 bais khani, 59 ¯ ¯ Baragaon, 25, 52, 67, 223(n7), 231(n8) Baragaonle, 32, 227(n39) Bara Ghorche phobe, 136, 137 Barth, Frederik, 190–91, 197, 250(n7) bazars, 73, 80, 81, 88 ¯ bemchag, 54, 222(n1), 230(n6) ¯ Bentley, G Carter, 222(n18) Berreman, Gerald D., 191, 248, 251(n11) Bhairawa, 74, 83, 239(n13); migration, 76, 79, 81; mortuary rites, 118–19; national association and, 152, 161– 62; ritual practices, 111, 125 Bhattachan, Basanta, 230(n2) Bhattachan, Krishna, 222(n14) Bhattachan clan, 2, 27–28, 47, 219(n1) Bara Ghorche phobe, 136–37 Bhote, 4, 71, 73, 148, 224(n13) Bhurgi, 27, 225(n17) Bista, Dor Bahadur, 36, 81, 173, 175, 181–82, 202, 213, 221(n10), 284 227(n32), 228(n42), 236(n62), 253(n22) Bon, 114, 173, 175, 183, 231(nn12, 13), 247(n10), 252(n20); missionaries, 52, 54 Bon-po, 173, 247(n10) boundaries, 14, 23–24, 43, 83; contesting, 27–31; descent groups and, 130–34; fluidity, 17–21; frontiers, 189–90, 195–96; identity and, 190–92; internal divisions, 35– 37; national associations and, 161– 62; scholarship on, 189–95, 251(n8); units of analysis, 190–94 Brahmanization, 198–99 See also Hinduization; Sanskritization Brahmans, 41, 148, 198–200 British, 55, 224(n8) British army service, 89–90, 239(n18) Buddhism, 4, 16–17, 52, 66, 147–50, 167–68; demographic factors, 179, 180, 248(n24); influence, 52, 172– 75, 180–81, 207–8, 248–49(n25); missionaries, 52–54; revival, 5, 249(n26); rituals, 33, 114, 242(n6) Burghart, Richard, 70 Burtibang, 42, 88, 95, 160 Butwal, 25, 61, 74, 75, 83 caste system, 31–32, 41, 193, 251(n13), 252(nn16, 17, 18); Gurkhali state and, 15–16, 70–72; Hinduization and, 41, 182–83; marriage, 36–37, 42, 229(n55); migration and, 208–9; in rhabs, 50–51; Sanskritization and, 197– 201; substantialization, 212, 254(n3); Tukche merchants and, 33–35, 208 See also Hans; Raja myth categorization, 167–68, 194–95, 212 Index category status, 31–35, 71–72 CEDA studies, 237(n3) celang melang status, 38, 41–42, 114, 130, 133 celi, 113, 125–26, 244(n33) Chairo, 27 Chan family, 50, 230(n4) chang, 121 Chaubisi Raja, 54 Chetri, Champa Singh Khadka, 62, 64 Chetri, Hem Karma Khadka, 62 Chetris, 41, 72, 105, 228(n45) Chimang, 27, 30, 226(nn26, 27, 30) Chimang bemchag, 222(n1), 230(n6) ¯ China, 74, 75, 81, 176 Chitor, 72 Chitwan district, 83 Choki rhab, 47, 55 chokor garnu, 183 chorten, 23, 129–30 Chyoki, 27, 225(n17) clan names, 27, 30–31, 63(nn1, 2), 73, 225(n17), 234(n45); subclans, 27– 31, 37, 125–35, 225(nn19, 20), 243(n29), 243–44(n30) clans, 2, 35–36, 208–9, 219–20(n1), 228(n42) See also Bhattachan clan; descent groups; Gauchan clan; phobe; Sherchan clan; Tulachan clan class issues, 142, 210 Cohen, Abner, 191–92 coming-of-age rite See shyopen lawa communication, xv, 77 communities, 14, 238(n11); group consciousness in, 11, 158, 163, 212, 214, 245–46(n14); multiethnic, 83, 84–85 See also samaj competition, 77, 87, 90, 95, 102–6 Index constitutional monarchy, 16, 164–65 See also Mul Bandej construction projects, 105 cooperation, 87, 90, 95–102, 239(n14), 240(nn21, 23); in political arena, 102–6 See also dhikurs Coorg religion, 199, 200 copper mines, 58 cost cutting, 140, 145, 149, 182, 227(n38), 244–45(n4) council of thirteen headmen, 155–56 cross-cousins, 36 cultural change, 6–7, 179–80, 193, 206; Hinduization, 41, 67, 111, 161–62, 174–75, 177, 197–203, 198–203; revitalization of Thakali culture, 211–14 See also culture cultural nationalism, 196 culture, 9–12, 222(n16); agency and, 13–17; Mul Bandej and, xiv, 156– 58; as process, 12, 46, 189; reclaiming, 12–13; variation, 188, 250(n7); customs duty, 62, 64–65 See also cultural change Dahal, Dilli, 78, 237(nn3, 4) dajyu-bhai, 125, 136 ¯ ¯ damai, 107–8, 241(n2) Dana, 54, 62 Darbang, 68, 70, 95, 105, 160, 162, 239(nn15, 18) Dasain, 112, 124, 134, 165, 203, 244(n4) dawa, 186 death ceremonies See khimi; mortuary rites deities, 1, 47, 135–36, 145, 183, 198, 213 democracy, 16 descent groups, 27, 30, 35–37, 213; boundaries, 130–34; cross-cutting, 285 37–40; rituals and, 113, 128, 136– 37 See also clans; phobe Desh Puja, 139, 140, 157 Devanagri script, 47 dhan rakne, 123 ¯ ¯ Dhansaram, Subba, 62, 234(n44) Dhaulagiri range, 17–18, 23–24, 55 dhikurs, 90–102, 140, 239(n20), 240(nn24, 25, 26), 240–41(n27), 241(nn28, 29, 30, 32); auxiliary fund, 97–98; bidding system, 92, 95, 96–97, 99–101; cooperation, 95–96; innovations, 96–98; interest, 92, 96–97, 104; membership, 91, 93–94; old-style and new-style, 96, 103–4; process, 91–92 Dhimchen, 27, 225(n17) Dhimchen rhab, 51 dhoms(jhakri), 4–5, 107–8, 110–14, ¯ 170–71, 183, 209, 244(n31), 246(n6), 248(n17); mortuary rites and, 117–20; national associations and, 147, 148, 161; scholarly view of, 172, 174 Dhocho, 47–48 Dhocho Kang, 23 Dho kuisi, 240(n25) Dhom phobe, 134–35, 137, 186, 244(n31) dichotomies, 195 districts, 80 See also Baglung district; Gulmi district; Mustang district; Myagdi district Dolpo, 67 Doti, 54 double legitimacy, 209–10 dress code, 33, 73–74, 183 Dumont, Louis, 182, 212 Dunhuang Annals, 52 ´ Durkheim, Emile, 214 Dyatan phobe, 28, 29, 36, 136, 228(n43) 286 economic status, 34, 39, 41, 93 economic strategies, 77, 87–90 See also dhikurs elites, 45, 46, 72, 73; imitation of, 34– 35, 197–201, 206, 210 Embree, Ainslie, 251(n9) endogamous groups, 27–31, 35, 38, 213 environmental pressures, 78 ethnic groups, 31–32, 168, 251(nn11, 14); context, 196, 212–14, 253(n23); terminology, 192, 193– 94 ethnicity, 251(n11); dhikurs and, 93, 241(nn29, 30); as social construction, 14–15, 35 ethnic solidarity, 86, 87–90 exogamy, 36–37, 135 fictive kinship, xiv–xv, 125, 130–31, 133, 219(n12) Fisher, James F., 71, 202 forest resources, 236(n61) forts, 52–53, 231(n11) Foster, Robert, 12, 196 Fried, Morton H., 211, 252(n15) frontiers, 189–90, 195–96 funds, 125–26, 134, 136–37, 153, 157, 244(n34); cost cutting, 140, 145, 149, 182, 227(n38), 24445(n4) Furer-Haimendorf, Christoph von, ă 221(n11), 225(n17), 228(n42), 239(n14), 242(n5), 243(nn27, 30); caste, view of, 32–33, 197; Hinduization, view of, 5, 6, 41, 211, 229(n53); historical events, view of, 53, 54, 62, 234(n48); migration figures, 82, 238(n9); religion, view of, 41, 173–74, 176, 179, 181–83, 187, 202, 229(n53), 246(n2) Index Galkot, 59, 105 gamba, 134, 136, 230(n2), 243(n27), 244(n35) gambling games, 125 Garab Dzong, 231(n11) Gauchan, Narendra, 51 Gauchan, S., 39 Gauchan, Tejab, 51, 152, 221(n13), 225(n17), 230(nn1, 4), 244(n35) Gauchan clan, 2, 27–28, 219(n1); Choki rhab, 47, 55; Ghocetan phobe, 137; Tancang phobe, 243– 44(n30) Gauchan gamba, 47 Geertz, Clifford, 90, 222(n21), 240(n23) Ghan Pokhara, 68 Ghasa, 24, 25 ¯ Ghocetan phobe, 137 ghyu/ghyupa, 225(n19) See also phobe Glo Mantan, 223(n4) ¯ Goffman, Erving, 177, 248(n22) gompas, 157, 246(n1) Gorkha, 55, 83 Gough, 212 grain rotation (dho kuisi), 240(n25) group consciousness, 11, 158, 163, 212, 214, 245–46(n14) groups, 31–35, 196 Gumli chyangpa phobe (Panachan), 27–28 Gulmi district, 58–59, 83 Gumli thowa phobe (Juharchan), 27 Gung thang gdung rabs, 52–53 Gungthang kingdom, 54 Gurkhali state, 55–69; caste system and, 70–72; Gurkha conquest, 44, 52, 54–55; instability, 69–70; mining contracts, 58–61, 65; salt contract, 61–68; seasonal migration, 68–69; tax collection, Index 56–58 See also Muluki Ain of 1854 (legal code); state formation Gurkha Raja, 15, 211, 222(n19), 230(n5) Gurung, Man Lal, 68, 221(n10) Gurungs, 173, 240(n26) guthi, 134, 244(n34) Gyaltshan, Lubra Tashi, 52 Hamilton (Buchanan), Francis, 25, 56, 59, 61–62, 232(n22), 232–33(n28), 249(n28) Hansa Raja story, 4, 32, 45, 47, 51, 55, 73–74, 74, 147–48, 204–5, 230(n5) headmen (mukiya), xiii–xiv, 22, 33, 54, ¯ 57, 208, 227(n36); national associations and, 140, 142, 155–56, 163; political influence, 102, 155– 56 hegemony, 71, 206 hill groups, 70–71, 78, 194–95, 197, 202 Himalayan cultural area, 172 Hindu elite, 16, 33, 165 Hinduism, 4–6, 16–17, 111, 114, 120; holidays, 112, 124, 134, 165, 203; influence, 167–70, 174–75, 180– 83, 248(n24); national associations and, 147–50, 161–62, 165–66; proscriptions, 33, 73–74, 183, 235(n56), 246–47(n7) See also Hinduization Hinduization, 5–6, 111, 174–75, 177, 197–203, 208, 227(n35), 246– 47(n7); double bind, 209–10; in Gurkhali state, 67, 69–72; in Khani Khuwa, 41, 210, 229(n53); Narijhowa and, 187–88 See also Hinduism; Sanskritization history, 4–5, 11, 32, 44; narratives, 45– 46, 61 See also Hansa Raja myth; rhabs 287 Hitchcock, John T., 240(n26) Hodgson, Brian H., 25, 253(n26) Hofer, Andras, 15, 71, 72, 19394, ă 198, 210, 213 Holi, 112, 124, 203 holidays, 112, 124, 134, 165, 203, 244(n4) Holmberg, David M., 72, 196, 197, 213 hotels, 88, 239(n15) households, 36, 68, 81–83, 235(n55), 238(nn5, 6), 239(n12) identity, 10, 13–15, 31, 46, 77, 145, 196; boundaries and, 190–92; context, 212–14; scholarship and, 168, 212 See also caste system; Hansa Raja myth Iijima, Shigeru, 68, 172, 227(n36), 239(n14), 246–47(n7), 252(n20); religion, view of, 5, 180, 182–83, 187, 248(n24), 249(n32) ijaradars, 56–58, 60, 232(n23); salt trade and, 62, 65–67 ijara system, 56–58 imitation; of elites, 34–35, 197–201, 206, 210; of Thaksatsae Thakali, 34–35, 201, 210–11 impression management, 177, 248(n22) integration: samaj and, 84–86; solidarity, 86, 87–90 Jackson, David, 24, 52–53, 181, 223(n6), 226(n26) Jana Andolan, 165 Janajati leaders, 112 ¯ Janajati Mahasang (Nepal Federation of Nationalities), xv, 164, 165–66 Janakpur, 74 Japanese Scientific Expedition, 172 288 Jaschke, H A., 225(n19) ă jat status, 16, 3435, 4142, 78, 194, 202, 227(n34); in communities, 85–86; dhikurs and, 90–102, 240– 41(n27) Jest, Corneille, 24, 28(n4), 172–73, 183, 221(n13), 242(n5) Jhakri See dhoms ¯ jhankri, 170–71, 183, 246(n6) See also dhoms jharra status, 228(n45) jho khane, 80, 134–35 Jhongman phobe, xiv–xv, 116–17, 137, 243(n26) Jomsom, 24, 25, 224(n10) joshi, 122 juai, 48, 113–14, 126–30, 219(n2) ¯ Jumla, 4, 50–55, 73, 74, 231–32(n21) Jumla Raja, 230(n5) juniper, 114, 118, 242(n6) Kagbeni, 24 Kali Gandaki river, 19, 46, 49, 109, 127 Kali Gandaki valley, 7–8, 23–24, 26, 30, 47, 53–54 Kampachans, 30, 226–27(n31) Kancha Bhum, 48–49 Kasauli, 42, 117–19 Kaski, 57, 64 Kathmandu, 33, 55, 72–73, 75, 78–79, 239(n13); national association and, 152, 161, 164; rituals, 119, 125 Kawakita, Jiro, 5, 170–72, 187, 222(n2), 223(n6), 227(n36), 232(n22), 238(n6), 246(nn5, 6) kendriya samiti, 145 Kengyur, 62 khaccar status, 38, 40, 228(n44) Khampas, 176 khangalo, 121, 142, 157, 213, ¯ 242(nn12, 13) Index Khani Khuwa, xv, 2, 33, 38–43, 220(n5); migration, 40–42, 68, 74; mining, 58–61 See also Khuwale Thakali Khanti, 83 khe See ancestors Khe Ani Airam, 47, 50, 78 Khe Dhakpa Gyalsang, 50, 78 Khe Dhamchi Dhamru, 47–50 Khe Gumtan, 49–50 Khe Pau Kuti, 47–49 Khe Samledhen Samlechyang, 47, 50 ¯ khimi chuwa, 113, 120–24, 157 khimi ramden, 125–34 khimis, 19, 28(n1), 29(n8), 37, 80, 113, 213; chorten, 129–30; descent groups and, 130–34; non-Thakali and, 38, 133–34, 243(n24); phobe and, 127–28; subclans and, 125–34 khimi tapne, 120, 122, 157 See khimi chuwa khola, 220(n2), 222–23(n2) Khuwale Thakali, 40–43, 102, 229(n51); dhikurs, 93–94, 95; Hinduization and, 41, 210, 229(n53); integration of, 159–61; national association and, 149, 159– 61; rituals, 112, 115–18, 130 See also Khani Khuwa kiriya, 120 Kirkpatrick, W., 25, 56, 61 Kobang, 53, 231(n17) kul devta puja, 42, 113, 115–17, 127, ¯ 229(n54), 242(n9) See also lha chuji Kulke, Hermann, 198, 202, 227(n35), 253(n31) Kumari, 250(n2) kumar jatra See shyopen lawa kumdals, 140 Kunwars, 72 Index Ladakh, 52–54 Lamaism, 169, 170, 246(n4), 252(n20) Lamichane Gurung, 230(n4) Lamjung, 57, 64 land revenue tax, 64 language, xii–xiv, 70–71, 157–58, 165, 171, 195 Larjung, 2, 135, 242(n 16) Larjung Hotel, 22, 125 Leach, Edmund R., 190, 212 legal code of 1964, 15 legitimacy, 209–10 Levi, Sylvan, 168, 198, 199, 201, ´ 253(n30) Levine, Nancy, 71 lha chuji, 48, 112, 113–17, 229(n54), 242(n5) See also kul devta ¯ puja lha chuwa ritual See lha chuji Lha Chyurin Gyalmo, 1, 47–49 ¯ Lha Ghangla Singi Karmo, 1, 47, ¯ 51 Lha Jhyowa Rhangjyung, 185 Lha Khang temple, 52–54 ¯ Lha Khang Dhungi phobe, 36, 65, 67– 68, 137, 178, 207–8, 234(n45) Lha Langba Nhurbu, 1, 47 ¯ ¯ Lha Phewa festival, 1–2, 9, 14, 19, 47, 82, 130, 213, 244(n32); clans and, 125–26, 135–36; headquarters, 135, 244(n33); national associations and, 80, 142, 163; sacred sites, 22–23 Lhasarphi of Dhocho, 48 Lha Yhawa Rangjyung, 49–50 ¯ ¯ ¯ lineage, 27, 36 lineage rituals, 107–9 Lo, 24–25, 50, 52–54, 223(n4) location, 13, 110–12, 127–28, 247(n16) Lyall, A C., 198, 202 289 Magars, 42, 125, 162, 173, 229(n56) Mahalaxmi, 183, 185, 187 See also Narijhowa Mahendra, King, 15, 208 malarial fever, 74, 78 Malebum See Parbat Malla, Kirthi Bam, 54 Malla kingdom, 4, 53, 73, 194, 234(n44) mang status, 38, 41, 114, 133 mansinya matwali, 210 Manzardo, Andrew, 78, 226(n26), 229(n51), 230(n2), 232(n27); cooperation, view of, 87, 102; dhikurs, view of, 90, 240–41(n27), 241(nn29, 30, 32); Hinduization, view of, 175, 178; migration, view of, 59, 81–83, 236(n63), 237(nn3, 4), 238(n5); religion, view of, 243(n24), 248(nn20, 22, 23); social structure, view of, 87, 90, 102, 132, 140, 225(nn18, 19), 227(nn36, 38), 239(n14); trade, view of, 221(nn10, 11, 12), 221– 22(n13) Marpha, 25, 27–30, 49–50, 54, 226(n23) Marphali clans, 30, 41, 211, 226(nn24, 25) marriage, 36–37; descent groups and, 38–40, 130–31; intercaste, 42, 229(n55); khimi chuwa, 120–24; khimi tapne, 120, 122, 157; Khuwale Thakali, 41–43; mixed, 36–38, 228(nn44, 45, 46); subbas, 130, 131, 213, 229(n55) Marwaris, 162 Meki Lha Khang temple, 52, 53, 54 ¯ membership, 31–32 merchants, 26–27, 31, 33–35, 111; Hinduization and, 207–9; national 290 associations and, 147, 155 See also Tukche Messerschmidt, Donald, 91–93, 96, 97, 180, 221(n10), 222(n14), 240(nn25, 26), 248(n23); religion, view of, 246(n1), 250(n5) Mharsyang River, 50 mhendo, 118, 149–50 Mhowa, 226(n23) migration, 8–9, 35, 39, 56, 59, 77–83, 221–22(n13), 235(n54), 236(n57); caste system and, 208–9; descent group rituals and, 136–37; festival attendance, 134, 136; Khani Khuwa and, 40–42, 68, 74; periods of, 79–81; to Pokhara, 79, 80–81, 238(n5); return to Thak Khola, 82– 83; reversible migrants, 237(n3); rituals and, 124–25, 213; salt contract system and, 79–80; seasonal, 68–69; taxes and, 57–58, 64, 236(nn62, 63); standard of living and, 78, 83; typological systems, 78–79, 237(n3), 237– 38(n4) mining contracts, 58–61, 65 mitini, 243(n26) mit status, 130, 133, 150, 243(nn25, 26) Modi Khola, 69 Moerman, Michael, 190, 211, 251(n11), 252(n15), 253(n23) Molnar, Augusta, 89, 239(n17) mon, 52–53, 231(n15) monarchy See constitutional monarchy moneylending, 88, 89, 105, 239(n17) Montgomerie, Thomas George, 25, 224(9) Moore, Sally Falk, 13 mortuary rites, 113, 117–20, 157 See also khimi Index Mughals, 55 mukiya See headmen ¯ Muktinath, 17, 182, 231(n14) Mul Bandej (constitution), xiv, 156– 59, 161 Muluki Ain of 1854 (legal code), 15, 33, 71–72, 76, 194, 208, 210, 214 Mustang district, 25, 53–54, 55, 62, 216, 223(n4) mutual-help systems, 240(n21) Myagdi district, 41–42, 70, 83, 89, 93, 102, 216, 218; migration and, 68– 69, 79; mining, 58–59; national association and, 143, 144, 152–53, 160, 164; thimten, 42, 229(n54) Myagdi Khola, 69 namasinya matwali, 210 Namchya Gholtok, 49 Narijhowa (Mahalaxmi), 51, 145, 148, 153, 157, 185–88, 213, 249(n32), 250(nn2, 3); theft of, 185, 249– 50(n1) Naroll, R., 190, 193 narratives, 44–46, 61 See also Gurkhali state; rhabs; salt trade; scholarship Narsang Gompa, 185–87 national associations, xv, 4, 21, 80, 85; authority, 140–41, 144, 145, 151, 156; boundaries and, 161–62; codification and contestation, 138– 42; factions, 145–46; functions, 139–40, 163; Hinduism and, 147– 50, 161–62, 165–66; institutionalizing contestation, 143– 53; membership requirements, 139–40; ongoing changes, 163–66; representation, 143–44, 152–53, 163–64; tradition and, 146–52 See also samaj; Thakali Sewa Samiti Index nationalism, 206 National Thakali Service Organization See Thakali Sewa Samiti Nautanwa, 75 Nepal, 8, 14, 39; categorical divisions, 194–95, 252(n20); constitutional monarchy, 16, 164–65; ethnic groups, 212–13; historical narratives, 45–46; influences on, 52–55, 201–2; maps, 215, 216, 217 Nepal Bhusha Manka Kala, 139 Nepal Federation of Nationalities (Janajati Mahasang), xv, 164, 165– 66 Nepalgunj, 74, 83 Nepali language, xii–xiv, 157, 165 Nepal Magar Langali Sangh, 139 Nepal Tamang Ghedung, 138–39 Newar associations, 139 Newars, 15, 162 Nhima Rani, 51, 205 oral traditions, 51 Ortner, Sherry, 235(n56) ossuaries See khimis overseas wage labor, 89–90 Palpa district, 83 panchayat system, 16, 102, 142, 156, 164, 166 Panchgaon, 18, 23, 24–25, 27, 52, 67, 231(n8), 232(n24) Panchgaonle, 26, 27–30, 32, 41, 226(nn26, 27), 227(n39); imitation of Thaksatsae Thakali, 34–35; national associations and, 139, 142, 161–62; religion, 176, 183, 211 Parbat, 52, 54–55, 58–59, 77, 83, 216 Parbat, raja of, 62 Parbatiya caste, 15 291 pare (clan priest), 1, 136, 230(n2) ¯ Parker, Barbara, 211 Pashupati, 119 Pau Kuti, 50, 78 People of Nepal (Bista), 253(n22) phobe, xiv–xv, 27–31, 36–37, 113, 225(n19), 228(n42); khimis and, 127–28; marriage and, 120–22 See also individual clans and phobes phratries, 228(n42) Pokhara, 74, 83, 85, 119, 227(n38), 239(n13); migration, 79, 80–81, 238(n5); national association and, 152, 164 politics, 6, 102–6, 155–56, 176–78 Pompar phobe, xv, 65, 126, 204–5, 242(n16), 243(n26) pumi status, 38, 41, 114, 133, 228(nn46, 47) pundits, 25, 224(n9) Puntan, 226(n25) Puta phobe (Hirachan), 27, 41 Rafael, Vincente, 17 Rai, Ratan Kumar, 78, 237(nn3, 4) Rajputization, 35, 200, 203, 227(n35) Rajputs, 55 rakshi, 121 ¯ Ramble, Charles, 52, 181 Ram Prasad See Thakali, Ram Prasad Rana, Jang Bahadur, 56, 64, 65, 72 Rana family, 62, 71–72 Rana regime, 15, 39, 208, 236(n59) Rani Gompa, 81 RCUP (Resource Conservation and Utilization Project), 105 reforms, 33–34, 156–58, 182, 208, 227(n38), 249(n33) Regmi, Mahesh C., 57, 61, 62, 71, 232(n24) 292 religion, 5–6; classifications, 178–79; disputes, 16–17; national associations and, 145–51; political implications, 176–78; reforms, 33– 34, 156–58, 182, 208, 227(n38), 249(n33); syncretism of, 110, 169– 70, 172, 179, 201–2; traditional systems, 183, 249(n30) See also Buddhism; dhom; Hinduism; rituals Resource Conservation and Utilization Project See RCUP rhabs, 2, 9, 47–51, 74, 136, 220(nn3, 4), 230(nn1, 2) Rhoten phobe (Lalchan), 30 Riri, 25 Risley, H H., 198–99, 200 ritual purity, 40–41, 157, 183, 210, 213, 241(n2); attendance at ceremonies, 114–15; marriage and, 36–39 See also rituals rituals, 107–8, 183; ancestor rituals, 112–17, 202, 213; central practices, 108–9; costs, 113, 140, 157, 182, 227(n38), 244–45(n4); feasts/ festivals, 134, 137, 139, 140, 157; jho khane, 134–35; khimi chuwa, 120–24; khimi tapne, 120, 122, 157; lineage and, 107–9, 115–17; location and, 110–12, 127–28, 247(n16); mhendo, 118, 149–50; mortuary rites, 113, 117–20, 157; Mul Bandej and, 157–59; national associations and, 149–50; pluralism, 108, 109–13; practitioners, 110–14, 117–19; ritual objects, 115–16; ritual practices, 33, 229(n53); sacred sites, 9, 17, 22–23, 36; storage rooms, 115, 124, 205; subclan rites, 125– 34; Torongla, 51, 113, 124–25, 126, Index 127, 139, 157, 162 See also dhom; khimi; Lha Phewa festival; religion; ritual purity Rosaldo, Renato, Roseberry, William, 222(n16) rotating credit See dhikurs Rupse, waterfall of, 49 rygud, 225(n19) sabhapati, 140 Salgi, 27, 225(n17) ¯ Salgi rhab, 47–50 ¯ salt trade, 33, 39, 44, 227(n39), 234(n43); contract holders, 63–64; migration and, 79–80; post-salt monopoly adaptations, 72–74, 208; salt contract monopoly, 56, 61–68, 77, 175, 178, 234(nn48, 49), 235(n53); taxes, 64–65, 234(n48) See also trade routes samaj, 84–86, 213–14, 238(n11), 239(n13); national associations, 141–43, 155, 161; state formation and, 211–12 See also communities Sanskritization, 175, 177, 197–203, 246–47(n7), 253(n31) See also Hinduization Sassadhara, 83 sau, 89 scholarship, 5–7, 14, 20, 46, 220(n8); on boundaries, 189–95, 251(n8); categorization, 167–68, 194–95, 212; common themes, 188–89; initial contacts and constructs, 169–75; narratives, 75–76; reconstruction of past, 51–55; reconstruction of Thakali, 178–84; research agenda, 10–11; revisionist constructions, 175–78; terminology, 23–24, 192–94; Tibetan texts used for, 51–53, 62, 181 Index Schuh, Dieter, 54 Serib, 52, 54, 181, 231(nn8, 15) servants, 30–31, 227(nn32, 39) Shah, Bahadur, 55 Shah, Prithvi Narayan, 15 shamans See dhoms; jhankri Sharma, Prayag Raj, 71, 72, 76, 140, 210, 221(n12), 227(nn35, 36, 38), 228(n45), 246(n1), 250(n5) Sherchan, Anagman, 74, 143, 149, 236(n59) Sherchan, Ganesh Bahadur, 68 Sherchan, Ganesh Man, 68 Sherchan, Hitman, 74, 182, 208, 236(nn58, 60) Sherchan, Mohan Man, 74, 236(n60) Sherchan, Narjang, 68 Sherchan, Pati Ram, 67, 127, 235(n52) Sherchan clan, 2, 27, 219(n1), 238(n8); Dhom phobe, 134–35, 137, 186, 244(n31); Lha Khang Dhungi phobe, 36, 65, 67–68, 137, 178, 207–8, 234(n45); Norje phobe, 36, 137; Pompar phobe, xv, 65, 126, 204–5, 242(n16), 243(n26); subclans, 29 Sherchan rhab, 47 Sherpas, 235(n56) Shrestha, M N., 81 shyopen lawa, 51, 157, 186–87, 228(n48) Sider, Gerald, 252(n19) Sinha, S., 35, 199, 200 Sinja (Sinjapati, Semja), 47, 50, 53, 55, 205 Sinja, raja of, 55 Snellgrove, David, 5, 24, 171, 173, 180, 182, 183, 223(n2), 224(n10), 247(n10) Solu-Khumbu region, 235(n56) 293 Sonam-pompar, 205 Srivinas, M N., 199–201, 246(n7) state formation, 14–16, 21, 39, 44–46, 200; boundaries, 195–96, 214; effects of, 69–72; samaj and, 211– 12 See also Gurkhali state status groups, 32–35 Stiller, L F., 55 subbas, 32, 34, 75, 232(n22); contracts, 81–82; marriage patterns, 130, 131, 213, 229(n55); national association and, 141–44, 146, 151, 163; political influence, 39, 102; revitalization and, 213–14; salt trade and, 45, 56, 62–68, 73; state formation and, 69–72 subclans, 27–31, 37, 225(nn19, 20), 243(n29), 243–44(n30); jho khane, 134–35; khimi, 125–34 substantialization of caste, 212, 254(n3) surnames, 27, 30–31, 63(nn1, 2), 234(n45) Syang, 26, 27, 30, 176, 186, 226(nn26, 27,30), 242(n11) Syangja district, 83 tagadhari, 210 Talleju, 250(n2) Tamang category, 72 Tamang Thakali, 26, 219–20(n1), 224(n13) Ta-man se mon, 52–53 tama patra, 181, 249(n27) Tancang phobe, 243–44(n30) taxes, 56–58, 64–65, 232(n27), 233(n29), 234(n48), 236(n62) temples, 157, 185 Terai, 74, 75–76, 78, 83, 237(nn1, 3, 4) tera mukiya See headmen; council of ¯ thirteen headmen 294 Thak, 25, 220(n2), 222–23(n2), 223(n6) See also Thak Khola; Thaksatsae Thak, Dhansaram of, 62, 234(n44) Thakakuti, 61, 233(n41) Thakali: change and continuity, 6–7, 13–17; culture, 9–12; as manipulative, 6, 176–78, 191, 206– 7, 248(n22); meetings, 2–3; membership, 31–32; population, 8, 30–31, 40, 80–83, 224(n11); resentment against, 105–6, 241(n33); solidarity, 77, 86, 87–90; as social category, 32; as term, 23, 26–27, 180, 181, 219–20(n1), 223(n2), 246(n5); as traders, 25, 78, 81–82, 87–88, 188, 250(n6); younger generation, 141, 146, 148, 151, 209 See also Thaksatsae Thakali Thakali, Balbir, 62–66, 81, 234(nn44, 45, 46, 49) Thakali, Chyalpa, 62–64 Thakali, Dhana Prasad, 62–64 Thakali, Harkaman, 207 Thakali, Kalu Ram See Thakali, Balbir Thakali, Kavi Ram, 66, 68, 234(n49) Thakali, Prabhu Narayan, 60 Thakali, Prem Ranjan, 64 Thakali, Ram Prasad, 60, 65–67, 235(n52), 239(n18) Thakali, Ramshankar, 62 Thakali Samaj Sudhar Sangh (Pokhara), 138, 139, 140, 142, 148 Thakali Sewa Samiti (National Thakali Service Organization), xiv– xv, 4, 11, 14, 227(n38), 239(n13); changes, 163–66; committees, 143, 145, 152, 154–56, 245(n11); definition of Thakali, 154; factions, Index 145–46; financial support of rituals, 140, 142, 145, 149–50, 157, 187; formation of, 141–43; general assembly, 154–55; Khuwale Thakali and, 159–61; 1983 meeting, 143–53, 179–80, 212, 245(nn7–13); representation, 154– 56; responses to formation of, 158– 59, 214 See also national associations Thakali youth group, 141, 148 Thak Khola, 2, 7–8, 24–26, 32, 53–54, 80, 102, 142; rituals, 117, 129–30; salt trade and, 61–62; as term, 23– 24, 223(n5) Thak Khole Thakali, 38, 40 Thaksatsae, 18–19, 23, 25, 26, 83, 224(n12); national association and, 149, 163; as term, 25, 220(n2) See also Thaksatsae Thakali Thaksatsae Thakali, 18–21, 30, 220(n1), 224(n15); as ethnic group, 31–32; imitation of, 34–35, 201, 210–11; internal divisions, 35–37 See also Thakali; Thaksatsae Thakuris, 33, 50–51, 55, 73, 147–48, 173, 210, 222(n14), 227(n35), 247(nn11, 13) thar, 225(n19) Tharu Kalyan Karini Sabha, 137 Thasang, 25, 47 See also Thaksatsae ¯ ¯ Thatan lineage, 48 ¯ thimten, 42, 114–15, 132, 229(n54) Thini (Thinang), 26, 27, 30, 54, 205, 226(nn26, 27, 30), 232(n24) Thini Raja, 205 Ti, 185–86 Tibet, 4, 8, 30, 62, 73, 82, 224(n8); Chinese occupation, 74, 75, 81, 176; control of Tukche, 227(n31), 233(n42) Index Tibetan texts, 51–53, 62, 181 Tihar, 112, 141 Tij, 112 tormas, 114 Torongla, 51, 113, 124–25, 126, 127, 139, 157, 162 tourist trade, 82 trade, 25, 78, 81–82, 87–88, 188, 250(n6); routes, 6, 7, 17–18, 25, 61–62, 74, 182; trading posts, 54, 231(n17) See also salt trade trade routes, 6, 7, 17–18, 25, 61–62, 74, 182 trading posts, 54, 231(n17) tradition, 4, 21, 22–23, 112–13, 146– 52 tribe, 7; caste system and, 252(nn16, 17, 18); as term, 192, 193, 197, 251–52(n15) Tsing, Anna, Tucci, Giuseppe, 5, 6, 75, 169–70, 174, 180, 184, 223(n6), 242(n6), 249(n26) Tukche, 23–26, 54, 62, 75, 173, 233(n41); migrants, 31, 74, 81–83; population, 82, 238(n7); in rhabs, 50; servants, 30–31, 227(nn32, 39); Tibetan control of, 227(n31), 233(n42) See also merchants Tulachan clan, 2, 27, 29, 219(n1); Dyatan phobe, 36, 136, 228(n43); 295 Jhongman phobe, xiv–xv, 116–17, 137, 243(n26); kul puja, 113; Salgi ¯ rhab, 47–50 Turner, R., 223(n3), 246(n6) village records (bemchag), 54, 222(n1), ¯ 230(n6) Vinding, Michael, 22(n14), 24, 39, 219–20(n1), 221(n13), 230(nn1, 4), 239(nn12, 17); dhikurs, view of, 90–92, 96, 97, 240(n25); historical events, view of, 51, 52, 227(n36); phobe, view of, 28(n4), 29(n13), 30, 225(nn17, 18), 226(n26), 226– 27(n31); religion, view of, 175–76, 181, 183, 187, 202, 211, 242(n11), 243(n27), 244(n35), 248–49(n25), 249(n33) Weber, Max, 198, 199, 200, 202, 209, 253(n30) Westernization, 210–11 Wittgenstein, Ludwig, 189, 190 Wolf, Eric, 252(n19) yak meat, proscriptions, 33, 73–74, 183 Yarlung dynasty, 52, 54 Yhulngha See Panchgaon ¯ Young Turks, 146, 148, 151 Yulngasumpa, 30, 226(n26) See Panchgaonle ... s i t y p r e s s n e w y o r k columbia university press Publishers Since 1893 New York, Chichester, West Sussex Copyright ᭧ 2001 Columbia University Press All rights reserved Library of Congress.. .Fluid Boundaries Τηισ παγε ιντεντιοναλλψ λεφτ blank Fluid Boundaries Forming and Transforming Identity in Nepal William F Fisher c o l u m b i a u n i v e r s i t y p r e s s n e w y o r k columbia. .. Thakali (Nepalese people)—Social life and customs Title DS493.9.T45 F57 2001 305.891Ј495—dc21 20010 32461 A Columbia University Press books are printed on permanent and durable acid-free paper Printed